NOTES

FOREWORD

1. Cynthia Bond, “The UVA Class the White Supremacists Didn’t Take,” Village Voice, August 22, 2017.

2. Email from David Koppelman (May 6, 2019).

3. Email from Angela Dorn (May 29, 2019).

4. Email from Daniel Gutman (May 10, 2019).

5. Phyllis Leffler, Black Leaders on Leadership: Conversations with Julian Bond (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 184.

6. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Papers of JFK, Presidential Recordings, audiotape 112.6 (September 23, 1963).

7. Julian Bond, “SNCC: What We Did,” Monthly Review, October 1, 2000.

8. Bond v. Floyd, 385 U.S. 116 (1966).

9. Danny Lyon, Memories of the Southern Civil Rights Movement, foreword by Julian Bond (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 5.

10. Leffler, Black Leaders on Leadership, 184.

INTRODUCTION: WHAT JULIAN BOND TAUGHT ME

1. Jenny Jarvie, “An Uneasy Standoff Between Police and Protesters as Black Lives Matter Returns to the Streets,” Los Angeles Times, July 9, 2016.

2. Barbara Reynolds, “I Was a Civil Rights Activist in the 1960s. But It’s Hard for Me to Get Behind Black Lives Matter,” Washington Post, August 24, 2015.

3. Charlie Cobb, This Nonviolent Stuff’ll Get You Killed: How Guns Made the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Basic Books, 2014), 247.

4. As quoted in Charles Payne, “Introduction to the 2007 Edition,” I’ve Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), viii-ix.

5. Julian Bond, Race Man: Selected Works, 1960–2015, ed. Michael Long (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2020), 3.

6. Data from the Roper Center for Public Research, quoted in Elahe Izadi, “Black Lives Matter and America’s Long History of Resisting Civil Rights Protest,” Washington Post, April 19, 2016.

7. Izadi, “Black Lives Matter and America’s Long History of Resisting Civil Rights Protest.”

8. Sheldon Appleton, “Martin Luther King in Life . . . and Memory,” Public Perspective (February–March 1995): 12.

9. Fred Powledge, “Polls Show Whites in City Resent Civil Rights Protest,” New York Times, September 21, 1964.

10. “Dr. King’s Error,” editorial, New York Times, April 7, 1967.

11. Jeanne Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks (Boston: Beacon Press, 2013).

12. Julian Bond, author phone interview (November 15, 2010).

CHAPTER ONE: WHITE SUPREMACY AND THE FOUNDING OF THE NAACP

1. Martin Luther King Jr., quoted in R. C. Smith, Racism in the Post–Civil Rights Era: Now You See It, Now You Don’t (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).

2. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Niagara Movement,” Voice of the Negro, September 1905, 619–22.

3. John W. Cell, “Race Relations,” in Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, ed. Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 189.

4. Charles Carroll, The Negro a Beast, or, In the Image of God? (St. Louis: American Book and Bible House, 1900); Robert Wilson Shufeldt, The Negro: A Menace to American Civilization (Boston: R. G. Badger, 1907).

5. Eric Foner lays out the Dunning School argument and the profound changes in the ways Reconstruction is now understood in “Reconstruction Revisited,” Reviews in American History 10, no. 4 (1982).

6. Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights, 1959, https://www2.law.umaryland.edu/marshall/usccr/documents/cr11959.pdf.

7. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955); Leon Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961); Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South, 1820–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1964); Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861–1977 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965).

8. John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969).

9. W. E. B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1903).

10. Peter Lau, Democracy Rising: South Carolina and the Fight for Black Equality Since 1865 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2006), 3.

11. Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom, 311.

12. Ida B. Wells’s Red Record documented this sordid history of lynching.

13. Quoted in Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, vol. 2 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1996), 819.

14. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, 50.

15. See David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: A Biography, 1868–1963 (New York: Holt, 2009).

CHAPTER TWO: ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

1. Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1978), 6.

2. Philip Dray, Capitol Men: The Epic Story of Reconstruction Through the Lives of the First Black Congressmen (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2008); Philip Dray, “NAACP’s Hundred Year Fight Against Hate,” New York Post, February 15, 2009.

3. “Imperial Wizard,” Time, June 23, 1924.

4. See Patricia Sullivan, Lift Every Voice: The NAACP and the Making of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: New Press, 2009).

5. Amy Jacques-Garvey, ed., The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, or Africa for the Africans (New York: Universal Publishing House, 1925), 38–39.

6. W. E. B. Du Bois, “A Lunatic or a Traitor,” Crisis, May 1924, 8.

7. Quoted in John Hope Franklin and August Meier, eds., Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 134.

8. Quoted in Tony Martin, Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Dover, MA: Majority Press, 1976), 23.

9. Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom, 360.

10. Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks; Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Case for Reparations,” Atlantic, June 2014.

11. Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks, 332.

CHAPTER THREE: WORLD WAR II

1. Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction and Beyond in Black America, 1945–2006, 3rd ed. (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007), 20.

2. Quoted in Franklin and Meier, Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century, 155.

3. Franklin and Meier, Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century, 155.

4. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Executive Order 8802, June 25, 1941, US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/history/35th/thelaw/eo-8802.html.

