7
Surfacing Materials

In addition to cabinets, appliances, fixtures, and fittings in residential kitchen and bathrooms, another key ingredient of a successful project is the selected surfacing materials specified for the floors, walls, wet wall surrounds, countertop areas, and backsplash verticals.

Before selecting any of these surfaces, you must first understand the importance of a proper substrate material. The Kitchen & Bath Residential Construction and Systems volume of the NKBA Professional Resource Library covers the basic construction elements of a well-planned kitchen and bathroom. Once the proper substrate has been specified, the functional and decorative surfaces can be selected.

This chapter discusses the most popular surfacing materials for kitchens and bathrooms. Unusual, innovative, proprietary materials are continually being introduced. Design professionals should include time during their business schedule to research new products and regularly visit key suppliers to be current with newly introduced products as well as regional specialty offerings.

Learning Objective 1: Discuss attributes of primary surfacing materials, with a focus on how the materials are fabricated and what their recommended uses are.
Learning Objective 2: Detail specific design considerations when specifying the materials discussed.
Learning Objective 3: Explain the different categories of product offerings within broad groupings of surfacing materials.

SUSTAINABLE CHOICES

In addition to evaluating a surfacing material’s appropriateness for a specific application and understanding the installation requirements of these surfacing materials, designers should also consider the sustainability of the material and the responsible management of the manufacturing company. Sustainability relating to wood products is extensively discussed in Chapter 1 of this volume.

Manufacturers of products in each of the broad categories discussed in this book have published extensive information about their manufacturing processes and the ecological friendliness of its materials. In well-managed companies, manufacturing techniques are constantly monitored and adapted to ensure environmental responsibility. From substrate materials to topcoat specifications, companies meet or exceed requirements to eliminate hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The same attention to avoiding urea-formaldehyde products that is seen in the cabinet industry is an important part of wood-related surfacing materials.

Many products use pre-consumer recycled materials; some surfacing materials are actually created from recycled products. Within the manufacturing operation, better companies focus on reducing the impact they have on their environment through waste, energy, and emission management while focusing on safety for their workforce. When evaluating surfacing material possibilities, researching the company’s sustainable practices is an important part of the selection process.

SOLID WOOD COUNTER SURFACES

Countertops are made from laminated or solid wood products. In addition to full countertops, insert blocks are often installed in the kitchen work surface.

The insert blocks are available in a variety of sizes and finishes. Both edge and end grain laminations are popular. In laminate countertops, an installation ring secures the wood section in place. A lip in the block can provide stability for a drop-in-place installation.

Some kitchens may feature the entire countertop in wood surfacing. When this type of countertop is planned, the designer must specify what type of wood will be used, what type of finish the block will have, and what water and heat protection the block will receive.

Several types of woods are available from different manufacturers:

Eastern hard rock sugar maple. This wood is considered the hardest; thus cutting or scratching damage will be minimized.
Western maple; western alder. This wood is not as hard as eastern maple and will be more susceptible to wear through, cutting, or scratching.
Walnut, cherry, or other specialty hardwoods. These woods are sometimes specified in focal point areas that will not receive excessive use.

Grain patterns with the laminations will vary according to the fabrication procedure used.
Full-length edge grain laminations feature long, unbroken strips of the wood laminated together. The edge widths remain constant.
Butt-joined edge grain laminations feature various strips within the overall length of the top. The edge widths remain constant.
End grain laminations feature a checkerboard effect of small squares of wood. This type of fabrication is normally limited to counter inserts.

The wood tops may be finished in several ways. The intended use of the block should determine the finish selection.

Unfinished Wood

The finish consists of oiling wood throughout the counter surface life span on a four- to six-week maintenance schedule. This method is most desirable if the entire counter surface will be wood and local fabrication of seams or miters is required. Prefinished tops hinder proper adhesion of seams and must be refinished if any sanding will be done (see Figure 7.1).

images — **FIGURE 7.1** A rustic-style wood butcher block surface.

*Courtesy of John Boos*

Prefinished Wood

The factory finish includes a penetrating sealer and a nontoxic lacquer finish. The combination of sealer and varnish prevents moisture penetration. No oiling is necessary, and a damp cloth may be used to wipe the board clean. Chopping on the surface may not damage the finish. This type of finish is appropriate for countertop sections, such as island tops (see Figure 7.2) or sandwich centers.

A wood surface can also be used to differentiate the seating area from the solid surface work counter, as in the design shown in Figure 7.3.

