1. The competition finalists included leading landscape firms such as the Olin Partnership, Hargreaves Associates, Ken Smith, and Gustafson Guthrie Nichol.
2. Andrew Blum, “The Active Edge,” Metropolismag.com, posted February 20, 2006.
1. John W. Reps, The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965), 111.
2. Jaquelin T. Robertson, “The House as a City,” New Classicism: Omnibus Volume, ed. Andreas Papadakis and Harriet Wilson (London: Academy Editions, 1990), 234.
3. Quoted by Reps, Urban America, 248.
4. Allan Greenberg, George Washington, Architect (London: Andreas Papadakis Publisher, 1999), 129.
5. Reps, Urban America, 352.
6. Charles Mulford Robinson, “Improvement in City Life: Aesthetic Progress,” Atlantic Monthly 83 (June 1899): 771.
7. Ibid.
8. Charles Mulford Robinson, “Municipal Art in Paris,” Harper’s Magazine 103 (July 1901): 200–207; “Belgium’s Art Crusade,” Harper’s Magazine 104 (February 1902): 443–52; “Art Effort in British Cities,” Harper’s Magazine 105 (October 1902): 787–96.
9. Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961), 620.
10. Charles Mulford Robinson, Modern Civic Art: or The City Made Beautiful (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1918; orig. pub. 1903), 29.
11. Charles Mulford Robinson, The Improvement of Towns and Cities: or The Practical Basis of Civic Aesthetics (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1901), 286.
12. Robinson, Modern Civic Art, 193.
13. Robinson, Improvement, 211.
14. Robinson, “Improvement,” 772.
15. See William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).
16. Robert A. M. Stern, Pride of Place: Building the American Dream (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 307.
17. Robinson, “Improvement,” 771.
18. Vincent Scully, American Architecture and Urbanism (New York: Henry Holt, 1988; orig. pub. 1969), 138.
19. Witold Rybczynski, “An Open Space of Turf,” in The National Mall: Rethinking Washington’s Monumental Core, ed. Nathan Glazer and Cynthia R. Field (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2008), 54–65.
20. Robinson, Modern Civic Art, 137.
21. “Three Hundred Leading Spring Books,” New York Times, April 16, 1916.
22. Robinson, Modern Civic Art, iii.
23. Greg Hise and William Deerell, Eden by Design: The 1930 Olmsted-Bartholomew Plan for the Los Angeles Region (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 292.
24. Witold Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance: Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Scribner, 1999), 293.
25. Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward, 2000–1887, ed. John L. Thomas (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), 115.
26. Robert Beevers, The Garden City Utopia: A Critical Biography of Ebenezer Howard (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1988), 70.
27. Unwin was greatly influenced by the Viennese city planner Camillo Sitte, author of the classic study The Art of Building Cites: City building according to artistic fundamentals, trans. Charles T. Stewart (Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1991; orig. pub. in English 1945; orig. pub. 1889). See also Walter L. Creese, “An Extended Planning Progression,” introduction to Raymond Unwin, Town Planning in Practice: An Introduction to the Art of Designing Cities and Suburbs (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994; orig. pub. 1909), xii-xiii.
28. Robert A. M. Stern and John Montague Massengale, eds., The Anglo-American Suburb (London: Architectural Design Profile, 1981), 42.
29. Robert W. de Forest to Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., December 7, 1908, Rockefeller Archive, Pocantico Hills, N.Y.
30. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. to Robert W. de Forest, December 20, 1908, Rockefeller Archive, Pocantico Hills, N.Y.
31. For a history of Forest Hills see Susan L. Klaus, A Modern Arcadia: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. & the Plan for Forest Hills Gardens (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002), 31.
32. See Peter Pennoyer and Anne Walker, The Architecture of Grosvenor Atterbury (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009), 81–82.
33. Ibid., 176.
34. De Forest to Olmsted, December 20, 1908.
35. Pennoyer and Walker, Grosvenor Atterbury, 158.
36. Lewis Mumford, “Mass-Production and the Modern House,” Architectural Record, January 1930, 110–16.
37. De Forest to Olmsted, December 20, 1908.
38. Stern, Pride of Place, 143.
39. These projects are described in Stern and Massengale, Anglo-American Suburb.
40. Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret, Oeuvre Complète de 1910-1929 (Zurich: Les Editions d’Architecture Erlenbach, 1946), 34.
