INDEX

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Page references to images are in italics, as insert.

Abernathy, Ralph, 52–53, 57, 114, 143; and the Albany Movement, 192, 194, 196–97; and Birmingham movement, 216, 222; and boycott at Alabama State College, 52; and Freedom Rides, 162, 163, 164; and Martin Luther King, 52–53, 65–67, 69, 71–74, 129, 281, 310, 311; and the Montgomery bus boycott, 77, 81–83, 85, 89; and Selma, 281, 286; violence against, 83, 164

Abram, Morris, 140, 305

Acheson, Dean, 33

Africa, European colonial interests in, 16, 17. See also anticolonial struggles

African Blood Brotherhood, 242

Alabama Council on Human Relations, 51, 73, 85, 211, 214

Alabama Journal, 67

Alabama State College, xviii, 50–52, 56–59, 64–65, 70, 123

Albany (Georgia) Movement, insert 8, 46, 189–99, 209, 214–16, 221–24, 233; and federal indictments of activist, 250, 251. See also Albany Nine

Albany Herald, 189

Albany Nine, 222–24, 250

Allen v. [Virginia] State Board of Elections, 274–75

American Indian Movement (AIM), 275; and Wounded Knee, 275, 324

American Student Union, 20

American Youth Congress, 20

An American Dilemma (Myrdal), 28

“An Appeal for Human Rights,” 136–37, 146

“An Appeal to the World” (NAACP), 33

Anderson, Marian, 26

anticolonial struggles, 17, 94, 117, 122; in Africa, 295, 304, 306; in Asia, 295, 307; and the civil rights movement, 117, 129–30, 134, 295, 304, 306–7; in Congo, 122; in Egypt, 94, 122; in Indonesia, 49; in Kenya, 94, 122; and Martin Luther King, 117; and James Lawson, 129–30, 134; in South Africa, 94, 306–7; in South Asia, 86, 169, 307; in Sudan, 122; in Vietnam, 49, 94, 307

apartheid, xi, xxii, 94, 306; American, 122, 146, 255, 302, 306

“Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World,” 146

Army Nurse Corps, 27

Atlanta Daily World, 135

Atlanta University, 93, 136; Ralph Abernathy attends, 52; Septima Clark attends, 179; W. E. B. Du Bois teaches at, 12, 54; Jo Ann Robinson attends, 58; and the sit-ins, 136, 141

Azbell, Joe, xviii, 66–68

Babbitt, Bruce, 287, 353n37

Baez, Joan, 252

Baker, Ella, insert 6, xxiv, 2, 112, 114–16, 245, 318, 325, 344n5; education of, 114–15, 117; and Highlander Folk School, 117, 180; and Martin Luther King, 116, 118, 127, 147–48, 278; as mentor, xxiv, 115, 116, 127–28, 134, 148; and NAACP, 116; and SCLC, 114, 116–18, 127, 128, 130–31, 134, 147–48 180, 277; and the sit-ins, 127, 212; and SNCC, xxiv, 130–31, 134, 165, 177; and women in the movement, 278, 318; working for the Black press, 115; and Works Progress Administration, 115–16; and youth organizing, 127–28, 134, 148

Baker, Wilson, 269, 270, 272, 279, 286

Baldwin, James, insert 13, 255

Baptists Ministers Alliance, 65

Baraka, Amiri (LeRoi Jones), 309

Barry, Marion, insert 5, 128, 129; and nonviolence, 123, 128, 129, 175, 184; and sit-ins, 128–30, 132–33; and SNCC, 128, 130, 132, 147–48, 175, 303–4; and voting rights, 175, 183

Bates, Daisy, 103, 105–9, 252; and NAACP, 105; and racist harassment, 105; and self-defense, 109

Bates, L. C., 105, 109

Baton Rouge bus boycott, xviii, 56–57, 74, 93

Baton Rouge Community Group, 56

Belafonte, Harry, 175, 215, 219, 227, 307

Bennett, Roy, 66, 69–70, 83

Berea College, 7

Bethune, Mary McLeod, 19, 325

Bevel, James, 129, 184, 188, 193, 224, 225, 277, 285, 312; and the Freedom Rides, 160, 163; and voting rights, 201, 202, 206, 219

Bilbo, Theodore, 33

Birmingham campaign, 46, 209, 212–17, 221, 222, 224–27, 228, 229, 232–36, 240; goals of, 215; helped nationalize the civil rights movement, 234

Birmingham Children’s March, 224–26

Birmingham World, 77

Black capitalism, 12, 17, 135, 284

Black Freedom Struggle, xv, xxii, 11–13, 15–17, 20, 23–24, 47–48, 55–56, 90, 269; and freedom dreaming, xviii, 7–8, 11, 15, 17, 23, 26, 43, 47–48, 55 93; and freedom songs, insert 15, 16, 190, 196, 198–99, 347n15; losses to integration, 43. See also civil rights movement

Black Lives Matter, xiii; and Palestine, xxii–xxiii

Black Monday, 40

Black Nationalism, 17, 284–85, 297–98, 299–300, 303, 307; and Marcus Garvey, 17

Black Power, insert 10, xv, xxii, 274, 298–301, 304, 307, 308, 315, 323, 325, 326; and the Black Panther Party, 290, 298, 302, 303; and the Lowndes County Freedom Party, 290, 298, 302

Black press, 9, 33, 45, 54, 97, 104, 105, 135, 144, 177, 242–43; and the Freedom Rides, 153, 154, 155

Black solidarity, 90; with Japanese American Citizens League, 33; with Jews, 33; with labor unions, 33, 95–96; with Mexican Americans, 33

Blackwell, Randolph, 220

Blake, J. P., 62, 63, 68, 89

Block, Sam, 200, 201, 203, 219, 220

bombings, insert 11, 12, 81, 82, 93, 121, 212; in Birmingham, 2, 209, 210, 227, 256, 257, 227, 256; and burnings, 219, 220, 266, 267; and firebombing, 155, 208; during Freedom Summer, 266, 267; in Montgomery, 81–83, 88, 89–90; threat of, 159. See also Sixteenth Street Baptist Church bombing; white violence

Bond, Cynthia, ix, xii

Bond, Horace Mann, xi, 1, 6, 13, 40

Bond, James, 9

Bond, Julian, insert 7, 12, 15, xiv, 1, 5, 6, 13; in Albany, Georgia, 2; and Louis Allen, 184; and apartheid, xi, 354n42; arrested, xi, 1, 307; and Atlanta sit-in, x, 1–2, 42, 135–40, 146–47; and Ella Baker, 2, 127; and Black Lives Matter, x, xxiii; and bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, Birmingham, Alabama, 2, 256; and Brown v. Board of Education, 38, 42; and civil rights tours, xvi; and counter and master narratives, xvii–xviii, xxiii–xxiv, 1–2, 317–20; and Septima Clark, 318; and the Democratic National Convention (1964), 313–14; and W. E. B. Du Bois, 13; and Eyes on the Prize, xi; and James Farmer, 2; and James Forman, 2, 178; and the Freedom Rides, 2; and freedom songs, 199, 347n15; in the Georgia House and Senate, x, xxiii, 2, 294–96; and Fannie Lou Hamer, 2; and integration of his public school, 40; and Martin Luther King, 2; and John Lewis, 256; and the Little Rock Nine, 104, 108–9; and Danny Lyon, xi; and the March on Washington, 2, 251; as mentor, xxiv–xxv; at More-house College, x, xix, 135, 136, 316; and the movements against war, xi, 2; and the movement for disability rights, xi; and the movement for the environment (Keystone XL), xi; and the movement for gay rights, xi, xxiii; and the movement for immigrant rights, xxiii; and Elijah Muhammad, 313–14; as NAACP chairman, xi, xxiv; and Rosa Parks, xxiii–xxiv; and segregation, 29; and the Selma to Montgomery March, 2; and SNCC, x, xii, xvi, 1–2, 305, 306; and teaching, ix, x, xi, xiv, xv, xvi, xvii, xviii; and Emmett Till, 45, 104; and A Time to Speak, a Time to Act, x; and the US Supreme Court, x, xiv, xxiii, 2; as vice presidential nominee, x; and the Vietnam War, x, xxiii; and Isaac Woodard, 32, 339n2; and Malcolm X, 2, 313–14; and youth leadership, xv, xxiii, xxiv, xxv, 3