Wood Sealed with Polyurethane

Polyurethane sealer is used on unfinished wood tops that will not be used as chopping surfaces and will not come in contact with food. The finish is very good on tops that will be exposed to moisture and liquids.

CAST POLYMERS: COUNTER SURFACES AND WET WALL SURFACES

Cast polymers are used for bathtub fixtures, one-piece shower enclosures, three- to four-piece shower enclosures, and vanity surfaces, often with an integrated lavatory. In slab form, cast polymers can be used in bathtub and/or shower enclosures as well as for slab vanity tops (see Figure 7.4). They are available in marbleized patterns, granite-like textured patterns, or solid colors.

Cultured marble, cultured onyx, cultured granite, and solid-colored polymer-based materials are all used for cast-mineral-filled polymer fixtures. Although generally referred to as cultured marble, a better term for you to use when describing all of these materials is cast polymer. The term is recommended so you can discuss this potential fixture and surfacing material without limiting yourself to describing a product that looks like synthetic marble.

Regardless of the use, cast polymer surfaces are created by pouring a mixture of ground minerals and polyester resin into a treated mold, where the curing process takes place at room temperature or in a curing oven.

Gel Coat Application

The process begins by spraying a gel coat onto a mold. Because most residential fixtures are sprayed by hand, the gel coat thickness ranges from 12 to 20 mil (1 mil = 1/1000th of an inch). Industry research has proven a 12-mil gel coat is the minimum acceptable thickness. A 20-mil gel coat is more durable. However, gel coats thicker than 20 mil do not add wearability. Quite the opposite—thicker gel coats that are applied unevenly lead to a common problem associated with cast polymer fixtures called crazing. Crazing is the presence of tiny fractures within the gel coat resulting from the thermal shock caused by repeated exposure of the material to alternating hot and cold water. This problem typically shows up around the drain in a lavatory if the gel coat is not thick enough, if the plumber improperly installs the fixture, if water stands in the lavatory, or if the incorrect cleaner is used.

Molding Process

The gel coat is first allowed to cure. A semiliquid material that consists of polymer resins, a catalyst to promote curing, and highly filled inorganic particulates of pulverized calcium carbonate, hydrated alumina, and, in some instances, glass bubbles is then poured into the mold.

If the cast polymer material will have a solid color, no further steps are taken. If the material will have a marbleized pattern throughout, the second color is swirled into the mixture. The mixture is allowed to cure, after which it is removed from the mold, inspected, finished, boxed, and shipped. Figures 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, and 7.8 include a variety of cast polymer shower enclosures and bathtubs available.

CERAMIC TILE: ALL SURFACES

Ceramic tile is a favorite surface product for many kitchen and bathroom designers. A beautifully natural material, it also offers wide design flexibility. However, without a solid understanding of the product, installation methods, and care recommendations, a profitable job and a pleased client may elude you.

Tile is composed of clays, shales, porcelain, or baked earth. These raw products are pressed or extruded into shapes and then fired in a kiln, baked in an oven, or cured in the sun. The differences among raw materials, manufacturing methods, and surface finishes make some types of tile more durable in heavy use areas than others. The firing method also affects the moisture absorption rate of different body types of tile, which is an important consideration in exterior tile installations.

Tile for any surface other than decorative vertical areas should be selected after careful investigation into its appropriateness for the planned installation. As you consider a tile for a specific installation, first refer to the manufacturer’s literature for usage recommendations. Second, check the porosity of the tile. Third, check the availability of trim (curved shapes for smooth corners, edges, and coves). Fourth, think through your grout selection. Finally, make sure you have specified the recommended installation method for the tile you have selected.

Types of Tile

Decorative Tile

Within the family of glazed ceramic tile, there is a subcategory often called decos. These attractive accent pieces may include a raised or recessed relief pattern or feature a painted or silk-screened design. Generally, the relief designs are planned for vertical use only because the three-dimensional tiles are difficult to clean on a counter surface or floor area. Some of the hand-painted tiles may be so delicate that general countertop or floor cleaning will damage the pattern; but they are popular for walls and as inserts in backsplashes.

Some decorative tiles, as seen in Figure 7.9, create a design that flows from tile to tile to give designers great flexibility for a unique, one-of-a-kind wall, border, or backsplash. Others are one-of-a-kind art pieces that should be showcased within the field of plain tile.

In addition to relief-type deco tiles and hand-painted tiles, long, slender tiles called liners are considered decos. Metallic tiles are also often used as decorative elements. These tile pieces have different names and come in many sizes and thicknesses from different manufacturers. Designers need to become familiar with manufacturers before they can identify the specific accent tile they are considering. Figure 7.10 features a combination of materials including decorative and ceramic tile, quartz, and granite.