41. Le Corbusier, The City of Tomorrow and Its Planning, trans. Frederick Etchells (New York: Dover, 1987; orig. pub. in English 1929; orig. pub. 1925), 163.
42. Le Corbusier and Jeanneret, Oeuvre Complète, 34.
43. Ibid., 104.
44. See Le Corbusier, City, 278–79; Kenneth Frampton, Le Corbusier: Architect of the Twentieth Century (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002), 3.33.
45. Le Corbusier, City, 281.
46. Ibid., 177.
47. W. Franklyn Paris, “The International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Art,” Architectural Record 58, no. 4 (October 1925): 365–85.
48. Encyclopédie des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes au XXéme Siécle, vol. 2: Architecture (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1925), 44–45.
49. Le Corbusier, City, 8.
50. Le Corbusier, La Ville Radieuse (Paris: Vincent, Fréal & Cie., 1964; orig. pub. 1933), 104. Translated by author.
51. Charles Jencks, Le Corbusier and the Tragic View of Architecture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 120.
52. Robert Hughes, The Shock of the New (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), 191.
53. A description of the Futurama is included in David Gelernter, 1939: The Lost World of the Fair (New York: The Free Press, 1995), 19–25.
54. Alexander Garvin, The American City: What Works, What Doesn’t (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 124.
1. For example, Jane Jacobs, “Washington,” Architectural Forum, January 1956, 93–115; “Typical Downtown Transformed,” Architectural Forum, May 1956, 145–55.
2. Jane Jacobs, “The Missing Link in City Redevelopment,” Architectural Forum, June 1956, 133.
3. Lewis Mumford, “Home Remedies for Urban Cancer,” in The Lewis Mumford Reader, ed. Donald L. Miller (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 186. Orig. pub. as “Mother Jacobs’ Home Remedies,” New Yorker, December 1, 1962.
4. Alice Sparberg Alexiou, Jane Jacobs: Urban Visionary (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2006), 61–62.
5. William H. Whyte Jr. “Are Cities Un-American?” Fortune, September 1957, 124.
6. Alexiou, Jacobs, 62–63.
7. Jane Jacobs, “Downtown Is for People,” Fortune, April 1958, 133.
8. Ibid., 242.
9. Harrison E. Salisbury, review of The Exploding Metropolis, New York Times Book Review, October 5, 1958.
10. Nathan Glazer, “Why City Planning Is Obsolete,” Architectural Forum, July 1958, 96.
11. Ibid., 97.
12. Ibid., 98.
13. Epstein had recently joined Random House after founding Anchor Books, where he had published The Exploding Metropolis.
14. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961), 3.
15. Ibid., 25.
16. Ibid., 19.
17. Ibid., 23.
18. Ibid., 87–88.
19. Ibid., 372.
20. Lloyd Rodwin, review of The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York Times Book Review, November 5, 1961.
21. Jacobs, Death and Life, 20.
22. Mumford, “Home Remedies,” 196.
23. Ibid., 194.
24. Ibid., 197.
25. Ibid., 191
26. Ibid., 197.
27. Jacobs, Death and Life, 376–77.
28. Ibid., 391.
1. Frank Lloyd Wright, Modern Architecture, Being the Kahn Lectures for 1930 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1931), 101.
2. Ibid., 110.
3. Ibid., 103.
4. Le Corbusier, “A Noted Architect Dissects Our Cities,” New York Times Magazine, January 3, 1932, 10.
5. Ibid.
6. Meryle Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), 392–94.
7. Frank Lloyd Wright, “Towards a New Architecture,” World Unity, September 1928, in Frank Lloyd Wright Collected Writings, Vol. 1, 1894–1930, ed. Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer (New York: Rizzoli, 1992), 317–18.
8. Frank Lloyd Wright, “Broadacre City: An Architect’s Vision,” New York Times Magazine, March 20, 1932, 8.
9. Portions of Wright’s New York Times essay, which contained specific rebuttals to Le Corbusier’s previous article, appear verbatim in The Disappearing City.
10. Frank Lloyd Wright, The Disappearing City (New York: William Farquhar Payson, 1932), 17.
11. Ibid., 31.
12. Catherine K. Bauer, “When Is a House Not a House?” Nation 136 (January 25, 1933): 99–100.
13. R. L. Duffus, review of The Disappearing City, New York Times Book Review, December 11, 1932, 3.
14. Frank Lloyd Wright, The Living City (New York: New American Library, 1970; orig. pub. 1958), 230.
15. George Fred Keck, review of The Disappearing City, Journal of Land & Public Utility Economics 9, no. 2 (May 1933): 16.