Bond v. Floyd, 296

Booker, Simeon, 154, 155, 157, 158

Boutwell, Albert, 215, 216, 226, 227, 228

boycotts, 52, 54–59, 118, 193, 214, 215, 226, 250, 309; consumer and economic, 59. See also Baton Rouge bus boycott; Montgomery bus boycott

Boynton, Amelia, 270, 271; violence against, 280, 287

Boynton v. Virginia, 152, 153, 155

Braden, Anne, 186, 298, 325

Braden, Carl, 186

Brady, Tom, 40

Branch, Taylor, 159, 311, 313, 322

Branton, Wiley, 201, 202, 220

Brooks, Paul, 129

Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, xviii, 24, 59, 249

Browder, Aurelia, 83

Brown, Eddie, insert 4

Brown, H. Rap, 302, 308

Brown, Linda, 39. See also Brown v. Board of Education

Brown, Minnijean, 104, 109. See also Little Rock Nine

Brownell, Herbert, 97–99, 107

Brown v. Board of Education, xx, 28, 38–44, 58, 81, 92–94, 96, 102, 105, 110–11, 117, 122, 125, 179, 203, 211; anniversary demonstrations of, 138, 154; and “Brown II,” 41; as Magna Carta of Black America, 40

Buck, Pearl S., 28

Bunche, Ralph, 93

Burks, Mary Fair, 57–58

Byrd, Harry, 110

Byrnes, James, 31

Caldwell, Arthur, 106

Calhoun, John C., 42

Cameron, John, 266

Carey, Gordon, 153, 154

Carmichael, Stokely, insert 3, 290, 344n6; arrested, 299; and Black Power, 274, 298–301; and the Freedom Rides, 163; and the March Against Fear, 298–99, 301; and SNCC, 298, 307, 308

Carson, Clayborne, 316, 323

Carter, Robert, 81

Central High School (Little Rock), 104–10, 177

Cheney, James, 260, 266

Chicago Defender, 177

Chiles v. Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, 152

Citizens Club, 87

citizenship schools, 180–81, 231

Civil Rights Act (1957), 93, 98–99, 102–3, 106, 110, 145, 170, 235–36, 258, 276, 291

Civil Rights Act (1960), 170, 258, 276

Civil Rights Act (1964), xxii, 42–43, 169, 235–38, 240, 258–61, 271, 276, 283, 292, 307, 326

civil rights movement, 11, 23, 36, 46–48; and access to education, 23–24, 26, 31–33, 38–39, 43, 93, 104–8; and anticolonial struggles, 94, 117, 122, 129–30, 134, 146, 169, 295, 304, 306–7; and the Black church, 57, 81, 113, 198; and class and economic issues, 11–12, 15, 24, 27, 47, 57, 59, 95–96, 97, 138, 139, 145, 148 300, 314–15; as confrontational, 124, 151, 154–55, 158, 165, 167, 169, 171, 175, 177, 178, 183, 190, 213, 216, 217, 225, 226, 234, 272, 277, 314; as a constant struggle, xxii, 37; the courage and determination of activists in the, xxi, 9, 47, 93, 104, 108–10, 122, 136, 148–50, 159–60, 162, 164, 165, 167, 182, 199; debates and divides in the, xiii–xv, 16–17, 28, 37, 113, 116, 125, 138, 146–48, 165, 166, 167, 177, 298, 299, 301, 302, 303, 307, 314; and federal complacency, 106, 221, 222, 224, 225, 229, 250–51, 265, 271, 287–88, 298; and fellowship and community, 72, 119, 199; and foreign policy, 33, 94–95, 164, 169, 174, 177, 194, 196, 244, 305, 315; influences others, 134, 165, 166, 167, 267, 297; international connections, 133, 176–77; and the “jail no bail” tactic, insert 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 148–50, 160, 164, 167, 182, 188, 193–94, 198, 214, 215, 216, 224, 225, 226, 227, 231, 250, 271, 280, 281, 282; and Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, 92; legal approach to, 113, 165, 169; lessons of, 92, 96, 198; and liberalism, xx, xxii, 14–15, 95, 98, 305; as a long struggle, xvii, xx–xxi, 13–15, 24–25, 37, 52, 54–55, 146, 176–77, 269, 291, 315, 318; and mass action and marches, 92, 113, 120–21, 124, 165, 169, 231, 232, 234, 250, 280–81, 283, 285–86, 288–90; and mass meetings, insert 9, 250, 277, 279, 282, 283, 287; and mentorship, xviii, xxiv–xxv, 119, 123, 127, 128, 179–81; and the news media, 90, 108, 121, 124–25, 157, 158, 161, 163, 167, 186, 189, 198, 209, 220, 221, 223, 224, 226, 233, 234, 252, 263, 266, 272, 287, 297, 314; in the North, 151, 303–4, 309, 314; and self–defense, 152, 158, 242, 301, 302 (see also nonviolence); and sexism, 278; and socialist politics, 15, 24, 31, 133–34, 153, 264; Emmett Till’s influence on, 97, 104, 122, 195, 206; violence against, insert 2, 81–83, 89, 93, 121, 154–57, 158, 159, 161, 162, 164, 165–69, 184–85, 187, 196, 197, 205, 208, 220, 225 226, 231, 235, 250, 256, 259, 271, 277, 281–84, 288–89, 291, 298 (see also police brutality). See also local people; white violence; women’s leadership and organizing; youth leadership and organizing; and specific individuals and movements

civil rights movement opposition, insert 4, 20–21, 41, 80–81, 105–6, 109–10, 135, 171, 177, 179, 183–85, 187, 195, 197, 202, 207, 209, 211, 212, 219, 220, 269, 270; and Byron de la Beckwith, xx; and the Birmingham Movement, 224, 228, 229, 233; and D. C. “Cull” Campbell, 196; and James G. “Jim” Clark, 269, 271, 272, 277, 279–282, 286, 288; and John Cloud, 286; and Bull Connor, xx, 156–57, 158, 160, 210, 213–16, 221, 224–28, 233, 234, 272, 280, 292; and Tom Cook, 157; and Harold Cox, 183, 203–4; and John W. Davis, 96; and James O. Eastland, 99, 108, 163, 168, 201, 203–4, 218, 236, 246; and Robert Elliot, 194; and Sam Erwin, 236–37; and Orval Faubus, 106–11, 289; and MacDonald Gallion, 161–62, 186; and B. C. Gardner, 223; and E. H. Hurst, 184; and L. Warren “Gator” Johnson, 222–23; and Al Lingo, 228, 285, 286, 288; and Z. T. Matthews, 188, 196; and J. W. Milam, 45, 206; and John Patterson, 88, 123, 161, 162, 163, 211; and Laurie Pritchett, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 211, 221, 229, 233, 279, 347n15; and Thomas Rowe, 156–57, 168, 291, 346n25; and Richard Russell, 259; and Clyde Sellers, 67–68, 79–80, 82, 88; and the Selma to Montgomery March, 279, 285, 288–89, 291; and Alan Shivers, 107; and Carl Smith, 223; and Strom Thurmond, 35–36; and Ernest Vandiver, 118, 137–38, 142, 192; and George Wallace, xx, 228, 292, 347–48n15; and Edward White, 152. See also bombings; liberalism; white moderate; white violence; white supremacy

