THE BOOK OF AMOS CONCLUDES with a vision of the future when “the booth of David” will inherit “all the Gentiles upon whom my name is called” (Amos 9:12, my translation). This looks suspiciously like the opening of 1 Corinthians, where Paul affirms that he is writing to the Corinthians together with “all those upon whom my name is called in every place” (my translation). Are they related?
The prophecy of Amos and the epistle of Paul appear to be linked in four ways. These include (A) divine calling, (B) rhetorical style, (C) selection of metaphors and (D) theological/ethical content. Each of these points of comparison needs examination.1
This topic includes a number of aspects.
1. Both Amos and Paul affirm a divine calling.
When challenged by Amaziah, the priest of Bethel, Amos replies, “the Lord took me from following the flock, and the Lord said to me, ‘Go, prophesy to my people Israel’” (Amos 7:15).
Paul defines himself as “called by the will of God to be an apostle of Christ Jesus” (1:1). Later, he asks the rhetorical question, “Am I not an apostle? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord?” (9:1). In the same passage he cries out “necessity is laid upon me” (9:16). He then defines himself as a person “entrusted with a commission” (9:17).
2. Both Amos and Paul are under attack.
Amos is under attack as a prophet. He is told to be silent and leave the country. He defends himself boldly and tells his accuser, Amaziah the high priest, that he (Amos) is under a divine commission to prophesy (Amos 7:10-17).
Paul is under attack as an apostle and he defends himself with vigor (9:1-18). He has a divine commission to preach the gospel.
3. Both of them have lowly professions.
Amos was a shepherd. When under attack by Amaziah, Amos fearlessly affirmed, “I am no prophet, nor a prophet’s son; but I am a herdsman, and a dresser of sycamore trees” (Amos 7:14). Sycamore figs have a very low sugar content, almost no taste and are only eaten by the poorest of the poor. Amos’s profession was not respected in the community but that fact did not faze him.
Paul supported himself as a tentmaker. Intellectuals and leaders among the Greeks were not expected to work with their hands. Part of the pressure on Paul to accept financial assistance from the Corinthians was probably related to the fact that they were not happy to have their founder working with his hands at “humdrum, often despised labor.”2
4. Both Amos and Paul are missionaries.
Amos was a native of Judea (in the south) and was preaching in Israel (in the north).
Paul was a Jew preaching mostly to Gentiles outside of his own country.
Many commonalities can be demonstrated between the literary styles of Amos and 1 Corinthians. Amos uses the prophetic rhetorical template of seven inverted cameos with a climax in the center. An example of this appears in Amos 5:4-6 (see fig. I.1).
1. | 5:4Seek me and live; | SEEK ME AND LIVE |
2. | but do not seek Bethel, | Bethel |
3. | and do not enter into Gilgal | Gilgal |
4. | or cross over to Beer-sheba; | Beer-sheba |
5. | for Gilgal shall surely go into exile, | Gilgal |
6. | and Bethel shall come to naught. | Bethel |
7. | 6Seek the LORD and live, | SEEK THE LORD AND LIVE |
I.1. Prophetic rhetorical template of Amos 5:4-6
Amos 2:14-16 with its two-line center exhibits a slight variation on the same template (see fig. I.2).
1. | 2:14Flight shall perish from the swift, | FLIGHT |
2. | the strong shall not retain his strength, | STRONG—STRENGTH |
3. | nor shall the mighty save his life; | NOT SAVE LIFE |
4a. | 15who handles the bow shall not stand, | NOT STAND |
4b. | he who is swift of feet shall not save himself, | NOT SAVE SELF |
5. | nor shall he who rides the horse save his life; | NOT SAVE LIFE |
6. | 16and he who is stout of heart among the mighty | STOUT—MIGHTY |
7. | shall flee away naked in that day | FLEE AWAY |
Figure I.2. Prophetic rhetorical template of Amos 2:14-16
A second striking rhetorical style in the prophecy of Amos is the way he builds up a series of images in the form of questions. This appears in Amos 3:3-6 (see fig. I.3).
1. | 3:3Do two walk together, |
| unless they have made an appointment? |
2. | 4Does a lion roar in the forest, |
| when he has no prey? |
3. | Does a young lion cry out from his den, |
| if he has taken nothing? |
4. | 5Does a bird fall in a snare on the earth, |
| when there is no trap for it? |
5. | Does a snare spring up from the ground, |
| when it has taken nothing? |
6. | 6Is a trumpet blown in a city, |
| and the people are not afraid? |
7. | Does evil befall a city, |
| unless the Lord has done it? |
Figure I.3. Series of questions in Amos 3:3-6
Each of the seven questions in Amos 3:3-6 expects a negative reply. The first six put the reader into the mood of answering, “No, impossible!” Amos then makes his point in his seventh image/question. The Lord is in control of history.