16. Lewis Mumford, “The Ideal Form of the Modern City” in The Lewis Mumford Reader, ed. Donald L. Miller (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 163. Orig. pub. as “The Modern City,” in Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century Architecture, vol. 4, Building Types, ed. Talbot Hamlin (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952).
17. David G. De Long, “Frank Lloyd Wright and the Evolution of the Living City,” in Frank Lloyd Wright and the Living City, ed. David G. De Long (Milan: Skira Editore, 1998), 42.
18. Frank Lloyd Wright, When Democracy Builds (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945), 121.
19. Quoted in Brendan Gill, Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1987), 477.
1. Michael Barone, “The Seventies Shift,” The Wilson Quarterly 33, no. 4 (Autumn 2009): 42.
2. Jon C. Teaford, The Twentieth-Century American City: Problem, Promise, and Reality (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 127–50.
3. Alexander Garvin, The American City: What Works, What Doesn’t (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 1.
4. Ibid., 2.
5. Lewis Mumford, “Yesterday’s City of Tomorrow,” in The Lewis Mumford Reader, ed. Donald L. Miller (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 181. Orig. pub. as “The Future of the City: Part 2—Yesterday’s City of Tomorrow,” Architectural Record 132, no. 5 (November 1962).
6. Discussed more fully in Witold Rybczynski, “Bauhaus Blunders,” Public Interest 113 (Fall 1993): 82–90.
7. Jonathan Barnett, The Elusive City: Five Centuries of Design, Ambition and Miscalculation (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), 238.
8. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961), 269.
9. Witold Rybczynski, “America’s Favorite Buildings,” Wharton Real Estate Review 11, no. 2 (Fall 2007): 94–105.
10. For example, Chestnut Hill in Philadelphia, Shaker Heights in Cleveland, Country Club District in Kansas City, Beverly Hills and Palos Verdes in Los Angeles, River Oaks in Houston, Druid Hills in Atlanta, and Coral Gables in Miami.
11. Elizabeth Hawes, New York, New York: How the Apartment House Transformed the Life of the City (1869–1930) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), ch. 4.
12. Apartment living took hold in New York in 1927. “That year, for the first time in a century, the Building Department did not receive a single application for permission to build a private house for six months.” Ibid., 237.
13. Jacobs, Death and Life, 448.
14. Roger Montgomery, “Is There Still Life in the Death and Life?” Journal of the American Planning Association 64, no. 3 (Summer 1998): 275.
15. See Herbert J. Gans, “Jane Jacobs: Toward an Understanding of ‘Death and Life of Great American Cities,’” City & Community 5, no. 3 (September 2006): 213.
16. Herbert J. Gans, “City Planning and Urban Realities,” Commentary 33 (1962): 173.
17. Ibid., 172.
18. Ibid.
19. Jacobs, Death and Life, 391.
20. Vincent Scully, “The Architecture of Community,” in The New Urbanism: Toward an Architecture of Community, ed. Peter Katz (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994), 221.
21. Martin Meyerson et al., The Face of the Metropolis (New York: Random House, 1968), 23.
22. Andrejs Skaburskis, “New Urbanism and Sprawl: A Toronto Case Study,” Journal of Planning Education and Research 25 (2006): 233.
1. Nicolas Brazier, Histoire des petits théâtres de Paris (Paris: Allardin, 1838),105.
2. Victor Gruen, The Heart of Our Cities: The Urban Crisis: Diagnosis and Cure (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1964), 194.
3. Joel Garreau, Edge City: Life on the New Frontier (New York: Doubleday, 1991), 465.
4. Jonathan Barnett, Redesigning Cities: Principles, Practice, Implementation (Chicago: Planners Press, 2003), 52.
5. For example, ZCMI Center in Salt Lake City, Water Tower Place in Chicago, the Gallery at Market East in Philadelphia, Stamford Town Center in Stamford, Connecticut, and Horton Plaza in San Diego.
6. Bernard J. Frieden and Lynne B. Sagalyn, Downtown, Inc.: How America Rebuilds Cities (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992), 311–12 .
7. Peter Linneman and Deborah C. Moy, “The Evolution of Retailing in the United States,” Wharton Real Estate Review 7, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 50.
8. Phil Patton, Made in USA: The Secret Histories of the Things That Made America (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1992), 252–64.