Civil Service Commission, 35

Civil War, 7, 10, 14, 39, 46, 51

Clark, Kenneth, 176–77

Clark, Septima, 62, 178–80, 181, 278, 318

class inequality. See civil rights movement: class and economic issues

Clement, Rufus, 93, 136–37

Club from Nowhere, 72

Cobb, Charles, 201, 207, 266, 344n6

Cold War, 22, 31, 85, 94–95, 196, 244, 305, 324

Collins, Leroy, 287–88

Colvin, Claudette, xviii, 60, 62–64, 82, 88

Communism, 30–31, 94–95; and anti-Communism, 30, 94–95, 223; Communist Party, 31, 84, 211, 241–43; Communists, 85, 124, 241, 243, 244; and Marxism, 12, 50, 95–96, 241; and red-baiting, 31, 48, 71, 95–96, 137, 185, 186, 210, 223, 241–42, 277, 314; and the United Defense League, 56; and the Young Communist League, 84, 147. See also League for Industrial Democracy; socialism

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), xx, 48, 85, 258, 298, 299, 303, 325; and Freedom Rides, 119, 148–49, 151, 152, 153, 158–60, 162, 164, 165, 167, 240; and Freedom Summer, 263, 264, 266; and Martin Luther King, 153, 155, 162, 163, 241; and the March on Washington, 240, 249, 250; and voting rights, 175, 177, 178, 182, 202–3

Coolidge, Calvin, 17

Cooper v. Aaron, 110, 111

Cotton, Dorothy, 181, 278

Council of Federated Organizations (COFO), 202, 219, 220, 221, 262, 263, 265, 266

Countryman, Matthew, 300

The Crisis (NAACP), 16, 45, 95, 115, 116

Curry, Connie, 130–31, 323, 324

Dallas County Voters’ League, 270, 272, 277, 280, 282

Davis, Angela, 296

Davies, Ronald, 106–7

Dawson, William, 132

Deacons for Defense and Justice, 299, 300–301, 303

Democratic Party, 31–32, 34, 202; Atlantic City convention, 267, 268, 273–74, 345n13; and the Black vote, 18, 36, 96, 97, 144, 170, 174, 271–72, 275; Chicago convention, 313–14; national conventions, 34, 35, 102, 210, 275; and racism, 302, 312–13; and SNCC, 132–33

Dennis, Dave, xviii, 182, 202–3

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 43

Department of Justice, 34, 98, 176, 183, 196, 220, 242, 243, 248, 265, 291; defending segregation, 94, 197, 208, 219, 221, 222, 243; and education, 43, 94; and Little Rock, 106–7, 111; and Freedom Rides, 158, 161, 168; and voting rights, 117, 176, 177, 183, 208, 218, 219, 220, 221, 270, 276, 277

Dewey, Thomas, 35–36, 97

Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, 49–51, 58, 66, 82, 117–18, 291

Dirksen, Everett, 98–99, 259, 260, 285

Doar, John, 161, 176–77, 184, 221, 256, 265, 286

Donaldson, Ivanhoe, insert 5, 303 Douglass, Frederick, 10, 54, 90 Du Bois, W. E. B., 12, 13, 16, 45, 54, 301, 318, 325; debates, 12–13, 17, 116, 301, 318; and education, 12, 179; and the Niagara Movement, 7, 9–11; and white supremacy 15, 146

Dunham, Katherine, 26

Durr, Clifford, 61, 63–64, 70, 172

Durr, Virginia, 61, 62, 64, 70, 72, 84, 172–73

Dylan, Bob, insert 16

Ebenezer Baptist Church, xxiii, 49–50, 112, 143

Ebony, 154

Eckford, Elizabeth, 104, 106, 109. See also Little Rock Nine

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 34, 36–37, 42, 96, 102, 145, 170, 183, 195, 244, 289; administration, 41; and civil rights, 92, 93, 96, 97–99, 103–10, 117, 130, 144, 170, 289

Ellington, Duke, 26

Emancipation Proclamation, 318; anniversaries of the, 9, 279, 318

environmental racism, 319

eugenics movement, 14

Evers, Medgar, xx, 116, 132, 231, 232

Executive Order 8802, 25

Fager, Charles, 281

Fair Employment Practices Committee, 25, 31, 33–35, 170, 237, 252; and the Fair Employment Board, 35; and the Fair Labor Standards Act (1938), 18; and the National Council for, 31

Farmer, James, 2, 155, 159, 228, 325; and CORE, 152, 153–54, 240, 249, 258; and the first March on Washington (1941), 25; and FOR, 48, 151, 152; and Freedom Rides, 151, 154, 155, 159, 162–63, 164, 167, 168; and Martin Luther King, 278; and the March on Washington, 240, 249, 258

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), xvi, 101–2, 106–7, 242 and the civil rights movement, 196, 197, 222, 223–24, 243, 244, 263, 273, 290, 310, 342n43; and COINTELPRO, 244; and Communism, 241, 243, 245–48, 278; and the Freedom Rides, 154, 156–57, 161, 163, 168; and J. Edgar Hoover, 107, 157, 242–44, 279; and Martin Luther King, 78, 242, 244–49, 277–79, 310; and the March on Washington, 254; and surveillance, 241, 245–47, 248, 277, 278, 309–11, 342n43, 350n16; and use of informants, 156–57, 168, 189, 197, 291, 309–10, 346n25, 350n16

Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), 48, 85, 119, 123, 129, 151, 152

Finley, Elliot, 70

First Baptist Church (Montgomery), 50, 52, 81; the siege of, 162

Folsom, James “Big Jim,” 82, 269

Foner, Eric, 165, 337n5

Forman, James, insert 5, 177, 178; and SNCC, 2, 177, 178, 191, 263, 288, 304, 307, 325, 354n42; and voting rights, 177–78, 202–3, 206, 271, 287, 288

Frank, Barney, 263

Franklin, John Hope, 10, 11, 40

Frazier, E. Franklin, 176–77

Freedom Day, 271

Freedom Riders: Frances Bergman, 156, 157; Walter Bergman, 156, 157; Albert Bigelow, 154–55, 156; Ed Blankenheim, 154; Bruce Boynton, 152; Stokely Carmichael, 163; Doris Castle, 164; Charles Cobb, 201; William Sloane Coffin, 164; Elton B. Cox, 154; Charlotte DeVries, 154; James Farmer, 151, 164, 167–68; Herbert Harris, 156; Genevieve Hughes, 154; John Lewis, 155; Jimmy McDonald, 154; Diane Nash, 128; James Peck, 155, 156, 157; Joe Perkins, 154, 155; Charles Person, 156–57; Henry Thomas, 154, 155, 156; Andrew Young, 181. See also Freedom Rides

Freedom Rides, xiv, xix, xx, xxi, 2, 42, 85, 119, 151–68, 169, 171, 174–76, 182–83, 186, 188, 189, 191, 198, 201, 204, 212, 221, 233, 234, 244; earlier attempts at (“Journey of Reconciliation,”), 153, 154; and the “Freedom Ride Coordinating Committee,” 164, 175; and Martin Luther King, 164; violence against, 155–58, 161, 165, 167–68. See also freedom riders

Freedom Schools, insert, 14, 266, 267

freedom songs, insert 15, 16, 185, 190, 196, 198–99, 304, 306, 347n15

Freedom Summer, insert 14, 262–68, 275, 276, 297, 323, 324, 326, 328, 351n6; and “Freedom Vote” 262, 263, 266; police response, 265; violence against, 267

French, Edgar, 69

Friendly Club, 72

Gaines v. Canada, 26

Gaither, Tom, 148, 153, 154

Garrison, William Lloyd, 12

Garvey, Marcus, 16–17, 47, 179, 242, 243, 284, 325

Gayle, W. A. “Tacky,” 58, 82–83, 87–88

Gilmore, Georgia, 72

Goldwater, Barry, 259, 273, 275

Goodman, Andrew, 260, 266

Graetz, Robert, 66–67, 71, 79, 88, 325; house bombed, 90

Granger, Lester, 117, 122

Gray, Fred, xviii, 63–64, 68, 73, 76–77, 80–81, 83, 87, 287; and Martin Luther King, 129

Gray, Victoria, 266

Great Depression, 18–19, 44, 59; and Harlem, 84, 115; and New Deal program discrimination, 18–19, 20, 100–101, 319

great migrations, 8–9, 11, 16, 22–23, 27, 52 174

Great Recession, 319

Green decision, 43

Green, Ernest, 104, 109–10. See also Little Rock Nine

Gregory, Dick, 219, 221, 271

Gregory, Lillian, 271

Hall, William, 303, 354n42

Hamer, Fannie Lou, xviii, 204–5, 206–7, 219, 284, 327; in Africa, 306; and MFDP, 266, 273–74; violence against, 206, 231–32; and voting rights, 204, 206–7; and Malcolm X, 284