A number of times in 1 Corinthians Paul also constructs lists. Sometimes they are lists of parables/metaphors (3:12-15; 9:7-10; 14:7-11; 15:36-41). Or they can be a list of sins (6:9-10) or a list of various kinds of people (7:29-31). A list of adjectives defining love (13:4-7) and lists of gifts (12:8-10, 28-29) also appear. The list of parables/metaphors in 9:7-10 reads:
9:7Who serves as a soldier at his own expense?
Who plants a vineyard without eating any of its fruit?
Who tends a flock without getting some of the milk?
[9:8-10aan interlude invoking the witness of the Torah]
10bThe plowman should plow in hope.
The thresher (should) thresh in hope of a share in the crop.
The first three, like Amos, expect negative responses. The last two are positive statements. In the middle of this list there is an interlude on the Torah. Yet in the five metaphors the soldier, the vineyard owner, the shepherd, the plowman and the thresher all expend energy expecting some return.
So much for rhetorical style. What of the selection of imagery?
Amos and Paul use many of the same images. These include:
1. Wild animals. Amos talks about lions (Amos 1:23; 3:4, 5, 8; 5:19), a bear (Amos 5:19) and a snake (Amos 5:19). Paul fought with “wild beasts” in Ephesus (1 Cor 15:32).
2. The farmer. Amos tells of those who plant vineyards and do not drink its produce (Amos 5:11). In his final vision of the future this order is reversed in that those who plant vineyards will drink their wine (Amos 9:14). Paul presents himself as a farmer who plants crops (3:6-8). He also mentions planting in general (9:7).
3. The thresher. For Amos, threshing is mentioned even though it is an image of cruelty (Amos 1:3). Threshing is one of the images Paul uses in 1 Corinthians 9:10.
4. The shepherd. Amos was a shepherd (Amos 1:1). The pastures of the shepherds “mourn” (Amos 1:2). The shepherd rescues a small part of a sheep (Amos 3:12). Paul notes that the shepherd (who tends a flock) has the right to some of the milk (9:7).
5. Building and houses/temples. Amos discusses houses and temples (Amos 3:15; 7:13; 8:3), and building or rebuilding them (Amos 5:11; 6:11; 9:11, 14). Corinth was destroyed in 146 B.C., and rebuilding started in 44 B.C.4 Some of the city may have survived, yet the rebuilding must have been extensive. A contemporary Western wooden house can be built quickly. Stone houses, built without the benefit of power equipment, take years. Paul probably arrived in early A.D. 51, and due to the economic prosperity of that time, there must have been considerable construction underway across the city. Each construction project would have had a stonemason, called a “master builder,” in charge. Paul used that image astutely to describe himself in this letter. He could not have reflected on Amos 9:11-12 without noticing the double reference to the rebuilding of ruined cities and the inhabiting of them (Amos 9:11, 14). Indeed, the labor of building and the resulting houses and temples are important images for Paul. He constructs a parable around this theme (3:9b-17; 6:19; 9:16).
6. Fire of judgment. The fire of God’s judgment, and the image of burning, appear frequently in Amos (Amos 1:4, 7, 10, 12, 14; 2:2, 5; 5:6; 6:10; 7:4). Fire, for Paul, is an image of final judgment and testing (3:13-15).
7. Light and darkness. Light and darkness are images Amos employs (Amos 4:13; 5:8). In 4:5 Paul uses the same two metaphors.
8. The trumpet. Twice Amos hears the trumpet sound (Amos 2:2; 3:6). Twice Paul invokes a trumpet (14:8; 15:52).
9. Musical instruments generally. Amos refers to musical instruments (Amos 6:5). Musical instruments (other than the trumpet) are mentioned by Paul (13:1; 14:7).
10. Mountains. Mountains feature in Amos’s prophecy (Amos 4:13). Mountains also appear in Paul’s letter (13:2).
A number of theological and ethical topics are dealt with by both Paul and Amos.
1. Secrets/mysteries. Amos tells his readers that God had revealed his “secret to his servants the prophets” (Amos 3:7). For Paul, God had revealed “secrets,” “hidden wisdom” and “mysteries” to the apostles (2:7, 10; 4:1).
2. Incest. A case of incest appears in Amos (Amos 2:7). A man sleeping with his father’s wife is the focus of an extended discussion for Paul (5:1-5). Both texts describe a man and his father (not a father and his son).
