Foreword |
xi |
Acknowledgments |
xiii |
About the Authors |
xv |
Structure of the Book |
xvii |
Abbreviations |
xix |
Executive Summary |
1 |
PART I ANALYTICS |
4 |
Chapter 1 Explaining the Social Safety Net’s Data Landscape |
5 |
Introduction |
5 |
What Are Social Protection and Social Safety Net Interventions? What Is the ASPIRE Classification of Social Safety Net Programs? |
5 |
What Is the ASPIRE Database? How Does the ASPIRE Team Collect and Ensure Quality of the Data? What Are the Limitations of the Data? |
7 |
How Is the Performance of Social Safety Net Programs Measured? |
13 |
Notes |
14 |
References |
15 |
Chapter 2 Spending on Social Safety Nets |
16 |
How Much Do Regions and Countries Spend on Social Safety Nets? |
16 |
Do Higher-Income Countries Spend More on Social Safety Nets? |
18 |
How Has Spending Changed over Time? |
25 |
Which Social Safety Net Instruments Do Countries Fund? |
27 |
Notes |
30 |
References |
30 |
Chapter 3 Analyzing the Performance of Social Safety Net Programs |
31 |
Who Is Covered by Social Protection and Labor Programs? |
32 |
Which Types of Social Safety Net Programs Cover the Poor? |
34 |
What Is the Beneficiary Incidence of Various Social Safety Net Instruments? |
41 |
What Are the Benefit Levels of Social Safety Net Programs? |
49 |
What Are the Poverty and Inequality Impacts of Social Safety Net Programs? |
59 |
What Factors Affect the Impact of Social Safety Net Transfers on Poverty and Inequality? |
61 |
Notes |
64 |
References |
65 |
Highlight 1: Productive Outcomes of Social Safety Net Programs: Evidence from Impact Evaluations in Sub-Saharan Africa |
66 |
PART II SPECIAL TOPICS |
70 |
Chapter 4 Social Assistance and Aging |
71 |
What Are Old-Age Social Pensions, and Why Are They on the Rise? |
71 |
Why Do Countries Introduce Old-Age Social Pensions? |
73 |
What Have Old-Age Social Pensions Accomplished? |
76 |
Notes |
81 |
References |
81 |
Highlight 2. Policy Considerations for Introducing Old-Age Social Pensions |
82 |
Chapter 5 The Emergence of Adaptive Social Protection |
84 |
Why Does the World Need Adaptive Social Protection? |
84 |
Focus Area 1: Building Household Resilience Before Shocks Occur |
86 |
Focus Area 2: Increasing the Capability of Safety Nets to Respond to Shocks after They Occur |
89 |
References |
92 |
Appendix A Methodological Framework, Definitions, and Data Sources |
94 |
Appendix B Household Surveys Used in the Book |
98 |
Appendix C Global Program Inventory |
101 |
Appendix D Spending on Social Safety Net Programs |
138 |
Appendix E Monthly Benefit Level Per Household |
144 |
Appendix F Performance Indicators |
145 |
Appendix G Old-Age Social Pensions |
154 |
Appendix H Basic Characteristics of Countries Included in the Book |
161 |
Glossary |
165 |
2.1 |
Average Global and Regional Spending on Social Safety Nets |
17 |
2.2 |
Share of Donor-Funded Safety Nets in Sub-Saharan African Countries |
18 |
2.3 |
Social Safety Net Spending Variations across Countries and Regions: East Asia and Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Europe and Central Asia |
19 |
2.4 |
Social Safety Net Spending Variations across Countries and Regions: Africa, Middle East and North Africa, and South Asia |
20 |
2.5 |
Social Safety Net Spending across Country Income Groups versus the OECD |
21 |
2.6 |
Total Social Safety Net Spending and Income Levels across Regions |
22 |
2.7 |
Absolute Annual Spending on Social Safety Nets per Capita across Countries and Regions: East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean |
23 |
2.8 |
Absolute Annual Spending on Social Safety Nets per Capita across Countries, Economies, and Regions: Middle East and North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, and South Asia |
24 |
2.9 |
Regional Median Annual Social Safety Net Spending per Capita |
25 |
2.10 |
Transfer Amount for Cash Transfer Programs, by Income Group |
25 |
2.11 |
Trends in Social Safety Net Spending in Latin America and the Caribbean |
26 |
2.12 |
Trends in Social Safety Net Spending in Europe and Central Asia, 2003–14 |
27 |
2.13 |
Expansion of Flagship Cash Transfer Programs in Tanzania, Senegal, the Philippines, and Indonesia |
28 |
2.14 |
Social Safety Net Spending across Regions, by Instrument |
30 |
3.1 |
Share of Total Population and the Poorest Quintile That Receives Any Social Protection and Labor Programs, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Region |
33 |
3.2 |
Share of Total Population and the Poorest Quintile That Receives Any Social Protection and Labor Programs, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Country Income Group |
33 |
3.3 |
Share of Poorest Quintile That Receives Any Social Protection and Labor Program, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Type of Social Protection and Labor Area and Country Income Group |
35 |
3.4 |
Share of the Poorest Quintile That Receives Unconditional Cash Transfer Programs, as Captured in Household Surveys |
36 |
3.5 |