Hamilton, Charles V., 299

Hardy, John, 182, 183, 185, 187, 188

Harris, Don, 306

Harris, Rutha Mae, 190

Hartsfield, William, 137–38, 140–41, 148

Hayes, Curtis, 184, 185, 200

Hedgeman, Anna Arnold, 252

Henson, Matthew, 58

Henry, Aaron, 202, 262, 273

Hicks, Jimmy, insert 12

Highlander Folk School, xxiv, 31, 48, 59, 62, 117, 179–80, 199, 201, 206; and SNCC, 127, 133

historically Black colleges and universities. See Alabama State College; Atlanta University; Berea College; Howard University; Lincoln University; Morehouse College; Spelman College; Tougaloo College

Holt Street Baptist Church, 64, 67, 70–72, 89

Holmes, Eleanor, 232, 349n4

Hoover, Herbert, 18

Hoover, J. Edgar, 107, 157, 218, 242–44, 247; and Martin Luther King, 277–79, 281

Horne, Lena, 26

Horton, Myles, 59, 180, 199

Horton, Zilphia, 199

Houser, George, 153

Houston, Charles, 34, 38

Houston, John, 266

Howard University, 125; Bruce Boynton attends, 152; Stokely Carmichael attends, 163; Charles Cobb attends, 201; James Farmer attends, 151; Anna Arnold Hedgeman attends, 252; NAACP branch, 121; Diane Nash attends, 128; Henry Thomas attends, 154; Harris Wofford attends 112; Andrew Young attends, 181

Hubbard, H. H., 65, 76

human rights, xi, xxii–xxiii, 34, 146, 256, 304, 306

Humphrey, Hubert, 34, 259, 273–74, 282, 288, 313

Hurley, Ruby, 189–90

immigrant rights, xxiii, 199

In Friendship, 112, 114, 245

Institute on Nonviolence and Social Change, 88, 112

Interdenominational Ministerial Alliance, 66

internment, 28–29; German and Italian, 29; Japanese, 28–29, 33

interracial organizing, 31, 48, 50–51, 96, 151, 154, 166, 177, 186, 195–96, 200, 210, 211, 249, 255, 302, 327

Jack, Hulan, 93

Jackson, Jesse, 231

Jackson, Jimmie Lee, 283, 285, 288

Jackson, Mahalia, 252, 254

Japanese American Citizens League, 33

Jemison, T. J., xviii, 56–57, 74–75, 112–13

Jenkins, Tim, 175, 176, 177

Jet, 154, 155

Jim Crow, 9, 16, 54–55, 124, 251, 318; Jim Crow North, 133, 236

Johns, Barbara, xviii

Johns, Ralph, 119

Johns, Vernon, 50

Johnson, Lyndon Baines, xiv, 1, 236, 275, 276, 280, 282, 289, 310; administration, 278; against the civil rights movement, 273, 287–88; and civil rights, 42–43, 99–103, 145, 170, 171, 236, 258–61, 287, 288, 289–90, 314, 326; education of, 100; and the March on Washington, 240; and the MFDP, 273; and the New Deal, 100–101; and voting rights, 271–72, 276–77, 281, 282, 285, 288–91

Jones, Charles, 130, 149, and Freedom Rides, 164, 190–91, and voting rights, 176, 177, 183, 184

Jones, Clarence, 248

Jones, Juanita Odessa, 52–53

Jordon, Vernon, 189–90

Kansas City Call, 45

Katzenbach, Nicholas, 276

Kennedy, John F., 1, 183, 203, 257, 258, 276; administration, 194, 201, 220 221, 236, 255; against civil rights movement, 219–21, 222, 223, 224, 240, 250–51; and the civil rights movement, 102–3, 133–34, 140–46, 154, 161, 163, 164, 169, 170, 171, 174–75, 178, 196, 208, 214, 226–29, 233–38, 240, 255–57; and Coretta Scott King, 142, 143, 171; and Martin Luther King, 145, 241–42, 254, 257; and SNCC, 228; and voter registration, 171, 174–75, 201

Kennedy, Robert, 143, 192, 193; against the civil rights movement, 220, 223, 224, 240, 245, 250; and the civil rights movement, 168, 194, 196, 201, 202, 214, 218, 227, 228, 229; and the Freedom Rides, 154, 158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167–68, 171, 174, 175, 187, 189; and Coretta Scott King, 222; and Martin Luther King, 194, 222, 226, 241–42, 244, 246, 248–49

King, A. D., 227

King, Coretta Scott, 50–53, 81–82, 141–44; education of, 50–51; funeral, xxiii; and Martin Luther King, 50–52, 68, 181, 257, 278; and political organizing, 50–51, 171, 181, 222, 245, 282

King, Ed, 176, 262, 273

King, Lonnie, xix, 135–36, 138–40, 146–48

King, Martin Luther, Sr., 49–50, 52, 81, 112, 118, 143

King, Martin Luther, Jr., insert 13, xx, xxi, 1, 46, 49, 52, 57–60, 72, 78, 108, 117, 119, 122, 131, 145–46, 168, 171, 181, 209, 272; and Ralph Abernathy, 52–53, 129; and the Albany Movement, 192–98; arrested, 80, 140–44, 192, 193, 196, 216, 222, 223, 281; the assassination of, 311–12; and Ella Baker, 112, 116, 118, 127, 148, 177, 212; and the Birmingham Movement, xx, 209, 213, 215–17, 221–22, 224, 227–29, 235, 236; on Black Power, 299–300; and the Brown decision, 42; at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, 50–51; the education of, 49–50, 52, 86; house bombed and shot at, 81–82, 89; and John Kennedy, 145, 241–42, 254, 257; and Robert Kennedy, 194, 222, 226, 241–42, 244, 246, 248–49, 310; and Coretta Scott King, 50–52, 68, 82, 181; and James Lawson, 308; and “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” 217; and “Letter from Selma Jail,” 281; and the Montgomery bus boycott, 66–67, 69–82, 88–89; myths of, xiii, and Richard Nixon, 114, 145; and nonviolence, 82, 86–90, 198, 283, 299, 301, 302; in the North, 309; and NAACP, 50–51, 114; and Rosa Parks, 51; and police and FBI harassment, 81, 276–79, 281; and the Poor People’s Campaign, 308, 309, 310; red–baited, 241, 242, 277; at Riverside Church, xxiii; and Bayard Rustin, 85–86, 112, 114; and the sanitation strike (Memphis), 308–9, 310, 31; and SCLC, 113, 118, 233, 258, 277–80, 286, 287–88; and the Selma to Montgomery March, xiii, 290–91; and sit-ins, 123, 139–40, 212; and SNCC, 127, 130, 134, 135, 136; stabbed, 117; and Stride Toward Freedom, 245; surveillance of, 242, 244–49, 277–79; trial of, 87; unfavorable view of, xxi, xxiii; and youth organizing, 117, 224–26

King v. Chapman, 171

Kluger, Richard, 43, 94

Korean War, 93

Ku Klux Klan (KKK), insert 1, xx, 15, 31, 44, 71, 89, 152, 156, 157, 158, 168, 178, 189, 215, 217, 256, 259, 346n25; FBI works with 156–58, 197, 291; member Chief Justice Edward White, 152. See also white supremacy; white violence

Lafayette, Bernard, xviii, 123, 129, 188, 270, 277, 280

Lafayette, Colia, xviii, 270, 277

LaGuardia, Fiorello, 25

Langford, Charles, 64, 76

Lawson, James, 48, 118, 123, 129; and the Freedom Rides, 155, 163; and Martin Luther King, 130, 308; and nonviolence, 128, 129, 134, 148, 155, 215, 270; and sit-ins, 128, 129, 130; and SNCC, 134, 148