9. Although the term lifestyle center is said to have been coined by a Memphis-based developer, Poag & McEwen, in the late 1980s, lifestyle centers did not become popular until the following decade.
10. David Dillon, “Dallas experiments with instant urbanism at Victory,” Architectural Record, October 2006, 82.
11. See also Victoria Gardens in Rancho Cucamonga, California, and Crocker Park in Westlake, Ohio.
12. Elsa Brenner, “A Piazza for a Maryland Suburb,” New York Times, November 22, 2006, C7.
13. Lake Anne Village, with housing clusters designed by Washington, D.C., architect Charles M. Goodman, was the only village to adopt a modernist layout. Other village centers at Reston resemble conventional strip malls.
14. Alan Ward, “Certainty to Flexibility: Planning and Design History, 1963–2005,” in Reston Town Center: A Downtown for the 21st Century, ed. Alan Ward (Washington, D.C.: Academy Press, 2006), 40.
15. Ibid., 73.
16. Garreau, Edge City.
17. Ibid., 3.
18. Robert A. M. Stern, “Designing the Suburban City,” in Reston Town Center, 173.
1. Le Corbusier, The City of Tomorrow and Its Planning, trans. Frederick Etchells (New York: Dover, 1987; orig. pub. in English 1929; orig. pub. in French 1925), 165.
2. William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), 128.
3. Robin Karson, A Genius for Place: American Landscape for the Country Place Era, Library of American Landscape History (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), 25.
4. Wilson, City Beautiful, 146.
5. Karson, Genius, 36.
6. Wilson, City Beautiful, 139.
7. Daniel H. Burnham and Edward H. Bennett, Plan of Chicago (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993; orig. pub. 1909), 97.
8. Marc Levinson, The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006), 48–53.
9. Ibid., 96.
10. Alexander Garvin, The American City: What Works, What Doesn’t (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 112.
11. Ibid., 53–54.
1. Ann L. Strong and George E. Thomas, The Book of the School: 100 Years of the Graduate School of Fine Arts of the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: GSFA, 1990), 141.
2. The case for a piecemeal approach to urban design is argued by Christopher Alexander et al., A New Theory of Urban Design (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
3. “The Downtown We Don’t Want,” New York Times, July 17, 2002, A18.
4. Paul Goldberger, “The Sky Line: Groundwork,” New Yorker, May 20, 2002, 91.
5. Edward Wyatt, “Officials Rethink Building Proposal for Ground Zero,” New York Times, July 21, 2002, A1.
6. Quoted by Paul Goldberger, “The Sky Line: Designing Downtown,” New Yorker, January 6, 2003, 90.
7. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961), 25.
8. Philip Nobel, Sixteen Acres: Architecture and the Outrageous Struggle for the Future of Ground Zero (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2005), 115.
9. Barry Bergdoll, European Architecture, 1750–1890 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 269–79.
10. Ibid., 276.
11. Charles Jencks, The Iconic Building (New York: Rizzoli, 2005), 33.
12. Ibid., 12.
13. Quoted by Sheri Olson, “For the Bellevue Arts Museum, which values making art as well as viewing it, Steven Holl invented a place that engages visitors with architecture—and with one another,” Architectural Record, August 2001, 81.
14. Nobel, Sixteen Acres, 26.
15. Witold Rybczynski, “America’s Favorite Buildings,” Wharton Real Estate Review 11, no. 2 (Fall 2007): 97.
16. Dorothy Spears, “When the Final Touch Is the Exit Door,” New York Times, March 12, 2008, H1.
17. Ibid.
18. Olson, “Bellevue Arts Museum,” 81.
19. Spears, “Final Touch,” H1. The Bellevue Arts Museum reopened in 2005 as a museum of craft and design.
20. Inga Saffron, “In the Kimmel, an idea that exceeded reality,” Philadelphia Inquirer, December 4, 2005, C1. The suit was settled out of court.
21. Nobel, Sixteen Acres, 184.
22. Ada Louise Huxtable, “Rebuilding Lower Manhattan,” in On Architecture: Collected Reflections on a Century of Change (New York: Walker & Company, 2008), 387.