5. William J. Collins, “African-American Economic Mobility in the 1940s: A Portrait from the Palmer Survey,” Journal of Economic History 60, no. 3 (2000): 756–81, Mary S. Bedell, “Employment and Income of Negro Workers—1940–1952,” Monthly Labor Review (June 1953).

6. Quoted in Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 16.

7. Quoted in Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1016, 1017.

8. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1016.

9. Ronald Takaki, Double Victory: A Multicultural History of America in World War II (New York: Little, Brown, 2000).

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESIDENT TRUMAN AND THE ROAD TO BROWN

1. Harry S. Truman, “Special Message to the Congress on Greece and Turkey: The Truman Doctrine,” March 12, 1947, Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/56/special-message-congress-greece-and-turkey-truman-doctrine.

2. Interviewed in 2014 about Woodard, Julian Bond broke into tears, saying, “I still weep for this blinded soldier.” Richard Gergel, Unexampled Courage: The Blinding of Sgt. Isaac Woodard and the Awakening of President Harry S. Truman and Judge J. Waties Waring (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2019), 5–6.

3. Kevin M. Schultz, “The FEPC and the Legacy of the Labor-Based Civil Rights Movement of the 1940s,” Labor History 49, no. 1 (2008): 71–92; Sullivan, Lift Every Voice.

4. Quoted in Philip A. Klinkner with Roger M. Smith, The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 209.

5. Harry S. Truman, To Secure These Rights: The Report of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights, 1946, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/to-secure-these-rights.

6. Quoted in Donald R. McCoy and Richard T. Ruetten, Quest and Response: Minority Rights and the Truman Administration (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1973), 99.

7. Quoted in Nadine Cohodas, Strom Thurmond & the Politics of Southern Change (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1993), 166; Hubert Horatio Humphrey, Beyond Civil Rights: A New Day of Equality (New York: Random House, 1968), 37.

8. Harry S. Truman, “Executive Order 9980,” July 26, 1948, Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/executive-orders/9980/executive-order-9980.

9. Quoted in Terry H. Anderson, The Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 43.

10. Quoted in Richard Kirkendall, “The Presidential Election of 1948,” in Robert D. Marcus and David Burner, eds., The American Scene: Varieties of American History, vol. 2 (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971), 420.

11. Harry S. Truman, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman: Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President, January 1 to December 31, 1948 (Washington, DC: National Archives and Record Services, 1961–1966), 850–52.

12. Truman, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, 925.

CHAPTER FIVE: BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION

1. Derrick Bell, Silent Covenants: Brown v. Board of Education and the Unfulfilled Hopes for Racial Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

2. For more on Brown, see Julian Bond, “With All Deliberate Speed: Brown v. Board of Education,” Indiana Law Journal 90, no. 4 (2015).

3. Slaughter House Cases, 16 Wall. 36, 67–72 (1873); Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U.S. 303, 307–8 (1880).

4. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).

5. Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. at 489.

6. Alfred H. Kelley, “An Inside View of Brown v. Board of Education,” reprinted in Congressional Record 108 (September 11, 1962), 19025–28.

7. Quoted in Jack M. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement: The Changing Political Economy of Southern Racism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 126.

8. Thomas P. Brady, Black Monday (Association of Citizens Councils, 1955), 89.

9. Earl Warren and Supreme Court of the United States, U.S. Reports: Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483. Emphasis added.

10. Carol Anderson, White Rage: The Unspoken Truth of Our Racial Divide (New York: Bloomsbury, 2016).

11. David S. Cecelski, Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina, and the Fate of Black Schools in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994).

12. Green v. New Kent County School Board, 391 U.S. 430, 439 (1967). Emphasis in original.

13. Freeman v. Pitts, 503 U.S. 467 (1992); Board of Education v. Dowell, 498 U.S. 237 (1991).

14. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975), 748–49.

15. Philip Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (New York: Modern Library, 2003), 426, 430.

16. Sara Bullard, Free at Last: A History of the Civil Rights Movement and Those Who Died in the Struggle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 44. See also Mamie Till-Mobley and Christopher Benson, The Death of Innocence: The Story of the Hate Crime That Changed America (New York: One World, 2003); and Devery Anderson, Emmett Till: The Murder That Shocked the World and Propelled the Civil Rights Movement (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2015).

17. Roy Wilkins and Tom Matthews, Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins (New York: Viking, 1982); Yvonne Ryan, Roy Wilkins: The Quiet Revolutionary and the NAACP (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2014).

CHAPTER SIX: THE MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT

1. Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Free Press, 1984), 1.

2. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 1.

3. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 140.

4. Martin Luther King Jr., The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., vol. 1: Called to Serve, January 1929–June 1951, ed. Clayborne Carson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 45.

5. King, The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., vol. 1, 53.

6. Michael Eric Dyson, I May Not Get There with You: The True Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: Free Press, 2000), 212.

7. Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Random House, 2010), 45.

8. Lee Augustus McGriggs, The Odyssey of Martin Luther King, Jr. (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1978), 24; Jo Ann Gibson Robinson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started it: The Memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987).

9. Robinson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It, 36.

10. Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: His Early Life as a Slave, His Escape from Bondage, and His Complete History to the Present Time, Including His Connection with the Anti-slavery Movement (London: Park Publishing, 1892), 277.