League for Industrial Democracy, 153

League of Women Voters, 57

Lee, Bernard, 278, 309

Lee, Canada, 26

Levison, Stanley, 112, 241, 245; and Communism, 241, 242, 244–48; FBI surveillance of, 242, 245–48; and Martin Luther King, 112, 114, 241, 242, 244–48, 277; and Bayard Rustin, 112, 114

Lewis, Joe, 26

Lewis, John, insert 12, 123, 128–29, 188, 256; and Freedom Rides, 154–55, 158–62, 186; and the March on Washington, xix, 249, 250–51, 256, 304; and Selma, 271, 279, 285–87; and SNCC, xix, 249, 285, 298, 304, 306, 354n42; violence against, 154–55, 161–62, 186, 287

Lewis, Rufus, 70, 76, 87

liberalism, 19, 41, 48, 95, 98, 170, 186, 259, 274, 300, 305

Liberation (magazine), 85, 301

Lincoln, Abraham, 12, 36, 229, 234,

Lincoln, C. Eric, 176–77

Lincoln University, xi, 1, 13

Little Rock movement, 41, 105–6, 109, 125, 177, 202

Little Rock Nine, xviii, 104, 106–11, 122, 202. See also Minnijean Brown; Elizabeth Eckford; Ernest Green; Thelma Mothershed; Melba Patillo; Gloria Ray; Terrence Roberts; Jefferson Thomas; Carlotta Walls

local people, xviii, 46, 183, 192, 198, 224, 233, 285–86, 290, 315, 318, 324; William G. Anderson, 189–90, 191, 192; William Barbee, 161, 162; Unita Blackwell, xviii, 274; Johnnie Carr, xviii, 61–62; Caroline Daniels, 195; Fred Daniels, 68, 72; A. L. Davis, 57; Annie Devine, xviii, 274; Marie P. Foster, 270; Bertha Gober, 190, 191, 198; Dewey Greene Sr., 220; Blanton Hall, 190; E. D. Hamilton, 189–90; Eula Hudgens, 119; Esau Jenkins, 179–80; C. B. King, 189, 196, 222–23; Autherine Lucy, 83; Charles McLaurin, 201, 206, 207; Irene Morgan, 152; Willie Peacock, 201, 220; Ola Mae Quarterman, 193; Mama Dolly Raines, 195; Frederick Reese, 280; E. W. Steptoe, xviii, 184; Brenda Travis, 184, 185; Jimmy Travis, 220; Mary Tucker, 204, 206, 207; Hartman Turnbow, 207–8; Charles Wells, 195

Lovelace, Timothy, 304, 305, 306

Lowenstein, Allard, 262, 263

lynching, 10, 12, 32–34, 93; and anti-lynching bill, 99; of the Eastland Family, 203; in Livermore, Kentucky, 15; of Parchman Prisoner, 203; of Emmett Till, 44–45, 206; in Waco, Texas, 15. See also bombings; police brutality; white violence.

Lynd, Staughton, 267

Mann, Woodrow Wilson, 107

March on Washington (March for Jobs and Freedom), insert 16, xviii–xix, 2, 49, 238, 239, 240, 249–56, 307, 323; and disruption, 240, 249; and economic demands, 239, 240, 254–55; and the first March on Washington (1941), 24–25, 31, 47, 85, 170; and John Kennedy, 238, 240, 250, 254; and Robert Kennedy, 254; and Martin Luther King, 239, 240, 252–53, 255, 256, 279; and NAACP, 251; organizers of the, 249; and police response, 253; and a Poor People’s March, 308; and SNCC, 249, 304; and women’s role, 252, 256

Marshall, Burke, 161, 174, 175, 192, 208, 221–22, 223, 226, 233, 241, 242, 245–46, 248, 251

Marshall, Thurgood, 38–40, 58, 132, 179, 203–4

Martin, Louis, 142–44

master narrative, xvii, 1, 317–20; and the American Dream, xvii; and American equality and democracy, 95–96, 134, 136, 146; and American exceptionalism, 30, 305, 319; and counter narrative of American imperialism, 11, 314; and counter narrative of the need for federal enforcement of civil rights, 292–93, 303; and counter narrative of local and national tensions, 280, 282–83, 285–86. See also civil rights movement: class and economics; civil rights movement: mentors; local people; nonviolence; white violence; women’s leadership and organizing; youth leadership and organizing

Mays, Benjamin, 58, 86

Mboya, Tom, 117, 304

McCarthy, Eugene, 310, 313

McCarthy, Joseph, 94

McCarthyism, 94. See also Communism: red-baiting

McDew, Charles, xviii, 147, 184, 185, 249

McDonald, Susie, 82–83

McKissick, Floyd, 298, 301

McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 32, 93

Meredith, James, 234, 298

Meredith March (“March Against Fear”), 275, 300, 307, 323

The Messenger, 17

military draft, 52, 83, 132, 175, 243; and Julian Bond, 295; resistance to, 35, 85, 129, 151, 153

Miller, Mike, insert 11

Milliken v. Bradley, 43

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), xxii, 266, 267, 273–75, 298, 302, 312; legal strategy, 274–75; opposition to the war in Vietnam, 295; and Malcolm X, 284

Mitchell, Clarence, 98, 258

Montgomery Advertiser, 65–68, 73, 77–79

Montgomery bus boycott, xvii, 46, 48, 53–60, 64–73, 76–84, 86–90, 92, 98, 108, 112, 119, 122, 125, 136, 169, 211, 212, 217; and anti-boycott law, 83; and car pool, 74–76, 82, 87–88; and national media, 79–80, 84; and the 1900–1902 boycott, 55; and Bayard Rustin, 85; surveillance of 242

Montgomery Improvement Association, 69, 72–83, 85, 87–88, 114, 245; surveillance of 242

Montgomery Voters League, 59

Montgomery Welfare League, 59

Moon, Henry Lee, 251

Moore, Amzie, 131–32, 185, 202

Moore, Douglas, 129

Moore, Harry T., 93

Morehouse College, 49, 58, 70, 86, 136, 156, 316, 317; and Julian Bond, x, xix, 135, 136, 316; and Martin Luther King, 49, 50, 52, 70, 86, 244, 316

Morgan v. Virginia, 26, 152

Morris, Aldon, 47–48, 322, 327

Moses, Robert, insert 11, 131, 138, 176, 354n40; and Ella Baker, 131; red–baited, 277; and Bayard Rustin, 131; and SCLC, 176; and SNCC, xviii, 131, 132, 133, 138, 176, 182–85, 188, 200–201, 218, 220, 221, 263, 274, 303; and voting rights, 131, 132, 176, 182–85, 188, 200–201, 203, 207, 218, 220, 222, 262, 263, 266, 274; and Youth March, 131

Mothershed, Thelma, 104. See also Little Rock Nine

movement lawyers, 78, 111, 287, 290; Leonard Boudin, 296; Albert Hollowell, 143; Donald L. Hollowell, 137; William Kunstler, 246; Howard Moore, 296; Victor Rabinowtiz, 296; Austin T. Walden, 137. See also Fred Gray, Arthur Shores

Muhammad, Elijah, 283, 284, 306, 313–14; and Julian Bond, 313–14

Murray, Pauli, 252

Muste, A. J., 48, 85

Myrdal, Gunnar, 28, 166, 172

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 5, 9, 12, 14–17, 20, 24–27, 32–33, 38–45, 50–51, 55, 62, 64, 69, 75–79, 81, 83, 87, 88, 105, 110, 113, 148, 153, 160, 178, 179, 180, 183, 189, 190, 198, 202, 258, 279; activist approach, 113; and anti–Communism, 95–96; and “An Appeal to the World,” 33; attacks on, 190, 209, 211; and Ella Baker, 116; and Marion Barry, 128; in Baton Rouge, 56, 58; in Birmingham, 209, 211; and Dwight Eisenhower, 97; and education, 175; in Florida, 93; in Georgia, 49, 197; in Houston, 102; and Lyndon Johnson, 102; and Lonnie King, 135; and Martin Luther King, xxiii, 50–51, 114; and James Lawson, 129–30; legal approach, 113, 114, 152; in Little Rock, 105–6, 109; and the March on Washington, 249; and Thurgood Marshall, 132; in Montgomery, 59; and Amzie Moore, 131–32, 202; New York branch, 116; and E. D. Nixon, 59; and Richard Nixon, 170; and Raymond Parks, 61; and Rosa Parks, 61; and SCLC, 114; and sit-ins, 119–21, 125, 129–30, 134, 136, 140, 146–47, 149; surveillance of, 242–43; and voting rights, 98, 174, 175, 176; and youth, 60–61, 67, 121, 153, 190