Glazed Tile

A coating of glass-forming minerals and ceramic stains is called the glaze. The glaze is sprayed onto the body of the tile (known as the bisque) before firing. The finished surface may have a shiny luster as seen in Figure 7.11. Some glazed surfaces can be slippery to certain footwear, especially when the footwear or surface is wet.

Glazed tiles are available in a variety of sizes. They may be as small as by inch mounted in 12 by 12 inch squares on a meshed backing. Typical sizes are 4 by 4 inches, 3 by 6 inches, 4 by 8 inches, 6 by 6 inches, and 12 by 12 inches. Innovations in manufacturing systems have resulted in larger, oversized tiles being available. While 18-by-18-inch and 24- by 24-inch sizes have been on the market for some time, today tiles are available in 13 by 36 inches and 17 by 27 inches, and oversized 30- by 30-inch or 36- by 36-inch squares.

Glazed tiles are also available in a variety of finishes; some have a slip-resistant glazed texture. Various thicknesses are available. Shiny, high-gloss glazed tiles may dull slightly with wear over a period of time with continued use. Black or dark-colored glazed tiles will show wear more rapidly than lighter colors. The type of glaze often determines the recommended end use of the tile (i.e., walls [Figure 7.12], floors, and counters).

Glass Tile

Decorative glass tiles—the roots of which go back to Mesopotamia more than 4,500 years ago—are a popular alternative today as manufacturers and artisans experiment with colors, materials, and techniques. One of the main attractions of glass tile is the way light reflects off them, drawing the eye to their sleek surfaces. Glass tiles come in textures from mirror slick to rough, and in a variety of colors from deep and muted to multicolored with iridescent options. Glass tiles are available in clear glass all the way through or with a backing finish designed to camouflage the rough wall surface.

A variety of sizes is available. Custom mosaic patterns are possible with tiles sized 1 by 1 inches, 2 by 2 inches, and 4 by 4 inches. Mosaics by to 2 by 2 inches are mounted in 12- by 12-inch sheets with a mat backing or paper overlay on the face of the tiles. This is removed after the tiles have been mounted. Individual tiles and field tiles come in basic geometric (square, rectangles, octagons) and specialty shapes.

Glass tile installations, as seen in Figure 7.13, require special expertise. Because of the translucency of many tiles, manufacturers recommend setting glass tiles in white adhesive that should be smoothed carefully to prevent notched trowel lines from showing through. Additionally, a typical tile saw will not cut glass tile: A diamond wet saw will be required for cutting. Although glass tiles are more difficult to work with, they are extremely durable because they are hard and nonporous (see Figure 7.14). Some can actually be installed in exterior environments. Because they can scratch easily, they are not recommended for kitchen counters or floors unless they are etched and embossed with a textured surface.

Glass tiles are typically manufactured in one of two ways:

Slumped or heat molded. Sheets of glass are heated to the point where they soften and sink into molds that give the glass distinctive three-dimensional patterning or texture. Color can be added to the mix or fused to the back in this manufacturing process.
Cast or poured. The oldest method of making tiles is to pour molten glass into forms. Glass can be colored by adding pigmenting oxides or pieces of different-colored glass into the mix. Once again, fusing colorful glass to the back of the tile can add to the depth and make the finish opaque.

For a discussion of limestone tile, See “Stone—Limestone,” page 278; For a discussion of marble tile, see “Stone—Marble,” page 279. Marble is a material used in both kitchens (see Figure 7.15) and bathrooms.

Mosaic Tile

Mosaic tiles are distinguished from other kinds of tile by their small size, which must not exceed 6 square inches (2.45 by 2.45 inches if square shaped). The most common types are natural clay and porcelain in which the color is throughout the tile rather than being applied on the surface, such as a glaze. However, glazes may be applied as well. Porcelain ceramic mosaic tiles are always vitreous (natural clay) or impervious (porcelain). Therefore, they have a very low water absorption rate, less than 0.5 percent. They have a harder, denser body than nonvitreous wall tile. Glass mosaic tiles are also available.

Mosaics are usually sold face-mounted with paper, back-mounted with a mesh or plastic tab backing, or mesh-backed in 12- by 12-inch or 12- by 24-inch sheets. Mounted sheets facilitate installation and control the evenness of spacing.

When combined with the appropriate trim, the small-size units allow contour design applications in bathroom layouts. They are also very effective in kitchen backsplash designs.