23. David W. Dunlap, “At Rail Hub, Bird Will Still Soar, but with a Bit Less Polish,” New York Times, May 8, 2008, B2.
1. Robert Bruegmann, Sprawl: A Compact History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 26–27.
2. Nicholas Confessore, “Cities Grow Up, and Some See Sprawl,” New York Times, August 6, 2006.
3. Jonathan Barnett, Redesigning Cities: Principles, Practice, Implementation (Chicago: Planners Press, 2003), 36–39.
4. Lisa Chamberlain, “Building a City Within the City of Atlanta,” New York Times, May 24, 2006.
5. Quoted in Brent W. Ambrose and William Grigsby, “Mixed Income Groups in Public Housing,” Wharton Real Estate Review 3, no. 2 (Fall 1999): 7.
1. Mayor Rendell’s talk took place on April 9, 1996, at the Rittenhouse Hotel.
2. John W. Reps, The Making of Urban America: A History of City Planning in the United States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965), 90.
3. Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream (New York: North Point Press, 2000).
4. Denver Tops List of Favorite Cities, A Social and Demographic Trends Report (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, January 29, 2009), 3.
5. According to the U.S. Census, between 1980 and 2006, the population grew from 227 million to 300 million (an increase of 32 percent), while the number of people living in cities larger than one hundred thousand grew from 51 million to 81 million (an increase of 59 percent).
6. Irving Kristol, “Urban Civilization & Its Discontents,” Commentary 50 (July 1970): 31.
7. Ibid.
8. Office of Technology Assessment, The Technological Reshaping of Metropolitan America (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1995), 12.
9. Edward L. Glaeser, “Houston, New York Has a Problem,” New York Sun, July 16, 2008, 4.
10. Ibid.
11. Denver Tops List, 5.
12. David Brooks, “I Dream of Denver,” New York Times, February 17, 2009, A29.
13. See Blake Gumprecht, The American College Town (Amherst, Mass.: University of Massachusetts Press, 2008).
14. Kristol, “Urban Civilization,” 31.
15. According to the U.S. Census, the total number of people living in cities larger than 250,000 was 39.4 million in 1960, 42.3 million in 1970, and 52.1 million in 2006. The corresponding figures for cities between 25,000 and 250,000 were 36.6 million in 1960, 45.8 million in 1970, and 81.7 million in 2006. Measured as a percentage of the total population living in cities (115.9 million in 1960, and 186.1 million in 2006), the big cities’ share dropped from 34.0 percent in 1960 to 28.0 percent in 2006, whereas the small cities’ share rose from 31.6 percent in 1960 to 43.9 percent in 2006.
16. Denver Tops List, 5.
17. Joel Garreau, “Face-to-Face Places,” Wharton Real Estate Review 12, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 73.
18. Ibid.
19. “The 2008 Global Cities Index,” Foreign Policy, November/December 2008.
20. Edward L. Glaeser, “Why Economists Still Like Cities,” City Journal, Spring 1996, 44.
21. Eugenie Ladner Birch, “Having a Longer View on Downtown Living,” Journal of the American Planning Association 68, no. 1 (2002): 5–21.
22. Eugenie Ladner Birch, “Who Lives Downtown?” Living Cities Census Series (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, November 2005), 5.
23. Ibid., 7.
24. Joel Kotkin, The City: A Global History (New York: Modern Library, 2005), xvii.
1. Clifford Krauss, “Gas Prices Send Surge of Riders to Mass Transit,” New York Times, May 10, 2008, A1.
2. Alan Pisarski, Commuting in America III, Transportation Research Board study, October 16, 2006. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/CIAIIIfacts.pdf.
3. Bill Vlasic and Nick Bunkley, “Toyota Scales Back Production of Big Vehicles,” New York Times, July 11, 2008, C1.
4. Department of Transportation press release, August 26, 2009, http://www.dot.gov/affairs/2009/dot13309.htm.
5. David Owen, Green Metropolis: Why Living Smaller, Living Closer, and Driving Less Are the Keys to Sustainability (New York: Riverhead Books, 2009), 2–3.
6. Ibid., 285.
7. Timothy Beatley, Green Urbanism: Learning from European Cities (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2000), 4–5.
8. Ibid., 3–4.
9. Moshe Safdie, For Everyone a Garden (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1974), 4.
10. Lewis Mumford, “The Disappearing City,” in The Lewis Mumford Reader, ed. Donald L. Miller (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 112. Orig. pub. as “The Future of the City: Part I—the Disappearing City,” Architectural Record 132, no. 4 (October 1962).
11. Lewis Mumford, “The Choices Ahead,” in Miller, Lewis Mumford Reader, 239. Orig. pub. in The Urban Prospect: Essays (New York: Harcourt Brace and World, 1968).