General William Howe led the British forces in the colonies.
Back in London some members of Parliament still opposed the war. But most lawmakers supported King George and the war effort. Confidence remained high even as rumors reached the city that the French were preparing for war. France, the British knew, was already sending supplies to the rebels.
In New York General William Howe made plans for his next campaign—an attack on the rebel capital of Philadelphia. In July 1777 Howe put about 15,000 men on ships and left New York to sail into Chesapeake Bay. The forces landed in northern Maryland and then began their march toward Philadelphia. The first action of the campaign came September 11 at Brandywine Creek in Pennsylvania. Howe split his forces, attacking with a smaller force from the front while sending a larger force to circle around the Americans and attack from the rear. The Americans suffered heavy losses. By the end of September, Howe’s men triumphantly entered Philadelphia.
Many of the British troops were based in nearby Germantown. In early October Howe heard the noise of battle and rode to investigate. He saw some of his men retreating. “For shame, light infantry,” the general called. “I never saw you retreat before.” Howe thought his men faced only an American scouting party. Instead, Washington had launched a major attack from several directions.
Some British forces took cover in a stone house close to the main British camp. They held off the Americans long enough for reinforcements to arrive. The battle was fought in a thick fog, adding to the smoke from the cannons. In the confusion some Americans fired at their own troops. Despite suffering more than 500 casualties, the British troops beat back the American attack.
SARATOGA
At almost the same time, several hundred miles away, John Burgoyne was trying to avoid a disaster. Burgoyne had started his campaign from Canada with high spirits, boosted by a quick victory at Fort Ticonderoga in July. But that success was quickly followed by a defeat outside Bennington, Vermont. Adding to his problems, Burgoyne found it harder to get supplies the farther he went from Canada. The large number of Loyalist forces he expected to join his army never appeared. And Burgoyne was still counting on help from General Howe—not realizing it would never come.
Meanwhile, an American army under Horatio Gates was gathered outside Saratoga, waiting for Burgoyne. The British troops were confident of victory. The Americans, though, did not run when the two armies met September 19. Burgoyne’s army gained control of the area, but suffered twice as many casualties as the Americans.
In the following weeks, Burgoyne saw American sharpshooters pick off his troops and watched his food supplies shrink. He learned that some of Clinton’s troops were heading north from New York. Burgoyne hoped he could meet up with Clinton, but his men would have to fight their way out of Saratoga. He made a desperate attack October 7 on the larger American forces.
The Americans swarmed ahead and captured British artillery. Over the next several days, more rebel reinforcements reached Saratoga. Burgoyne knew he was defeated. He surrendered to Gates with almost 6,000 of his men.
WHAT NEXT?
The news from Saratoga jolted the king and his aides. “You cannot conquer America,”8 Parliament member Lord Chatham told his fellow lawmakers. “If I were an American … while a foreign troop was landed in my country, I never would lay down my arms— never! Never! Never!”
The report from Saratoga also stirred the French. In February 1778 they signed a treaty of alliance with the Americans. Spain would later side with the Americans as well. King George prepared to fight France, his country’s longtime enemy. General Clinton replaced William Howe as the commander in the colonies, and the British forces in Philadelphia were sent to New York.
The news from France also inspired thousands of British men to join the military. Meanwhile, three British officials traveled to Philadelphia to offer peace one last time. They were Frederick Howard, Earl of Carlisle; William Eden; and George Johnstone. The men promised if the Americans rejected independence, the British would pull out all of their troops, grant free trade, and allow American representatives in Parliament, among other things. But the rebels refused the offer. The war would go on, with the British now facing a much larger and more powerful enemy.