Quarry Tile

Quarry tile is made from shale, clays, or earth extruded to produce an unglazed product that has color throughout the tile body. There is a great variety of quality levels within the broad term “quarry tile.” The earthen clay tiles may be very soft and irregular in shape. Other types of quarry tile are so porous they require a penetrating sealer to protect the surface. Before such a sealer is applied, the tile and grout must be allowed to cure. New sealer products have been formulated to minimize the cure time. Depending on the product used, this curing process can take as little as 48 hours or as long as two weeks.

Other so-called quarry tiles must be stained and sealed. If such extra steps in the installation process must be completed, the designer should include the extra costs incurred in the estimate.

Certain manufacturers’ quarry tiles meet the standards of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and are considered stain-resistant, although not stain-proof. Thus, application and renewal of a sealer is optional. To achieve the subtle patina or rich glow of natural quarry clay, seasoning the tile with oil-based cleaners (e.g., Murphy’s Oil Soap^® or Lestoil^®) is preferred to sealing.

Quarry tile is suitable for interior residential and commercial floors, walls, and fireplace facings. Quarry tile may be used on exterior surfaces when proper installation methods are followed.

Slate Tile

For a discussion of the use of slate tiles, see “Slate,” page 280.

Ceramic Tile Planning Tips from the Pros

Select glazed or unglazed surfaces. The glaze finish is an important criterion to consider. Tiles are available in a variety of glazes:

Semigloss
High gloss
Matte
Two-tone, or a combination of gloss and matte.

Figure 7.16 shows a decorative high-gloss glass tile backsplash in a Manhattan, New York, kitchen.

Gloss finishes can dull with heavy use. With a matte glaze, wear is not nearly as noticeable. Both tiles have the same degree of hardness. For floors, matte or unglazed porcelain are recommended.

Glazed tile, smooth to the touch, can be slip-resistant due to a special manufacturing process. Textured glazes with a noticeably rough surface are also slip-resistant. Varying degrees of slip resistance are needed for a variety of end uses. Safe bathroom and kitchen designs require that slip-resistant tiles are specified for floor applications.

Select the correct surface trim. Just as important as the tile shapes is the availability of trim shapes (see Figure 7.17 and Figure 7.18). While the floor can be installed with nothing more than a plain or field tile edge (tile without any finished or shaped edge), the countertop, bathtub enclosure, shower stall, floor baseboard treatment, or vanity top calls for specially designed pieces to complete the installation.

Trim shapes are available with -inch radius for conventional mortar installations and -inch radius for organic adhesive installations. These trim shapes are generally more expensive than the square footage price of the field tile because of the cost of production. The color and texture match is generally good between field tile and trim shapes, but there may be a slight or pronounced texture difference in some selections. When you are using ceramic tile for the first time, visually compare a field tile and trim shapes before placing the order. If there is any variation, the client should approve the difference before the order is placed.

Combining tiles of various shapes and sizes is most successful when one manufacturer’s product is selected (see Figure 7.19). Typically this assures the designer that tile thicknesses will remain constant.

In addition to ceramic tile trim pieces that match the field tile, aluminum edge trim can be used to finish an elevation.

When working with accent tiles, create the design and the electrical plan concurrently. Codes require a specific spacing of electrical outlets along a backsplash. Task light switching and the switch for the food waste disposal will also be located along the backsplash. The backsplash light and the backsplash design details must be coordinated with the electrical layout so outlets or switches do not interfere with the backsplash itself or decorative elements of the space between the base cabinets and the wall cabinets.

Grouts

Different types of grout are available, each designed for a particular kind of installation and/or to be used with specific tile sizes and shapes. The Tile Council of North America has excellent technical information on its Web site (www.tcnatile.com).

Following is an abbreviated overview of the Tile Council’s information (materials for grouting, ceramic, and stone tiles—ANSI specifications).

Portland cement is the base for most grouts and is modified to provide specific qualities, such as whiteness, mildew resistance, uniformity, hardness, flexibility, and water retentiveness.
Sand-Portland cement grout is used with ceramic mosaic tiles, quarry tiles, pressed floor tiles, porcelain tiles, some glass tiles, and stone tiles on floors and walls. Because of the sanded nature of this grout, it is important to check that the sand in the grout will not scratch the surface of the tile. Sanded grout is always used for joints wider than inch.
Standard cement grout (sometimes referred to as unsanded or nonsanded) is suitable for grouting walls and floors subject to ordinary use. Some glass tile manufacturers require unsanded grout to prevent scratching on the smooth glass surface. This product is meant for joints of 1/8 inch or less.
Non-cement-based grout, such as epoxy, furans, and silicone rubber, offers properties not possible with cement grouts. However, special skills on the part of the tile setter are required. Additionally, these materials can be appreciatively greater in cost than cement-based grouts.
Polymer-modified grout is available in both sanded and unsanded, and is a factory-prepared mixture of cement and other ingredients. Grouts in this category provide improved characteristics, such as increased color stability, stain resistance, bond strength, flexural strength, and lower water absorption to resist frost damage.