11. Stetson Kennedy, Jim Crow Guide to the U.S.A.: The Laws, Customs and Etiquette Governing the Conduct of Nonwhites and Other Minorities as Second-Class Citizens (1959; repr., Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2011); Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 23.

12. Martin Luther King Jr., The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr., ed. Clayborne Carson (New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2001).

13. Shannon Frystak, Our Minds on Freedom: Women and the Struggle for Black Equality in Louisiana, 1924–1968 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2009).

14. Mary Fair Burks, “Trailblazers: Women in the Montgomery Bus Boycott,” in Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Torchbearers & Trailblazers, 1941–1965, ed. Vicki L. Crawford, Jacqueline Anne Rouse, Barbara Woods, and Broadus Butler (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).

15. Danielle L. McGuire, At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance—a New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power (New York: Vintage, 2010).

16. Robinson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It, 16.

17. Lewis V. Baldwin and Aprille V. Woodson, Freedom Is Never Free: A Biographical Portrait of Edgar Daniel Nixon (Nashville: Office of Minority Affairs, Tennessee General Assembly, 1992), 9.

18. Quoted in Baldwin and Woodson, Freedom Is Never Free, 13.

19. Jeanne Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks (Boston: Beacon Press, 2013), 56–60.

20. Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, 13. See, also, Rosa Parks with Jim Haskins, Rosa Parks: My Story (New York: Dial, 1992).

21. Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, 61.

22. Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, 28.

23. Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, 59.

24. Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, 60–71.

25. Robinson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It, 45–46.

26. Robinson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It, 50.

27. Robinson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It, 46–47.

28. Jon Meacham, ed., Voices in Our Blood: America’s Best on the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Random House, 2001), 7.

29. Robert Graetz, A White Preacher’s Memoir: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (Montgomery: Black Belt Press, 1998).

30. Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, 88–89.

31. Donnie Williams with Wayne Greenhaw, The Thunder of Angels: The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the People Who Broke the Back of Jim Crow (Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 2006), 60; Baldwin and Watson, Freedom Is Never Free, 48.

32. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 136–37.

33. Branch, Parting the Waters, 138.

34. Martin Luther King Jr., “MIA Mass Meeting at Holt Street Baptist Church” (speech), 1955, Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute, https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/mia-mass-meeting-holt-street-baptist-church.

35. Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, 102.

36. Ralph Abernathy, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), 154.

37. Stewart Burns, ed., Daybreak of Freedom: The Montgomery Bus Boycott (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 98.

38. Martin Luther King Jr., Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (orig. 1958; New York: Harper & Row, 1986), 112.

39. See Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, ch. 4, for more on the boycott.

40. Burns, Daybreak of Freedom, 110.

41. David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: HarperCollins, 1986), 31.

42. Burns, Daybreak of Freedom, 109.

43. For more on the FBI surveillance of the civil rights movement, see Kenneth O’Reilly, “Racial Matters”: The FBI’s Secret File on Black America, 1960–1972 (New York: Free Press, 1991).

44. Mills Thornton, Dividing Lines: Municipal Politics and the Struggle for Civil Rights in Montgomery, Birmingham, and Selma (Montgomery: University of Alabama, 2002), 598.

45. Branch, Parting the Waters, 150; Jack Bass, Taming the Storm: The Life and Times of Judge Frank M. Johnson, Jr., and the South’s Fight over Civil Rights (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2002).

46. Peter J. Albert and Ronald Hoffman, eds., We Shall Overcome: Martin Luther King Jr, and the Black Freedom Struggle (New York: Da Capo Press, 1993), 17.

47. Martin Luther King Jr., The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., vol. 3, Birth of a New Age, December 1955–December 1956, ed. Clayborne Carson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 8.

48. Quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 57–58.

49. Quoted in Branch, Parting the Waters, 166.

50. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 61.

51. Frye Gaillard, Cradle of Freedom: Alabama and the Movement That Changed America (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004), 42.

52. Patricia Sullivan, ed., Freedom Writer: Virginia Foster Durr, Letters from the Civil Rights Years (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006), 109.

53. John D’Emilio, Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin (New York: Free Press, 2003).

54. Gary Younge, The Speech: The Story Behind Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s Dream (Chicago: Haymarket, 2013), 28–29.

55. See Charlie Cobb, This Nonviolent Stuff’ll Get You Killed: How Guns Made the Civil Rights Movement Possible (New York: Basic Books, 2014).

56. Martin Luther King Jr., The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., vol. 5, Threshold of a New Decade, January 1959–December 1960, ed. Clayborne Carson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 302.

57. Martin Luther King Jr., “The Social Organization of Nonviolence,” Liberation, October 1959.

58. Phillip Hoose, Claudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009), 87.

59. Branch, Parting the Waters, 195.

60. King, Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr., vol. 3, 482.

61. Theoharis, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, 134.

62. John Ansbro, Martin Luther King, Jr.: Nonviolent Strategies and Tactics for Social Change (New York: Madison Books, 2000), 162.

63. “Rev. Martin Luther King,” Time, February 18, 1957.