Nash, Diane, 128, 193–94; and Freedom Rides, 149–50, 159, 160, 162–63; and nonviolence, 123, 128, 129, 184; and SNCC, xviii, 149–50, 175, 177

The Nation, 244

National Baptist Convention, 57 National Council of Churches, 181, 252, 265, 267

National Emergency Committee Against Mob Violence, 32

National Labor Relations Act (1935), 18

National Negro Congress, 55

National Student Association, 133, 164, 175, 176; Southern Regional office of, 130–31

National Urban League, 24, 117, 176, 239, 243, 249, 279

Nation of Islam, 244, 284, 285, 297; and Julian Bond, 313–14; and Malcolm X, 283–84, 306

Native Son (Wright), 26

The Negro a Beast, 8

The Negro: A Menace to American Civilization, 8

Negro American Labor Council, 139, 140, 239, 240

Negro Digest, 33

New Deal, 18–20, 26–27, 36, 59, 63, 100, 319; and the Civilian Conservation Corps, 100–101; and the Farm Security Administration, 19, 100–101; and National Recovery Act, 100; and the National Youth Administration, 101; and opportunities for Blacks, 101; and the Works Progress Administration, 19, 100–101, 115–16

New York Herald Tribune, on Martin Luther King, 84; on the Montgomery bus boycott, 84

New York Times, xxi, 84, 199, 219; on the civil rights movement, xxi, 84, 196, 209, 219, 220, 219, 281; on Martin Luther King, xxiii, 84, 143

Nixon, E. D., xviii, 58–60, 62–66, 68–70, 73, 85, 89; house bombed, 83

Nixon, Richard, 43, 237; and Black votes, 174; on civil rights, 103, 133–34, 143–45, 170, 171; and Martin Luther King, 103, 114, 170; member of NAACP, 170

nonviolence, xxii, 25, 42, 48, 50, 71, 77, 82, 85–90, 95–96, 112–13, 118, 123–25, 134, 137, 146, 177, 182, 189, 198, 217, 233, 283; and confrontation, 125–26, 134, 251; and “direct action,” xx, xxii, 76, 86, 129, 133, 169, 175–78, 185, 240, 302; and draft resistance, 35, 85, 129, 151, 153; and Gandhi, 50, 77, 86, 95–96, 112, 119, 125, 152, 181, 248, 301; limits of, 234, 235, 256; and pacifism, 48, 50, 85, 148, 151, 152, 154, 256, 295, 302; and self–defense, xxii, 17, 86–87, 178, 242, 299–303, 318; and sit-ins, 167–69; training “Action Institutes,” 128–29, 153, 215, 224; use by the state, 194

O’Dell, Jack, 241–42, 246, 247, 248

Odinga, Oginga, 304, 305

Okuku, Alphonse, 304

Organization for Afro-American Unity, 284

Owens, Jesse, 26

Page, Marion, 189, 192

Parks, Raymond, 61, 63–64

Parks, Rosa, xvii, xviii, xxii–xxiv, 49, 51, 71, 318, 322, 328; arrest of, 65–66, 71–72; education of, 60–61; and Highlander Folk School, 62; and history of activism, 64; and Martin Luther King, 59–62; legal appeal, 78–79, 81, 87; and the March on Washington, 252; and the Montgomery bus boycott, xvii, 64, 66, 72, 75, 81, 84, 89; and the NAACP, 61, 67; in the North, 90; and the Scottsboro Boys, 61; and the Selma to Montgomery March, 290; the trial of, 68–69; and youth organizing, 61, 67

Patillo, Melba, 104. See also Little Rock Nine

Patterson, William, and “We Charge Genocide,” 146

Patton, W. C., 76, 78

Patton v. Mississippi, 32

Pearson v. Murray, 38

The Planet, 54

Plessy, Homer, 55

Plessy v. Ferguson, 10, 38–40, 55, 93, 152

police brutality, insert 5, xxii, xxiii, 10, 57, 83, 123, 214, 216, 220, 221, 223–28, 232, 233, 235, 243, 247, 250, 252, 275, 283, 286–87, 309, 314; against Amelia Boynton, 280, 287; and conspire with white mobs, 157, 158, 161, 166, 259; against Annie Lee Cooper, 281; against Lawrence Guyot, 232; and violence against Fannie Lou Hamer, 206, 231–32; and harassment, insert 14; Jimmie Lee Jackson murdered, 283, 285, 288; against June Johnson, 231–32; and killings, xiii, 32, 55, 57; C. B. King beaten, 196; against Annelle Ponder, 231–32; Charlie Ware shot and his wife beaten, 222–23; Isaac Woodard beaten, 32, 339n2. See also white violence

Poor People’s Campaign, 275, 309, 310; and march, 308

postwar boom, 22–23

Powell, Adam Clayton, 59, 97, 99, 237, 325

Prayer Pilgrimage, 42, 118, 147, 244

Prescott, Martha, insert 11

President’s Committee on Civil Rights (Truman), 32, 33–34, 36, 244; and Richard Nixon, 103; and presidential commission to study racial violence, 32

President’s Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission), 236, 237

Progressive Democratic Association, 58

Progressive Party, 34, 51, 244

Progressive Voters League, 23

Pullman Company, 54, 58, 59; and George Pullman, 58; and Pullman Porters, 58–59. See also Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters

racism, 9–11, 14, 24–25, 27, 30, 46, 53, 96, 134; America as racist society, 5–6; and Communism, 95; in healthcare, 275, 324; in the military, 35; and notion of “master race,” 27; in politics and voting, 7, 9–10, 15; in popular culture, 7; in schools and education, 7, 9, 10, 31–33, 122; systemic racism, xviii, 95–96. See also segregation; white supremacy

Randolph, A. Philip, 17, 24–25, 31, 35, 85, 122, 245, 258; and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 59, 249; and the March on Washington, 85, 117, 239, 245, 249, 251, 252

Randolph, E. Harland, 176–77

Ray, Gloria, 104. See also Little Rock Nine

Ray, James Earl, 312, 327

Reagan, Ronald, 43

Reagon, Bernice Johnson, 190, 198

Reagon, Cordell, 188, 189, 190, 191

Reconstruction, 9, 14, 40, 171, 275, 294, 337n5; racist characterization of, 8

Regional Council of Negro Leadership, 132

Republican Party, 31, 34–35, 107, 202; and the Black vote, 18, 26, 36, 96–99, 114, 144–45, 170, 174, 275; and civil rights, 236; and SNCC, 133–34

respectability politics, xiii, xxi, 316, 318. See also civil rights movement: class politics

Resurrection City, 275

Reuther, Walter, 249

Rich, Marvin, 153

Richardson, Gloria, insert 3, xxii, 252

Richardson, Judy, 354n42

Ricks, Inez, 72

Ricks, Willie, insert 10, 299, 354n42

riots, 312; in Detroit, 243; grievances preceding, xxii; Martin Luther King on, 299; in Memphis, 309–10; police riot, 314; white race riot, 12, 16, 28, 67, 83, 93, 162, 211, 233

Roberts, Terrence, 104. See also Little Rock Nine

Robeson, Paul, 26; and “We Charge Genocide,” 146

Robinson, Bernice, 180, 181

Robinson, Jackie, 55

Robinson, Jo Ann, xviii, 58, 60, 64–66, 69, 72–73, 76, 81, violence against, 83

Robinson, Reginald, 182, 188

Rogers, William, 98, 117

Roosevelt, Eleanor, 19, 25–27, 33, 243, 305, 325

Roosevelt, Franklin, 18, 24–26, 28–29, 31, 37, 85, 97, 100–101, 170, 172, 173, 243