Other grouts are available that have specific characteristics required for commercial installations.

Method of Installation

Three methods of installation are used for ceramic tile projects.

Conventional Mortar Bed (Mud)

In this method, the tile is installed on a bed of mortar to 2 inches thick. Two systems are popular in North America. In one, the tile is set on a mortar bed while it is still soft. In the other, tile is set on a cured mortar bed.

Mastic (Organic Adhesive)

In this method, tile is directly applied to the countertop, decking, or cement surface with troweled-on mastic. When this method is used, the finished floor will be raised only the thickness of the tile. Manufacturers state that a mastic installation may use any of these base surfaces: existing tile, fiberglass, wood paneling, brick, masonry, concrete, plywood, or vinyl. The surface must be dry, flat, and free of dirt and grease.

The tile installation cannot camouflage any existing structural problems. If there is a bow in the floor before the tile is installed, it will be there after the tile is installed.

Thinset over Backerboard

A glass mesh concrete backerboard may take the place of a conventional mortar bed. It is unaffected by moisture and has one of the lowest coefficients of expansion of all building panels. Additionally, the boards are only one-half the weight of conventional mortar installations. In non-wet areas, exterior grade plywood can be substituted for backerboard.

Special Considerations

In either conventional mortar (mud) or thinset over backerboard installations, the floor or vanity height will be raised the thickness of the tile and the mortar bed or glass mesh concrete backerboard. This height difference may require special floor preparation. In new construction, the subfloor can be recessed to accommodate a tile floor. In renovation projects, a transition method between the new higher tile floor and adjoining floors must be specified. Special toe-kick heights must be detailed so the industry standard of 4-inch-high kick space is maintained.

Most tile setters recommend the mortar installation be used over wood subfloors. The advantage to this type of installation is that the tile (installed with a cleavage membrane) will float on top of the wood. Normal wood expansion and contraction will not cause cracks in tile or grout. The mortar installation is also more desirable when there is heavy traffic. Figures 7.20, 7.21, and 7.22 illustrate important installation details.

Floor Tips from the Pros

In renovation jobs, removing the existing floor covering is recommended. Generally, this is necessary if vinyl tiles or cushioned vinyl floors are installed over a slab or wood foundation. In many parts of the country, tile is installed directly over old noncushioned sheet vinyl.

Doors may require modification to accommodate a tile floor. With a mastic installation, the designer is concerned only with the thickness of the tile. When a conventional mortar installation is planned, the designer must allow clearance for a - to -inch-thick mortar bed, plus the thickness of the tile. A glass mesh concrete board installation will require a clearance dimension equal to the thickness of the board plus the tile (see Figure 7.23).

Allow enough time for the door modification. Interior hollow-core or solid-core doors are easy to cut down. Pocket doors must be the type that can be removed from the pocket.

If the new tile floor will be higher than the finished flooring of an adjacent room, the tile selected must have trim pieces or a threshold must be planned (see Figure 7.24). Thresholds are generally marble or wood. Solid surface material can also be used as a threshold.

When doing a mortar base tile installation in a kitchen renovation project, it is recommended that you tile the floor before the cabinets are installed to maintain the proper cabinet height and 4-inch toe kick. You can also run into a problem with locking in your appliances.

Make sure the distance from the finished tile floor to the underside of the kitchen countertop leaves enough room for a built-in dishwasher, and extend the flooring under the dishwasher.

Make sure a tile backerboard does not interfere with the toilet supply line escutcheon plate.

When planning an accent pattern on floors, as seen in Figure 7.25, the details must be laid out during the planning phase to ensure proper fit and finish.

Bathroom Wall Tips from the Pros

Run the tile to the floor. When planning a tile enclosure around a bathtub, make sure the tile extends past the bathtub and runs down to the floor. This extra tile width will protect the drywall surface underneath from moisture damage over years of use.

Coordinate wainscot height with vanity backsplash. When planning a tile wainscot in a bathroom, specify the height so it has some relationship with the vanity and its backsplash. You may eliminate the backsplash completely and run the trim or molding at the top of the wainscoting in place of a backsplash. Alternatively, you can step the wainscoting up so it ties in at the same elevation as the backsplash.