CHAPTER SEVEN: THE 1956 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION AND THE 1957 CIVIL RIGHTS ACT

1. Kluger, Simple Justice, 749.

2. Brief for the United States as amicus curiae at 6, Brown, 347 U.S. 483.

3. Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945–1954 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 255.

4. Women’s Armed Services Integration Act of 1947: Hearings Before the Committee on Armed Services, US Senate, 80th Cong., 1st Session, July 2, 9, 15, 1947.

5. Steven F. Lawson, Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944–1969 (New York: Lexington Books, 1999), 149.

6. Lawson, Black Ballots, 153.

7. Robert Dallek, Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 352.

8. Dallek, Lone Star Rising, 78.

9. Mark Solomon, The Cry Was Unity: Communists and African Americans, 1917–1936 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998), 234.

10. Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks.

11. Quoting Harold Ickes on Roosevelt, Dallek, Lone Star Rising, 161.

12. Dallek, Lone Star Rising, 347. Ellipses in original.

13. Dallek, Lone Star Rising, 368.

14. Dallek, Lone Star Rising.

15. Lawson, Black Ballots, 195.

CHAPTER EIGHT: LITTLE ROCK, 1957

1. Daisy Bates, The Long Shadow of Little Rock: A Memoir (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2007), 6.

2. Bates, The Long Shadow of Little Rock.

3. John Jackson, American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock ‘n’ Roll Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

4. Richard Aquila, That Old-Time Rock and Roll: A Chronicle of an Era, 1954–1963 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 10.

5. Bates, The Long Shadow of Little Rock.

6. Jack Greenberg, “Brown v. Board of Education”: Witness to a Landmark Decision (Northport, NY: Twelve Tables Press, 2004).

7. William R. McIntyre, School Integration: Fifth Year, Editorial Research Reports (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1958), http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1958082700.

CHAPTER NINE: THE SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE

1. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement.

2. D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, 246–48; memo from Bayard Rustin, December 23, 1956, at https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/bayard-rustin-0.

3. Cornel West, Prophetic Fragments: Illuminations of the Crisis in American Religion and Culture (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1993), 4.

4. Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).

5. Much of the Baker biographical material comes from Susan Bernice Young-blood, “Testing the Current: The Formative Years of Ella Jo Baker’s Development as an Organizational Leader in the Modern Civil Rights Movement,” master’s thesis, University of Virginia, August 1989. See also Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement.

6. Dyson, I May Not Get There with You, 245.

7. Bass, Taming the Storm, 165.

CHAPTER TEN: THE SIT-INS AND THE FOUNDING OF SNCC

1. Quoted in William H. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 166.

2. William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 83.

3. Quoted in Pat Watters, Down to Now: Reflections on the Southern Civil Rights Movement (1971; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993), 74.

4. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights, 84.

5. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights, 80–86.

6. Unpublished article written by Charlie Cobb with letter to David Llorens, assistant editor, Negro Digest, June 16, 1966, quoting Stokely Carmichael.

7. Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954–1980 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1988), 89.

CHAPTER ELEVEN: THE STUDENT NONVIOLENT COORDINATING COMMITTEE

1. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 24.

2. Carson, In Struggle, 21.

3. Wesley Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart: SNCC’s Dream for a New America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 19; Carson, In Struggle, 21.

4. John Lewis with Michael D’Orso, Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998), 61.

5. Carson, In Struggle, 23.

6. Clayborne Carson, “Toward Freedom and Community: The Evolution of Ideas in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, 1960–1966,” PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1975, 62.

7. Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 83.

8. Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality.

9. Quoted in introduction to Elizabeth Sutherland Martinez, ed., Letters from Mississippi: Reports from Civil Rights Volunteers and Freedom School Poetry of the 1964 Freedom Summer (Brookline, MA: Zephyr Press, 2002), xi, vi. Brackets in original.

10. Quoted in Carson, In Struggle, 24.

11. Charles Payne, I’ve Got The Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 104–7; John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 101–3.

12. Carson, Toward Freedom and Community, 85.

13. Statement submitted by SNCC to Platform Committee of National Democratic Convention, Los Angeles, California, July 7, 1960.

14. Quoted in Carson, In Struggle, 27.

15. Carson, In Struggle, 27, 28.

16. Quoted in Carson, In Struggle.

17. David Garrow, ed., Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement, vol. 9, Atlanta, Georgia, 1960–1961: Sit-Ins and Student Activism (Brooklyn, NY: Carlson Publishers, 1989), 130.

18. “An Appeal for Human Rights,” Atlanta Daily World, Atlanta Constitution, and Atlanta Journal, March 9, 1960.

19. Herman Mason, Politics, Civil Rights, and Law in Black Atlanta, 1870–1970 (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2000), 6.

20. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement, 223.

21. Branch, Parting the Waters, 350.

22. Branch, Parting the Waters, 351.

23. Branch, Parting the Waters, 353–56.

24. Branch, Parting the Waters, 359–60.

25. Quoted in Branch, Parting the Waters, 361.

26. Branch, Parting the Waters, 362.

27. Branch, Parting the Waters, 365.

28. Branch, Parting the Waters, 366.

29. Branch, Parting the Waters, 367.

30. Branch, Parting the Waters, 368–70.

31. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 89th Cong., 2nd Sess. (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, October 10, 1966), 25956.