3. Idol worship. Amos is distraught over idolatry (Amos 2:4; 5:26-27; 8:14). Paul is also deeply concerned over idol worship and composed an essay related to the subject (8:1–11:1; 12:2).
4. Sacrifices. In the book of Amos the people bring their sacrifices “every morning” (Amos 4:4). Only in 1 Corinthians does Paul affirm, “Christ, our paschal lamb, has been sacrificed” (5:7). (This theme is dealt with differently by the two authors, but the subject of the atonement sacrifice links them together.)
5. Slavery. Amos condemns Gaza for enslaving a “whole people” (Amos 1:6). He also attacks Israel “because they sell the righteous for silver, and the needy for a pair of shoes” (Amos 2:6). Slavery is an important issue for Paul, who composes an entire sub-section on the question of how to cope with slavery (7:20-24). He tells his readers, “Do not become slaves of men” (7:23).
6. The day of judgment. “The day of the Lord” for Amos is a day of judgment (Amos 5:18-20). For Paul “the Day” (of the Lord) as a day of testing/ judgment is important throughout 1 Corinthians (1:8; 3:13-15; 4:5; 5:5; 6:2-3; 7:26, 29, 31; 10:11; 15:24-28).
7. The weak and the strong. The book of Amos is famous for its defense of the poor and powerless against the rich and powerful. This theme permeates his prophecy. Paul is deeply concerned for “the weak” (in conscience) and the poor who “have nothing” and are humiliated by the rich (8:9-13; 11:22).
8. Mourning over sin. Amos is stricken over his people who “are not grieved over the ruin of Joseph!” (Amos 6:6). Paul is disturbed by the fact that his readers do not “mourn” over the gross sins being committed in their community (5:2, 6).
9. Drunkenness. Excessive drinking was condemned by Amos (Amos 4:1; 6:6). Paul faced the same problem in Corinth (5:11; 11:21).
10. Desecrated sacramental worship. Speaking for God, Amos attacks his readers sharply. “I hate, I despise your feasts,” he declares. God will not accept or even look upon their offerings. Nor will he listen to “the noise” of their songs (Amos 5:21-23). Amos uses strong language in his rejection of the worship he observes. In like manner Paul is not pleased at what is happening at the Lord’s Supper celebrations in Corinth. Their behavior is so unacceptable that he declares flatly, “it is not the Lord’s supper that you eat” (11:20). One is hungry and another is drunk. The poor are humiliated. He will not commend them (11:22)! Paul also uses strong language as he criticizes the worship practices of the Corinthian church.
11. Creation. Creation was an important event for Amos. God “forms the mountains, and creates the wind…. [He] makes the morning darkness” (Amos 4:13). He also “made the Pleiades and Orion” (Amos 5:8).
Creation is high on Paul’s agenda as well. It features prominently in the creedal formulation in 8:6. All things were created by God through Jesus. The creation story is the background to his discussion of men and women in worship leadership (11:7-13).
12. The Gentiles. Amos knows that God has a covenant with Israel. But Amos also writes, “‘Are you not like the Ethiopians to me, O people of Israel?’ says the Lord” (Amos 9:7). Yes, God brought Israel from the land of Egypt. But he also brought the “Philistines from Caphtor” (the Aegean islands) and “the Syrians from Kir” (Mesopotamia) and placed the Ethiopians in their land. Israel was not the only “family” that had received the grace of God in the form of the gift of a homeland. Furthermore, for Amos, “In that day… all the nations/Gentiles on whom my name is called” will become a part of the inheritance of “the booth of David that is fallen” (Amos 9:11-12).
Paul is deeply committed to the incorporation of the Gentiles into the people of God. The epistle is addressed to “all those on whom is called the name of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1:2). Many of those were Gentiles. The presentation of the gospel for both “Jew and Greek” is prominent in the great hymn to the cross (1:17–2:2) and elsewhere (9:19-23; 12:2; 16:1-19).
13. God “knows” his people. Amos writes, “You only have I known of all the families of the earth” (Amos 3:2). It was not simply that they knew God, but God knew them. Paul says, “But if one loves God, one is known by him” (8:3). The people of God are known by God in a special way. In the end “I shall know fully as I am fully known” (13:12).
What then can we conclude from the extensive parallels between the book of Amos and 1 Corinthians? The following points can be made.
1. The prominence of Amos 9:11-12 in the Jerusalem council meeting. From Acts 15:16-18 it is clear that Amos 9:11-12 was an important part of the early apostolic reflection on the urgent question of the incorporation of the Gentiles into the people of God.