Tile a small wall next to the toilet. When planning a 36-inch-high tiled privacy wall that shields the toilet area from view, plan to tile the entire wall if the floor in the room is also tiled. This small wall section can be quite awkward if it has a tile baseboard at the bottom of it and a tile cap at the top but no tile in between.

Determine finished wall dimensions. If you are going to be tiling the wall area around the toilet, make sure you take the added dimension of the installation method and tile thickness into account when you determine finished wall dimensions. For example, if you are going to tile three walls around a toilet with a conventional mortar installation, you need to maintain a minimum clearance between your drywall of 33 to 35 inches to make sure the job meets the code requirement of 30 inches between the finished side walls. Another typical error occurs when a tile wainscoting finish is applied to the wall behind the toilet, which then reduces the actual finished floor distance from the wall to the toilet’s floor outlet. That 12-inch rough-in dimension must be from the center of the floor outlet to the finished surface on the wall, not the drywall behind the tile.

Plan the grout lines. If you are planning to tile all four walls in a room, plus the ceiling, decide where it is most important to have grout lines on the wall line up with the grout lines on the ceiling. Generally, as you stand at the doorway, the wall at the far end of the room, or the most important wall, will be the focal point. Therefore, this wall should be where the tile setters start running the tile up the wall and then across the ceiling. If the room is square, the grout lines will run down the wall on the opposite side. However, in renovation situations, this rarely occurs.

Specify the accessory placement. If you are tiling a wall surface, remember to decide where you are going to install the accessories (the toilet paper holder, towel bars, and robe hooks), and make sure you determine how you are going to install the accessories on the new tile surface.

Determine the overlap ratio in running bond tile installations. A running bond pattern can be created in one of two ways:

Tiles are laid end to end, with joints that land in the middle of the tiles in adjacent rows. This pattern is appropriate for smaller-size tiles.
Tiles are laid end to end, with joints that land at a one-third or two-thirds point in each adjacent row. This is appropriate for larger tiles because of the natural camber bow that will occur in the manufacturing process of large tiles. While large tiles are perfectly square, they will not be perfectly flat. They are flat at each end with a slight bow in the center; therefore, the running bond pattern should intersect the tile by one-third, not by one-half.

CONCRETE

Concrete is a specialized countertop surfacing material (see Figure 7.26). Molded into shape, it is seamless. Concrete can be dyed just about any color. Concrete countertops can be fabricated at the manufacturing facility or poured in place. Because it begins in the form of a slurry, concrete can be transformed into virtually any shape that becomes a solid mass. It can be polished, stamped, or stained. Objects can be embedded in it.

While it has a rougher appearance than granite or solid surfacing, with hairline cracks (called crazing) and surface imperfections, these qualities make it appealing to many. Like granite and other natural stone materials, upkeep is minimal, but it must be sealed to prevent stains.

Initially considered an artisan’s product, concrete countertops are widely available throughout North America today. An excellent resource for information about custom concrete countertops is Concrete Countertops: Design, Form and Finishes for the New Kitchen and Bath by Fu-Tung Cheng with Eric Olsen (Taunton Press, 2002) as well as the Web site www.concreteexchange.com.

CORK FLOORING

Cork comes from the bark of special oak trees primarily grown in Spain and Portugal. The wood product comes from a renewable process where 6 to 9 inches of bark is cut from the trunk. It takes five to seven years to grow back after harvesting.

Cork is a soft-hard surface. It is soft, warm, and quiet. It also may be helpful to homeowners with allergies. A variety of patterns is available, which are achieved by different peeling techniques: Some look like a cork stopper, some like a bulletin board or burled wood. The most popular finish is natural—similar to natural oak (see Figure 7.27). Cork is also available in different stains, including brown, deep reds, and a white washed tint.

Quality levels do vary in cork products—the thicker the top veneer, the more cushioning and the better wear and performance. Therefore, price varies on the density and thickness of the cork veneer as well as the padding underlayment. The number of urethane coats on the veneer (between two to five) determines the wear.

Similar to laminate, floating floor planks snap together and can be installed over concrete or wood. Cork can be installed anywhere wood flooring can be placed; however, most experts caution against using it in high-moisture areas, such as bathrooms.

GLASS SURFACES

Glass Block

Glass block is enjoying rekindled interest among designers. Popular in the 1930s and 1940s, the use of glass block came to a standstill in the 1970s. These translucent hollow blocks of glass are ideal for kitchen and bathroom use. They transmit light yet provide privacy. When used in exterior wall installations, they deaden outside noise and offer insulating qualities similar to thermal-pane windows. Available in a variety of shapes, sizes, textures, and colors, glass block offers great design flexibility.