32. Winston A. Grady-Willis, Challenging U.S. Apartheid: Atlanta and Black Struggles for Human Rights, 1960–1977 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 7.

33. Grady-Willis, Challenging U.S. Apartheid, 26.

34. Gayraud S. Wilmore, Black Religion and Black Radicalism: An Interpretation of the Religious History of African Americans (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998).

35. Howard Zinn, SNCC: The New Abolitionists (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964), 17–18.

36. Carson, In Struggle, 33.

CHAPTER TWELVE: THE FREEDOM RIDES

1. Raymond Arsenault, Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 13.

2. Arsenault, Freedom Riders, 11–12.

3. James Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Movement (Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1998), 195.

4. Lewis and D’Orso, Walking with the Wind, 137–38.

5. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart.

6. Arsenault, Freedom Riders, 101.

7. Branch, Parting the Waters, 419.

8. King, The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.

9. Quoted in Branch, Parting the Waters, 425.

10. Branch, Parting the Waters, 429.

11. Quoted in Branch, Parting the Waters, 430.

12. Arsenault, Freedom Riders, 145.

13. Branch, Parting the Waters, 447.

14. Branch, Parting the Waters, 450.

15. In 1962, Kennedy appointed White to the Supreme Court.

16. Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart, 49.

17. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart.

18. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart, 3.

19. Quoted in Philip A. Goduti, Robert F. Kennedy and the Shaping of Civil Rights, 1960–1964 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2012), 93.

20. Quoted in Derek Catsam, Freedom’s Main Line: The Journey of Reconciliation and the Freedom Rides (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 266.

21. Eric Foner, “Bound for Glory,” review of Arsenault’s Freedom Riders, New York Times, March 19, 2006.

22. Quoted in L. D. Ervin, Step by Step: The Reverend Fred L. Shuttlesworth (Paducah, KY: Turner Publishing, 1999), 81–82.

23. Quoted in Cynthia Griggs Fleming, Soon We Will Not Cry: The Liberation of Ruby Doris Smith Robinson (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 87. First brackets in original.

24. Leslie W. Dunbar, “The Southern Regional Council,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 357, no. 1 (January 1965): 108–12.

25. When Rowe’s picture appeared in the Birmingham Post Herald, his FBI handlers instructed him to deny the photo showed him. Four years later, on March 25, 1965, he was one of four Klansmen who followed and then shot Viola Liuzzo—although Rowe testified later he did not fire a shot.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: KENNEDY AND CIVIL RIGHTS, 1961

1. Platforms of the Democratic Party and the Republican Party (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1960), 45.

2. Hal Bochin, Richard Nixon: Rhetorical Strategist (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 51.

3. Virginia Foster Durr, Outside the Magic Circle: The Autobiography of Virginia Foster Durr (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1985), 177–79.

4. Carson, In Struggle, 38–39.

5. Carson, In Struggle, 40.

6. Carson, In Struggle, 41.

7. Carson, In Struggle, 41.

8. Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 106.

9. Quoted in Grace Jordan McFadden, “Septima P. Clark and the Struggle for Human Rights,” in Crawford, Rouse, and Woods, Women in the Civil Rights Movement, 85–86. See, also, Katherine Mellen Charron, Freedom’s Teacher: The Life of Septima Clark (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).

10. Quoted in McFadden, “Septima P. Clark and the Struggle for Human Rights,” 87.

11. McFadden, “Septima P. Clark and the Struggle for Human Rights.”

12. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom, 72–73.

13. Sandra B. Oldendorf, “The South Carolina Sea Island Citizenship Schools, 1957–1961,” in Crawford, Rouse, and Woods, Women in the Civil Rights Movement, 172.

14. Oldendorf, “The South Carolina Sea Island Citizenship Schools,” 174.

15. Branch, Parting the Waters, 575.

16. “Dave Dennis,” SNCC Digital Legacy Project, https://snccdigital.org/people/dave-dennis.

17. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom, 116–17.

18. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom, 120.

19. Michael Newton, The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi: A History (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009), 134.

20. Dittmer, Local People, 219.

21. Quoted in Zinn, SNCC, 76.

22. Carson, In Struggle, 52.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: ALBANY, GEORGIA, 1961

1. Quoted in Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2008), 198.

2. Fred Powledge, Free at Last? The Civil Rights Movement and the People Who Made It (New York: Little Brown, 1991), 411–13.

3. Branch, Parting the Waters, 536.

4. Lynne Olson, Freedom’s Daughters: The Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement from 1830 to 1970 (New York: Scribner, 2001), 212.

5. Belinda Robnett, How Long? How Long? African-American Women in the Struggle for Civil Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 107.

6. Branch, Parting the Waters, 604.

7. William Moses Kunstler, Deep in My Heart (New York: Morrow, 1966), 103.

8. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 248.

9. Pam McAllister, Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 1982), 121.

10. Olson, Freedom’s Daughters, 240.

11. Howard Zinn, The Southern Mystique (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2002), 188.

12. David L. Chappell, Inside Agitators: White Southerners in the Civil Rights Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 136.