Rustin, Bayard, 25, 48, 84, 112, 113, 119; and Communism, 84; as conscientious objector, 85, 129; and CORE, 153; and first March on Washington, 25, 85; and FOR, 48, 85, 119, 151, 153; and Freedom Rides, 85, 153; and Martin Luther King, 85–87, 112, 114, 131, 245; and Stanley Levison, 112; 114; and the March on Washington, 239, 249, 255; and the MFDP, 273–74; and the Montgomery bus boycott, 84, 85, 87, 112; and SCLC, 112–13, 131, 245; and youth organizing, 85, 117, 131

Scottsboro Boys, 61

Schwerner, Mickey, 260, 266

Seeger, Pete, 199, 327

segregation, insert 1, 8–11, 24–29, 30–34, 38–39, 46, 77–79, 89, 90, 92, 117, 134, 151, 166, 209–12, 215, 218; in busing, 53–59, 108, 152, 153, 155, 165, 190, 195; and Communism, 94–95; contemporary, 111; in education, 41, 49, 93, 96, 104–11; in the military, 35. See also Little Rock movement; racism; white supremacy; and specific court cases

Seigenthaler, John, 143, 158, 159, 160, 161, 246

self–defense. See nonviolence

Sellers, Cleveland, insert 3, 354n42 Selma Campaign, insert 12, 13, 15, 46, 269, 277–83, 285–91

Selma to Montgomery March (Jimmie Lee Jackson Funeral March), xxi, 285–91

“separate but equal,” 38–39, 43, 53–55, 77, 79, 114; and separate car law, 54–55

sharecropping, 23, 128, 182, 204, 306, 324. See also tenant farming

Shelby County Alabama v. Holder, 293

Shelley v Kraemer, 26

Sherrod, Charles, 149–50, 176, 188, 190, 200; and Freedom Rides, 176, 183, 188, 189, 191; and nonviolence, 184, 189; and sit-ins, 176, 188; and SNCC, 149, 150, 188, 195, 196, 198–99; and voting rights, 176, 183, 188

Shores, Arthur, 87

Shriver, Sargent, 142, 144

Shuttlesworth, Fred, 211–12; and Birmingham movement, 209, 211–14, 216, 226, 227, 233; and the Freedom Rides, 157, 158–59, 160, 212; and SCLC, 112–13; violence against, 212, 226

Simpkins, George, 119–20, 153

Sipuel v. University of Oklahoma, 32

Sitkoff, Harvard, 14

sit-ins, insert 9, xix, xx, xxi, 48, 86, 109–10, 119, 120–26, 153, 165, 168, 169, 170, 171, 182, 184, 185, 188, 212, 213, 216, 231, 233, 234, 250; and Ezell Blair, 119–20; earlier attempts, 121, 151; and Highlander Folk School, 127; and Martin Luther King, 119, 123; and Franklin McCain, 119–20; and Joseph McNeil, 119–20; as nonviolent tactic, 124–26; organization of, 120–21, 124; and David Richmond, 119, 121; and Selma, 271; spread, 121–23; as turning point of movement, 126

Sixteenth Street Baptist Church bombing, insert 11, 12, 2, 224, 234–35, 256–57

slavery, 6–7, 9, 10, 23, 114, 134, 229; as central to America, 319; debt-peonage as, 14, 171; rebellion against, 47; and the slave trade, 22

Smiley, Glenn, 48, 87, 89, 129

Smith, Alfred E., 18

Smith, Kelly Miller, 113

Smith, Lillian, 137, 141

Smith, Mary Ann, 149

Smith, Mary Louise, xviii, 62–64, 82

Smith, Ruby Doris, xviii, 149–50, 160, 167, 183, 325

Smith v. Allwright, 26, 31, 173

Smitherman, James, 269–70, 285

SNCC, insert 5–11, 13–15, x, xii, xvi, xviii, xx, xxi, xxiv, 48, 119, 175, 190, 232, 295, 297, 314–15; in Africa, 306–7; and the Albany Movement, 192–93, 196–99; and the Atlanta Committee on Appeal for Human Rights, 134, 135, 149; and the Atlanta Project, 297–98; and Ella Baker, 127, 128, 130–31, 134; and Marion Barry, 128, 148; and Jimmy Carter, x; decline and lessons of, 307, 314–15; and direct action, 133, 175, 176, 177, 178, 185–86; and FOR, 129; founding meetings, 127–28; and Freedom Singers, 219; and Friends of SNCC, 263, 264; and the Greenwood campaign, insert 10, 16, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222; and Highlander Folk School, 133–34, 199; and Charles Jones, 130, 149; and Martin Luther King, 127, 129, 130, 134, 135–36; and James Lawson, 129, 130; and the Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR), 275, 324; and the March on Washington, 240, 249, 250; move to northern organizing, 303–4; move from rural to urban organizing, 294, 303; and nonviolence, 128, 129; opposition to apartheid, xxii; and Palestine, xxii–xxiii; and racial separatism, 297–98, 307; and Bayard Rustin, 129; and SCLC, 130, 131; and Selma, 270–75, 277–80, 285; and socialism, 133–34, 306; and the Southern Conference Education Fund, 133–34, 186; and Students for a Democratic Society, 133–34; and the Vietnam War, x, xxii, 294, 295; and voting rights, 176, 177, 178, 182–86, 188, 189, 195, 197, 198, 200–203, 206–8, 218, 219, 262, 263, 266, 268; and Washington Nonviolent Action Group, 134; and Waveland conference, xvi. See also Freedom Riders, Freedom Rides

socialism, 24, 153, 264, 281, 306; and Socialist Party, 15, 31, 133–34

Social Security Act, 18, and Social Security, 19

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), 112–14, 118, 164, 176, 178, 180, 197, 198, 202–3, 231, 233, 234–35, 240, 241, 259; and Ella Baker, 114, 116; and Birmingham, 209, 213–16, 220, 221, 227; and Martin Luther King, 113, 118, 244–47, 258; and NAACP, 114; previous names (Southern Leadership Conference, Southern Leadership Conference on Transportation, Southern Negro Leaders Conference on Transportation and Integration), 112, 113; and Selma, 270–72, 277, 280–82, 285, 287; and voting rights, 117, 175, 181

Soracco, Frank, 290

Southern Conference Education Fund, 31, 48, 186; as the Southern Conference for Human Welfare, 31, 48, 173, 210

“Southern Manifesto,” 41, 110

Southern Negro Congress, 20; and Southern Negro Youth Congress, 31

Southern Patriot, 186, 301

Southern Regional Council, 93, 168, 175, 176, 201, 247; and Harold Fleming, 175

Southern strategy, 98, 326

Soviet Union, 30, 81, 84, 94–95, 196, 246. See also Cold War; Communism

Spelman College, 135, 136, 149, 247, 267

State Press (Little Rock), 105, 109

States’ Rights Party, 35–36; Dixiecrats and, 36, 210

Steele, K. C., 57, 112–13

Stembridge, Jane, 130, 131, 133

Stevenson, Adlai, 36, 93, 99, 102, 142

The Strange Career of Jim Crow (C. Vann Woodward), 10

Strauder v. West Virginia, 39

student organizers, 109, 127, 128, 130, 136, 138, 141, 147, 149, 150, 155, 167, 168, 169, 177, 225. See also youth organizing and leadership

Student Voice (SNCC), 130

Sweatt, Herman, 93

Sweatt v. Painter, 32, 93

Talmadge, Eugene, 33

tenant farming, 100, 128, 204. See also sharecropping

Thelwell, Michael, 303, 323,

Thomas, Jefferson, 104. See also Little Rock Nine

Till-Bradley, Mamie, 45–46

Till, Emmett, 44–46, 47, 97, 104, 122, 195, 206, 244

Tilley, John, 116–17

To Secure These Rights, 33–34

Tougaloo College, 207, 262

Toure, Sekou, 306

Truman, Harry, 30–32, 34, 97, 210; on civil rights, 31, 32, 34–37, 94–97, 102, 173, 244; Truman Doctrine, 31