However, installation is not easy and should not be attempted by anyone other than a skilled mason. The blocks are nonporous, slick, and heavy, and require a footing because of their weight. During installation, they are slippery and difficult to align.

Alternatives to glass block are decorative glass-looking products that are made out of plastic materials. These substitutes are very strong and lightweight, and do not need a footing. Assembly is generally quicker with these types of acrylic and proprietary polymer blocks because they have an engineered inner locking system that fastens them together. Therefore, traditional mortar joints are not required. Some manufacturers have available a preformed, weather-resistant sealant that looks like a mortar joint to complete the finished product.

Glass Surfaces for Countertops or Backsplashes

At first glance, designers might consider a glass countertop only for the most dramatic of areas. Manufacturers of glass countertops present the surface as a maintenance-free, nonporous, hygienic countertop appropriate for actively used kitchens. The glass countertop manufacturing process will affect its heat resistance and durability against cracking from thermal shock if it is exposed to extreme temperature changes in a short time.

Recycled Glass

Several manufacturers offer counter surfacing materials manufactured with tempered glass, post-consumer recycled glass, and semiprecious man-made stones (see Figures 7.28, 7.29, and 7.30). Some companies make counter surfaces out of recycled glass bottles. These tops are very specialized and warrant careful review of the source manufacturing information as well as job site preparation guidelines and installation recommendations.

Tempered Glass

Tempered glass countertops come in a variety of textured finishes and thicknesses, ranging from to 4 inches. Colors and patterns can be included in the glass. Edge treatments can be polished, brushed, or textured. If the glass top is clear, a finished substrate must be below it. Wood, aluminum, or stainless steel can be used. Glass tops can also be back-painted, as seen in Figure 7.31, as well as accented with LED lighting.

HARDWOOD FLOORING

Throughout the house, wood floors are in great demand today, and wood is a viable flooring material for kitchen and bathroom projects. Hardwoods, renewable woods such as bamboo, and laminated wood floors are all possible choices.

Natural Wood Floors

Woods used for floors are mostly cold-weather hardwoods. The slow growth in cold temperatures provides the most durable wood possible. Pine flooring is the exception; it is a softwood that is sometimes used for flooring.

Oak is the most popular wood flooring in residential use because of its beautiful grain and durability. Walnut and cherry flooring also are often specified. Antique reclaimed pine, oak, hickory, and cherry woods are available for rustic interiors.

Awaiting the homeowner seeking broader horizons are exotic woods in either manufactured or custom floors, starting at roughly twice the price of oak. These woods range from the unusually beautiful rosewood to the exceptionally rugged ironwood, to pecan, teak, and the darkest ebony.

Wood floors are graded according to standards that measure color, grain, and imperfections. Clear or Select grades are generally specified for a formal look and for lighter finishes. Select and #1 Common grade are used for traditional and light-to-medium stained floors. For rustic and specialty areas, specify #2 Common, which features wide color variations and character marks like knots, streaks, and worm holes.

Laminated Wood Flooring

Prefinished laminated hardwood-looking floors are very functional for a kitchen or bathroom application. Available in tile and plank patterns, the durable laminated finish wears well in a high-traffic or high-use area. In the past, these floors were often very noisy. Manufacturers have gone to great lengths to sound-deaden the surfaces of these floors.

Laminate wood floors are available in highly textured finishes to echo the rustic nature of reclaimed floors. Laminate flooring is detailed under “Laminates” in this chapter.

Renewable Bamboo Flooring

Bamboo is a renewable grass product. The product used to make floors is up to 12 inches in diameter and 30 feet high. After harvesting, a 4-foot stump remains, which regenerates in five years.

The product comes in tongue-and-groove boards that can be glued or nailed. While comparable in price to -inch solid wood flooring, it is 30 percent harder than oak. The natural color of bamboo is light, resembling maple, and offers a clean, contemporary look. It is also available in a darker brown finish as well. Darker woods, because the color goes all the way through, can be sanded and refinished.

Bamboo can be installed anywhere an engineered wood product can be used, provided there is not too much moisture from the slab. A key ingredient to a successful bamboo installation is acclimation: The product should be delivered at least 48 hours before installation and allowed to sit in the environment where it will be installed, adjusting to the humidity level in the room so it will not shift after installation. This means bamboo floors should be installed only in conditioned spaces—not before the heating/air conditioning is turned on.

Floor Styles

There are several styles of flooring currently in use.