Share of the Poorest Quintile That Receives Conditional Cash Transfer Programs, as Captured in Household Surveys |
37 |
3.6 |
Share of the Poorest Quintile That Receives Social Pensions, as Captured in Household Surveys |
39 |
3.7 |
Share of the Poorest Quintile That Receives Public Works, as Captured in Household Surveys |
40 |
3.8 |
Share of the Poorest Quintile That Receives Fee Waivers and Targeted Subsidies, as Captured in Household Surveys |
41 |
3.9 |
Share of the Poorest Quintile That Receives School Feeding Programs, as Captured in Household Surveys |
42 |
3.10 |
Share of the Poorest Quintile That Receives In-Kind Transfers, as Captured in Household Surveys |
43 |
3.11 |
Global Distribution of Beneficiaries by Type of Social Safety Net Instrument, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Quintile of Pretransfer Welfare |
44 |
3.12 |
Distribution of Unconditional Cash Transfer Beneficiaries, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Quintile of Pretransfer Welfare |
45 |
3.13 |
Distribution of Conditional Cash Transfer Beneficiaries, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Quintile of Pretransfer Welfare |
47 |
3.14 |
Distribution of Social Pensions Beneficiaries, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Quintile of Pretransfer Welfare |
48 |
3.15 |
Distribution of Public Works Beneficiaries, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Quintile of Pretransfer Welfare |
49 |
3.16 |
Distribution of Fee Waivers and Targeted Subsidies Beneficiaries, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Quintile of Pretransfer Welfare |
50 |
3.17 |
Distribution of School Feeding Beneficiaries, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Quintile of Pretransfer Welfare |
51 |
3.18 |
Distribution of In-Kind Transfer Beneficiaries, as Captured in Household Surveys, by Quintile of Pretransfer Welfare |
52 |
3.19 |
Social Protection and Labor Transfer Value Captured in Household Surveys, as a Share of Beneficiaries’ Posttransfer Welfare among the Total Population |
53 |
3.20 |
Social Protection and Labor Transfer Value Captured in Household Surveys, as a Share of Beneficiaries’ Posttransfer Welfare among the Poorest Quintile |
54 |
3.21 |
Unconditional Cash Transfer Value Captured in Household Surveys, as a Share of Beneficiaries’ Posttransfer Welfare among the Poorest Quintile |
55 |
3.22 |
Conditional Cash Transfer Value Captured in Household Surveys, as a Share of Beneficiaries’ Posttransfer Welfare among the Poorest Quintile |
56 |
3.23 |
Social Pensions’ Value Captured in Household Surveys, as a Share of Beneficiaries’ Posttransfer Welfare among the Poorest Quintile |
57 |
3.24 |
Public Works’ Value Captured in Household Surveys as a Share of Beneficiaries’ Posttransfer Welfare among the Poorest Quintile |
58 |
3.25 |
Fee Waivers and Targeted Subsidies Value Captured in Household Surveys, as a Share of Beneficiaries’ Posttransfer Welfare among the Poorest Quintile |
58 |
3.26 |
World Reductions in Poverty from Social Safety Net Transfers, as Captured in Household Surveys, as a Share of Pretransfer Indicator Levels, by Relative and Absolute Poverty Lines |
60 |
3.27 |
Reductions in Poverty and Inequality from Social Safety Net Transfers, as Captured in Household Surveys, as a Share of Pretransfer Indicator Levels, by Country Income Group Using Relative Poverty Line |
61 |
3.28 |
Poverty Headcount Reduction from Coverage and Level of Social Assistance Benefits for the Poorest Quintile, as Captured in Household Surveys |
62 |
3.29 |
Poverty Gap Reduction from Coverage and Level of Social Assistance Benefits for the Poorest Quintile, as Captured in Household Surveys |
63 |
4.1 |
Population, Age 64 Years and Older, as a Percentage of Total Population, by Region |
72 |
4.2 |
Number of Countries with Old-Age Social Pensions, 1898–2012 |
73 |
4.3 |
Introduction of Old-Age Social Pensions, 2001–13 |
73 |
4.4 |
Distribution of Old-Age Pension Programs |
75 |
4.5 |
Age of Eligibility for Pension Programs |
76 |
4.6 |
Old-Age Pension Coverage of Population Age 60 Years and Older, by Region |
77 |
4.7 |
Distribution of Old-Age Social Pension Beneficiaries, by Income Quintile |
78 |
4.8 |
Old-Age Social Pensions as a Share of Beneficiaries’ Welfare, Poorest and Second-Poorest Quintiles |
79 |
4.9 |
Impact of Old-Age Social Pensions on Poverty Headcount, Poverty Gap, and Gini Inequality Index Reduction, as a Share of Pretransfer Indicator Levels, Using Relative Poverty Line (Poorest 20 Percent) |
80 |
4.10 |
Benefit–Cost Ratio of Old-Age Social Pensions |
80 |
H2.1 |
Elderly and Labor Force Coverage |
82 |
5.1 |
Total Number of Disasters and Affected People, 1980–2012 |
85 |
5.2 |
Total Number of Displaced People, 1951–2015 |
85 |
5.3 |
Ranking of Natural Disasters and Safety Net Coverage |
87 |
5.4 |
Social Safety Net Coverage of the Poor and Humanitarian Spending, 2010–15 |
88 |
5.5 |
Program Scalability to Enable Responsiveness to Shocks |
90 |