13. Branch, Parting the Waters, 624.

14. James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (orig. 1972; repr. Washington: Open Hand, 1985), 247.

15. Julian Bond did a whole lecture on music; this is just a few paragraphs from it. He thought it was essential to understand the centrality of music to the struggle and wanted students, in the midst of the difficult subjects the class was covering, to experience the uplifting power of movement song. He played “Dog, Dog,” “Oh Pritchett, Oh Kelley,” “This Little Light of Mine,” “If You Miss Me from the Back of the Bus,” “I’m Gonna Sit at the Welcome Table,” “We Shall Overcome,” “Governor Wallace,” and a movement reinterpretation of “Go Tell It on the Mountain,” providing commentary on all the songs.

16. “Rights Song Has Own History of Integration,” New York Times, July 23, 1963.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: MISSISSIPPI VOTER REGISTRATION

1. Carson, In Struggle, 77.

2. Quoted in Carson, In Struggle. Brackets and ellipses in original.

3. James Hilty, Robert Kennedy: Brother Protector (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997), 331.

4. Quoted in Leonard Harris, ed., Key Concepts in Critical Theory: Racism (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 1999), 438.

5. Quoted in Kay Mills, This Little Light of Mine: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2007), 31.

6. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 32. See, also, Chana Kai Lee, For Freedom’s Sake: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999).

7. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 23–24.

8. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 8.

9. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 11.

10. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 11–12.

11. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 14–15. Brackets and emphasis in original.

12. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 15.

13. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 22.

14. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 24.

15. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 24.

16. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 36.

17. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 36–37. Ellipses in original.

18. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 37.

19. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 38.

20. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 42.

21. “Hartman Turnbow,” SNCC Digital Gateway, https://snccdigital.org/people/hartman-turnbow.

22. Branch, Parting the Waters, 638–39.

23. Quoted in Eric Burner, And Gently He Shall Lead Them: Robert Parris Moses and Civil Rights in Mississippi (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 84.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN: BIRMINGHAM

1. Quoted in Adam Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Martin Luther King, Jr. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001), 112.

2. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), 150.

3. Andrew Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham’s Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001), 332.

4. Glenn Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).

5. King’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail” was published partially in the New York Post Magazine, May 19, 1963, and in full in New Leader, June 24, 1963.

6. Branch, Parting the Waters, 714.

7. Branch, Parting the Waters, 718.

8. Branch, Parting the Waters, 720.

9. Peter Guralnick, Dream Boogie: The Triumph of Sam Cooke (New York: Little, Brown, 2014); “Dick Gregory,” SNCC Digital Gateway, https://snccdigital.org/people/dick-gregory.

10. Branch, Parting the Waters, 528.

11. Branch, Parting the Waters, 868.

12. Branch, Parting the Waters, 758.

13. David J. Garrow, Protest at Selma: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978).

14. Juan Williams, Eyes on the Prize: America’s Civil Rights Years, 1954–1965 (New York: Penguin Books, 1988), 190.

15. Branch, Parting the Waters, 762.

16. Branch, Parting the Waters, 763.

17. Branch, Parting the Waters, 788–89; McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 419–20.

18. Tom Hayden, The Long Sixties: From 1960 to Barack Obama (New York: Routledge, 2016), 28.

19. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 267.

20. Branch, Parting the Waters, 807.

21. John F. Kennedy, “Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights, June 11, 1963,” full address available at https://www.jfklibrary.org/archives/other-resources/john-f-kennedy-speeches/civil-rights-radio-and-television-report-19630611.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: MISSISSIPPI, MEDGAR EVERS, AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS BILL

1. Branch, Parting the Waters, 818.

2. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 60.

3. Bettye Collier-Thomas and V. P. Franklin, eds., Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil Rights–Black Power Movement (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 151.

4. She would become Eleanor Holmes Norton, a DC delegate to the US House of Representatives.

5. Quoted in Richard Lentz, Symbols, the News Magazines and Martin Luther King (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999), 101.

6. Robert D. Loevy, To End All Segregation: The Politics of the Passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1990), 16.

7. Adam Fairclough, Better Day Coming: Blacks and Equality, 1890–2000 (New York: Viking Press, 2001).

8. Quoted in Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality, 156.

9. Mildred A. Schwartz, Trends in White Attitudes Toward Negroes (Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago,1967), https://www.norc.org/PDFs/publications/NORCRpt_119.pdf.

10. Jeanne Theoharis, A More Beautiful and Terrible History: The Uses and Misuses of Civil Rights History (Boston: Beacon Press, 2018), 46–47.

11. Federal Fair Employment Practices Act (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1949). Emphasis added.

12. This and other information about the congressional debate and presidential strategy on the Civil Rights Bill of 1963 is drawn largely from Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960–1972 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: THE MARCH ON WASHINGTON

1. D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, 328.

2. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 271.

3. Quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I’ve Seen (New York: Harper Collins, 1997), 15.

4. Quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 272.

5. Much of the following information comes from Kenneth O’Reilly, “Racial Matters”: The FBI’s Secret File on Black America, 1960–1972 (New York: Free Press, 1989); Athan Theoharis and John Stuart Cox, The Boss: J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition (New York: Bantam Books, 1990); and David Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.: From “Solo” to Memphis (New York: Penguin Books, 1983).

6. Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.