Tuskegee Institute, 93, 282, 288

Underground Railroad, 47

unions, 20, 33, 48, 59, 152, 153; and the AFL–CIO, 227; and AFSCME, 153; and the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, 20; and the American Federation of Labor, 20; attempts to form, 59; and the civil rights movement, 7, 78, 199, 227, 237, 249, 294, 315; and the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 20; and the New York Transport Workers Union, 227; opposition to, 78, 210, 215; segregated, 24; and the United Auto Workers, 249; and the United Mine Workers, 20; and the United Steel Workers, 227

United Nations, 33, 282, 304–5, 306, 307; Human Rights Commission, 33, 305; Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 304–5, 306

United Negro Veterans, 23

Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), 16–17, 47, 284; FBI surveillance of, 242

urbanization, 11, 23, 54

US Commission on Civil Rights, 98, 103, 117, 170, 219, 220, 291

US Constitution, 11, 14, 40, 72, 96, 111, 165, 229, 236; Tenth Amendment, 40; Thirteenth Amendment, 7, 11, 14; Fourteenth Amendment, 11, 14, 39–40, 236, 291; Fifteenth Amendment, 11, 14, 291

US Supreme Court, 10, 14, 20, 26, 31, 34, 49, 55, 71–72, 85, 87–89, 110–11, 124, 152, 153, 154, 163, 228, 296, 297; and Brown decision, 38–43, 92–93, 102; and Communism, 95; and voting rights, 31, 171, 274–75. See also individual cases

Vietnam War, xvi, 49, 94, 191; opposition to, x, xxii, 2, 295–96, 307, 323, 327; and Martin Luther King, 296–97

Villard, Oswald Garrison, 12

Vivian, C. T., 272, 283

voting rights movement, insert 10, 11, 20, 31, 33–34, 44, 47, 59, 92, 98–99, 103, 131, 132, 134, 167, 171–78, 180–83, 185, 186, 187, 201, 202, 206–8, 218–21, 235, 253, 270–72, 276–77, 279–82, 284, 291–92, 307; and Crusade for Citizenship, 114; and Freedom Summer, 262, 265–68; and poll tax, 33, 99, 171, 172, 173–74; and Voter Education Project, 201–3, 220; and Voters League, 174, 280; white harassment of, 177–78, 196, 197; and white primaries, 20, 26, 171–72, 173–74, 274–75. See also Montgomery Voters League; Progressive Voters League; SNCC: voting rights

Voting Rights Act (1965), xxi, xxii, 274–75, 276–77, 282, 287, 290–93, 294, 307

Walker, David, 146

Walker, Roslyn, 136

Walker, Wyatt Tee, 142; and Birmingham campaign, 213, 214, 216; and Freedom Rides, 162–63; and Martin Luther King, 142, 192, 222, 245; and SCLC, 147–48, 181, 192, 245

Wallace, Henry, 34–35, 51

Walls, Carlotta, 104. See also Little Rock Nine

Warren, Earl, 38, 41–42, 96, 244, 296

Washington, Booker T., 12–13, 54; and Black capitalism, 135; and debates 301, 318

Washington Afro-American, 144

Washington Post, 168, 188; on Martin Luther King, xiii, xxiii, 297

Watkins, Hollis, 184, 185, 200

“We Charge Genocide: The Crime of Government against the Negro People,” 146

“We Shall Overcome” (song), 143, 199, 253, 290, 292, 347–48n15

West, Cornel, 113

White, Byron, 296

White Citizens’ Council, 40, 44, 82, 218, 269, 270; and Martin Luther King, xx, 71, 77, 217; Montgomery chapter of the, 77–78, 82, 84

white moderate, xx, 31, 41, 126, 166, 212, 216, 217, 298, 305

white supremacy, 5, 9–11, 14–16, 20, 24–29, 36, 41, 47, 63, 67–68, 117, 124–5, 180, 235, 256, 283, 298, 302; 2017 Unite the Right Rally (Charlottesville), ix; and America as racist society, 5; and fascism, 22, 24, 27, 84, 94–95, 284; and Adolf Hitler, 22, 26–27, 29, 84; and “master race” theory, 22, 27; and Mother’s League of Little Rock, 105–6; and sexual assault, 26. See also Ku Klux Klan (KKK); lynching; White Citizens’ Council; white violence

white violence, 10, 32, 47, 55, 74, 121, 125, 276, 283; Louis Allen assassinated, 184; Daisy Bates’ mother killed, 105; Gus Courts shot, 44; against the Freedom Rides, 164, 165–69, 171, 174, 183, 185; during Freedom Summer, 266–67; Marion and Slater King beaten, 195, 223; George Lee shot and killed, 44, 97; Herbert Lee shot and killed, 184; mob violence in Chicago, 93; mob violence in Little Rock, 103–4, 107–8; Viola Liuzzo shot and killed, 291, 346n25; Roger Malcolm, his wife, and two friends shot and killed, 32; James Meredith shot, 298; Harry T. Moore killed by a mob, 93; James Reeb beaten and killed, 288; Lamar Smith assassinated, 44; Macio Snipes killed, 32; Jimmy Travis shot, 220; Samuel Younge shot and killed, 294–95. See also bombing; Ku Klux Klan (KKK); lynching; police brutality; riots

White, Walter, 24, 27, 32, 45, 116

Wilkens, J. Ernest, 93

Wilkins, Roy, 45, 58, 95, 97, 116–17, 122, 170; and Freedom Rides, 174; and the March on Washington, 117, 239, 249; and the Montgomery bus boycott, 76, 78; and NAACP, 45, 78, 87, 153, 154, 202, 239, 249, 258; and SCLC, 114, 116, 141; and sit-ins, 231; and SNCC, 202, 300; and voting right, 174–75, 202, 203

Williams, Hosea, 286, 287, 290

Williams, Robert, xxii, 178, 301, 302, 328

Wilson, Woodrow, 9, 24

Wofford, Harris, 112, 140–44, 246

Women’s Army Corps, 27

women’s leadership and organizing, xvi, 46, 62, 82, 109–10, 115–16, 121, 195, 206, 252, 261, 267, 270, 271, 315, 318, 319, 322, 323, 325, 327; and the feminist movement, 256; in the Montgomery bus boycott, 57, 64, 72; and sexism, 278

Women’s Political Council, 57–60, 64–65, 73

Women’s Reserve of the Navy, 27

Woodward, C. Vann, 10, 40, 54

World War I, 12, 15, 16, 22, 24, 26

World War II, 22–28, 30, 85, 94–95; and Black outrage at invasion of Ethiopia, 22

Wright (Edelman), Marian, 308, 354n48

Wright, Mose, 44–45

Wright, Richard, 26

X, Jeremiah, insert 12

X, Malcolm, 282, 283, 285, 301, 302, 318; and Julian Bond, 2; and the civil rights movement, 253, 283, 284, 285, 306; and Coretta Scott king, 282; and Martin Luther King, 226, 253, 282, 283, 301, 302; and the March on Washington, 253

Young, Andrew, 180, 181; and Martin Luther King, 181, 241, 311; and SCLC, 180, 181, 232

Young, Whitney, 136, 239, 249

Younge, Samuel, 294–95

youth leadership and organizing, insert 8, 12, 15, xviii, xix, xxiii, xxiv, 20, 35, 61, 85, 109, 116–18, 124, 127, 130, 132, 133, 135, 152, 153, 159, 189, 190, 200, 224–26, 270, 271; and Department of Youth (National Council of Churches), 181; and the Invaders, 310; and Montgomery bus boycott, 60, 65, 67; and sit-ins, 121–24; and Young Negroes Cooperative League, 115; and youth marches/ demonstrations, 117, 131, 137, 138, 177, 184, 245. See also student organizers

Zellner, Bob, 184, 186

Zinn, Howard, 135, 149, 247

Zwerg, Jim, 161, 162