2. Amos 9:11-15 and Paul. Paul reflected deeply on Amos 9:11-15. This is apparent in three ways. (1) In the opening verses of his letter Paul affirms that he is writing to all those “upon whom my name is called.” This language is very close to Amos 9:12. (2) Amos’s vision of “in that day…” includes repairing, raising up and rebuilding of buildings. For Amos, God is going to “rebuild” (Amos 9:11) and the people will also “rebuild” (Amos 9:14). Paul makes extensive use of the image of building and creates an extended parable out of that image. Paul builds, and so do many others (3:9b-17). (3) Amos 9:11-15 is full of farming images. God is going to plant, and so are the people. These images tumble one after another like a waterfall in Amos 9:11-15. They include plowman, reaper, treader of grapes, sower, sweet wine dripping and flowing, planters of vineyards, makers of gardens, God’s planting and the people never being uprooted. The connecting thread that runs through these images focuses on the farmer who works and receives benefit from his or her labor. Paul also uses farming images widely. He creates an extended parable built on “planting and watering” (3:6-9a). In his defense of his right to patronage he has four farming images, and all of them (like Amos) focus on work completed and benefit received (9:7-11). Paul turns again to a farming image when he explains the nature of the resurrected body (15:37-38, 42-43). With Amos, Paul focuses on sowing and the anticipated harvest that results.
3. Acts 18:1-17 and Paul’s first visit to Corinth. Three events significant for this topic happened to Paul in Corinth during his eighteen-month stay in the city. (1) Paul was rejected by many in the synagogue, and he responded to that rejection by acting out Jesus’ “sacrament of failure.” He shook out his garments in the presence of his opponents.5 (2) Paul then made an important move toward broadening his ministry among the Gentiles. This is confirmed by his recorded statement, “From now on I will go to the Gentiles” (Acts 18:6). (3) Paul had a vision of “the Lord” telling him, “I have many people in this city” (Acts 18:10). With the acceptance of the Gentiles by the Jerusalem Council, and James’s quotation of Amos 9:12 in their deliberations, Paul would naturally have turned to the book of Amos as he contemplated further efforts among the Gentiles.
4. In 1 Corinthians the Gentile believers are “no longer Gentiles.” At least at this stage in his ministry, Paul understood the new Gentile believers as people who had taken on a new identity. Paul never calls them “Jews.” Instead he tells them that they are a part of the body of Christ and are built into the new temple. Abraham is their father and they are no longer “Gentiles.” This appears in 12:2 where he writes, “when you were Gentiles (ethne), you were led astray to dumb idols.”6 This same assumption underlies 10:18 in the Greek text, where Paul refers to “Israel according to the flesh.” The church in his mind is “the Israel of God” (Gal 6:16). In 10:1 Paul writes, “I want you to know, brethren, that our fathers were all under the cloud.” In Paul’s mind the “fathers” of the exodus were the ancestors of the whole church. He continues in verse 14 to address the same people and says, “Therefore, my beloved, shun the worship of idols.” This language is pointedly addressed to believers with a Gentile background. The Gentiles, through faith and baptism, had joined the “Israel of God,” even though they were not “Israel according to the flesh.” This new Israel of God had a new temple, and they were part of it. That temple was the community, and the Holy Spirit had taken up residence in that new temple even though it was still in the process of being built (3:16-17). This means that Paul could have seen Amos 9:11-12 as being fulfilled in his day. Paul agreed with James. The incorporation of the Gentiles into the “booth of David,” foreseen by Amos, was happening before their eyes.
In summary, Paul, like Amos, had a lowly occupation and was obliged to defend his calling as a messenger of God. Like Amos, Paul had to deal with drunkenness, incest, immorality, abuse of the weak, slavery, idol worship and perverted sacramental worship. Like Amos, he understood the secrets of God and reflected on creation and the coming of the Gentiles into the faith. Like Amos, Paul thought deeply on “the day of the Lord” and the fire of judgment. Many of Amos’s concrete images and theological themes reappear in 1 Corinthians.
If the connection between these two texts is contemplated, new avenues into Paul’s mind are opened. He does not start from scratch as he writes 1 Corinthians. The origin of significant parts of Paul’s imagery, his ethics and his theology can be traced to the oracles of Amos, who faced many of the same problems. Paul looked far more to Jerusalem (Jewish sources) than he did to Athens (Greek sources). Observing the connections between Amos and Paul can help us better understand the prophetic roots of 1 Corinthians and more accurately interpret that letter for our day.