7. Quoted in Branch, Parting the Waters, 845.

8. Branch, Parting the Waters, 845. Emphasis in original.

9. Athan Theoharis, ed., The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide (Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1999), 135–36, 335.

10. O’Reilly, “Racial Matters,” 13.

11. O’Reilly, “Racial Matters,” 19.

12. O’Reilly, “Racial Matters,” 20.

13. O’Reilly, “Racial Matters,” 20.

14. Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.

15. Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.

16. FBI jargon referred to wiretaps as “a confidential source who has furnished reliable information in the past”; internal FBI documents called wiretaps “technical surveillance.” Break-ins were called “black bag jobs.”

17. O’Reilly, “Racial Matters,” 130.

18. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 280.

19. Lewis and D’Orso, Walking with the Wind, 219–21.

20. Theoharis, A More Beautiful and Terrible History, 166–67.

21. Theoharis, A More Beautiful and Terrible History, 168.

22. Malcolm X, “Message to the Grassroots,” speech, Detroit, December 10, 1963, BlackPast, https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/speeches-african-american-history/1963-malcolm-x-message-grassroots.

23. Younge, The Speech, 74–75.

24. Nick Bryant, The Bystander: John F. Kennedy and the Struggle for Black Equality (New York: Basic Books, 2006).

25. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 287.

26. James Baldwin, No Name in the Street (orig., 1972; New York: Knopf, 2013), 140.

27. Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Vintage, 1979), 41.

28. Lance Hill, The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).

29. Danny Lyon captured that moment in the photo that graces this book’s cover.

30. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 307.

CHAPTER NINETEEN: THE CIVIL RIGHTS ACT

1. Lyndon Baines Johnson, The Vantage Point: Perspectives of the Presidency, 1963–69 (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1971), 156.

2. Johnson, The Vantage Point, 29.

3. Johnson, The Vantage Point, 34.

4. Johnson, The Vantage Point, 37.

5. Johnson, The Vantage Point, 37.

6. Johnson, The Vantage Point, 38.

7. Barbara Jordan and Elspeth D. Rostow, eds., The Great Society: A Twenty-Year Critique (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), 78.

8. Jordan and Rostow, The Great Society, 158.

9. Jordan and Rostow, The Great Society, 158.

10. Jordan and Rostow, The Great Society, 158.

11. Jordan and Rostow, The Great Society, 159–60.

12. Jordan and Rostow, The Great Society, 79.

13. Charles Whalen and Barbara Whalen, The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Cabin John, MD: Seven Locks Press, 1985), 116.

14. Whalen and Whalen, The Longest Debate, 117.

CHAPTER TWENTY: MISSISSIPPI FREEDOM SUMMER, 1964

1. Carson, In Struggle, 99–100; Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart, 149–54.

2. Burner, And Gently He Shall Lead Them, 152.

3. Michael Ezra, Civil Rights Movement: People and Perspectives (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2009), 28.

4. Frank would later be elected to Congress from Massachusetts in 1980.

5. Peter Levy, The Civil Rights Movement in America: From Black Nationalism to the Women’s Political Council (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2015), 317.

6. Julian Bond laid out these figures in his June 28, 2014, address at the fiftieth anniversary of Freedom Summer in Jackson, Mississippi. For the full speech, go to https://www.crmvet.org/comm/bond14.htm.

7. See Crmvet.org, https://www.crmvet.org/comm/bond14.htm.

8. Burner, And Gently He Shall Lead Them, 158.

9. Burner, And Gently He Shall Lead Them, 157.

10. Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 83.

11. Susie Erenrich, ed., Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: An Anthology of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement (Montgomery, AL: Black Belt Press, 1999), 82.

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE: SELMA, ALABAMA, AND THE 1965 VOTING RIGHTS ACT

1. J. L. Chestnut Jr. and Julia Cass, Black in Selma: The Uncommon Life of J. L. Chestnut, Jr. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1990), 148.

2. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement.

3. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, 348–49.

4. David Garrow, Protest at Selma: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015).

5. Dittmer, Local People, 292–96.

6. Dittmer, Local People, 289.

7. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 5.

8. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 300.

9. Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 299.

10. Steven Lawson, In Pursuit of Power: Southern Blacks and Electoral Politics, 1965–1982 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 94.

11. Frank Parker, Black Votes Count: Political Empowerment in Mississippi After 1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 71–72.

12. John Dittmer, The Good Doctors: The Medical Committee for Human Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice in Health Care (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2009), x–xi.

13. Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960–1972 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 162.

14. Garth E. Pauley, LBJ’s American Promise: The 1965 Voting Rights Address (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2007), 76.

15. Jack Blum, Years of Discord: American Politics and Society, 1961–1974 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992), 164.

16. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 375–76.

17. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom, 76–77, 92–93; Dyson, I May Not Get There with You, 212–13.

18. Quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 376. Ellipses in original.

19. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 373.

20. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 374.

21. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 371–72.

22. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 379.

23. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 381.

24. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 381.

25. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 382.

26. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 386.

27. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 385.

28. Dyson, I May Not Get There with You, 30.

29. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 386–87.

30. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 390–91.

31. George Breitman, ed., Malcolm X: By Any Means Necessary (New York: Pathfinder, 1970), 92.

32. James H. Cone, Martin and Malcolm and America: A Dream or a Nightmare (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991).

33. Gubernatorial press secretary Bill Jones quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 395.

34. Carson, In Struggle, 158.

35. “Civil Rights Movement History 1965: Selma and the March to Montgomery,” Crmvet.org, https://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis65.htm.

36. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 398–99.

37. Babbitt later became President Clinton’s secretary of the interior.

38. Nick Kotz, Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws That Changed America (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2006), 305–6.

39. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 407.

40. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 408–9.

41. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 410.

42. King, The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr.

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO: VIETNAM, BLACK POWER, AND THE ASSASSINATION OF MARTIN LUTHER KING

1. National Guardian 18 (1965): 3.

2. Carson, In Struggle, 188.

3. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, 445.

4. Jo Ann Robinson, Abraham Went Out: A Biography of A. J. Muste (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1981), 133.

5. Jeff Cohen and Norman Solomon, “The Martin Luther King You Don’t See on TV,” Common Dreams, April 4, 2007.

6. Hardy Thomas Frye, “The Rise of a Black Political Party: Institutional Consequences of Emerging Political Consciousness,” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1975, 68. See, also, Hasan Kwame Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes: Civil Rights and Black Power in Alabama’s Black Belt (New York: New York University Press, 2010).

7. Quoted in Carson, In Struggle, 205. Ellipses and emphasis in original.

8. Stokely Carmichael, “What We Want,” New York Review of Books 7 (September 22, 1966).

9. Anne Braden, “The SNCC Trends: Challenge to White America,” Southern Patriot, May 1966.

10. Hill, The Deacons for Defense.

11. Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) and Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) (New York: Scribner, 2003), 507.

12. Martin Luther King Jr., Where Do We Go From Here: Chaos or Community? (Boston: Beacon Press, 1967), 36.

13. Martin Luther King Jr., “The Other America,” speech, Grosse Pointe High School, Grosse Pointe, Michigan, March 14, 1968, Grosse Pointe Historical Society, https://www.gphistorical.org/mlk/mlkspeech.

14. Peniel E. Joseph, Dark Days, Bright Nights: From Black Power to Barack Obama (New York: Basic Books, 2010), 26.

15. Kwame Ture [Stokely Carmichael] and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America, new ed. (New York: Vintage, 1992), 44.

16. Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion, 92–95.

17. Carmichael, “What We Want.”

18. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 8.

19. Countryman, Up South, 7–8.

20. Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 214–16.

21. King, “The Social Organization of Nonviolence.”

22. H. Rap Brown (Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin), Die Nigger Die! A Political Autobiography of H. Rap Brown (Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin) (New York: Dial Press, 1969), 54.

23. Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes; Hill, The Deacons for Defense.

24. See Bobby Seale, A Lonely Rage: The Autobiography of Bobby Seale (New York: Times Books, 1978); Donna Jean Murch, Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010); Charles Jones and Judson Jeffries, The Black Panther Party [Reconsidered] (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1998).

25. Bond, introduction to Martínez, ed., Letters from Mississippi, ix.

26. Michael Thelwell quoted in Julian Bond, “What We Did,” Monthly Review, October 1, 2000, https://monthlyreview.org/2000/10/01/sncc-what-we-did.

27. Quoted in Bond, “What We Did.”

28. Bond, “What We Did.”

29. H. Timothy Lovelace Jr., “Making the World in Atlanta’s Image: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, Morris Abram, and the Legislative History of the United Nations Race Convention,” Law and History Review 32, no. 2 (May 2014): 396.

30. Lovelace, “Making the World in Atlanta’s Image,” 396.

31. Lovelace, “Making the World in Atlanta’s Image,” 397.

32. Lovelace, “Making the World in Atlanta’s Image,” 400,

33. Lovelace, “Making the World in Atlanta’s Image,” 409–10.

34. Lovelace, “Making the World in Atlanta’s Image,” 410.

35. Lovelace, “Making the World in Atlanta’s Image.”

36. Lovelace, “Making the World in Atlanta’s Image,” 410–11, 413.

37. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, 408–11.

38. Harry G. Lefever, Undaunted by the Fight: Spelman College and the Civil Rights Movement, 1957–1967 (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2005), 207.

39. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 89th Congress of United States, First Session (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1965), 5303.

40. Letter from Donna Richards and Robert Moses to Dr. Horace Mann Bond, October 6, 1965.

41. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, 445.

42. Atlanta Journal, March 22, 1966. The seven were John Lewis, James Bond, James Forman, Cleveland Sellers, Willie Ricks, Judy Richardson, and William Hall.

43. Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, 480–92.

44. Martínez, Letters from Mississippi, xii; Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, 499.

45. Carson, In Struggle, 239–41.

46. Brown, Die Nigger Die!, 112.

47. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 604.

48. In 1973, Marian Wright Edelman founded the Children’s Defense Fund.

49. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 607.

50. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 611.

51. Martin Luther King Jr., “All Labor Has Dignity” (Boston: Beacon Press, 2011).

52. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 621.

53. Taylor Branch, At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 763–64.

54. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, 770.

55. John B. Morris, ed., Black Elected Officials in the Southern States (Atlanta: Voter Education Project of the Southern Regional Council, 1969).