Parquet Flooring

Simulated 12- by 12-inch tiles or actual individual pieces of wood, parquet flooring is interlocking and blind-nailed. Parquet is sold by square footage. Allow for waste and cutting.

Plank Flooring

Plank flooring is interlocking flooring that is blind-nailed. Generally, random lengths of 9 to 96 inches are used as well as random widths. The width combinations are:

3 and 4 inches
3, 4, and 6 inches
3, 5, and 7 inches
4, 6, and 8 inches

Plank flooring is generally sold in bundles. In this case, random lengths and widths cannot be varied. Allow for waste and cutting.

Strip Flooring

Strip flooring is butt flooring that is top-nailed. All boards are the same width (2 inches and inches) and random lengths. Both plank and strip flooring are sold by board feet. Provide allowance for waste and cutting.

Finishing

To job site finish or to spec prefinish—to wax or not—the great debate between finishing techniques and materials rages on.

Finish for Dye-Stained or Natural Floors

Tung oil and wax are nearly forgotten but are beautiful ways to protect new or resurfaced floors. The surface can be renewed indefinitely by waxing as required. Two coats of name-brand polyurethane is a great way to protect floors too, but eventually it will wear and need to be recoated. This requires resanding since cured urethanes are so hard that a new coat does not adhere well to the old one. Patching worn areas that had been protected by polyurethane is rarely successful.

Wax Maintenance

Waxing the surface remains a time-honored finishing option. Many people think maintaining the finish requires that they continually be on their knees with a polishing rag. Actually, a waxed floor might need rewaxing only once a year—and it can be done with a small buffing machine that homeowners can buy or rent. New finishing innovations offer the consumer a waxed finish that eliminates rewaxing. It is really a choice between periodic maintenance or sanding and recoating your floors with polyurethane every five or six years. Penetrating oil and wax is the way it was done for years. Its soft look is incomparable.

Whitewash Flooring

The white-gray stain of whitewash is called a pigmented stain. It creates color by causing finely ground particles to adhere to the floor’s surface. Unlike a dye-based stain that penetrates the wood, a pigmented stain floats mostly on the floor’s surface like paint. The particles and resins of the pigmented stain limit penetration by tung oil and hence make good adhesion difficult. Tung oil or polyurethane also would give whitewashed floors an amber tone. A clear, nonyellowing varnish with an alcohol, toluene, oraliphatic-resin base is best; they are available through suppliers to professional floor finishers.

Prefinished Wood Floors

Modern prefinished floors have a durable penetrating sealer finish applied at the factory. It is a lovely finish that increases in beauty as one walks on it; if it is waxed, there are three major disadvantages.

The wax will be affected by water. The factory finish will not accept an additional protective coat of urethane. The installer must completely sand the floor, remove the factory finish, and start from scratch if the water-resistant properties of a urethane are required.
The prefinished floor does not allow the installer the opportunity to sand the entire surface after installation to insure a perfectly even surface.
The prefinished tiles or planks do not provide a completely sealed top surface. Therefore, moisture from kitchen or bathroom spills can get down between and under the wood floor.

Unfinished Wood Floors

Another approach in a kitchen or bathroom is to install an unfinished floor. A urethane finish that is impervious to stains and moisture can then be installed after the unfinished wood has been sanded smooth. The multiple coats of urethane provide a sealed top surface for a kitchen or bathroom environment.

Once finished, the floors should be inspected from a standing position. Flooring is not furniture; a finish similar to the one on a grand piano should not be expected. However, small particles of debris in the finish, a wavy look or feel along the strips, deep swirls or sander marks, and splotchy areas are indications of inadequate finishing or cleaning. A quality finish may include some of these problems, but they should not appear over the entire floor.

Hardwood floors come in either random-width or single-width (see Figure 7.32) planks. They can be combined with other flooring surfaces, such as tile, as seen in Figure 7.33. Hardwood floor planks can be installed vertically, horizontally, or on the diagonal, as seen in Figure 7.34.

LAMINATES

Laminate surfaces are found on countertops as well as cabinet interiors and exteriors, bathroom wall areas, and bathtub platforms. The following information describes the different types of laminates available.

Laminate Flooring

Laminate flooring is available that simulates hardwood flooring. It consists of several layers of material bonded together under high pressure, similar to the laminate products used for countertops. A clear melamine top layer protects the design layer. Then follows a plastic resin-impregnated paper layer with wood grain pattern printed on. These are bonded to a structural fiberboard core, backed by a layer of melamine. The clear topmost wear layer is smooth and can be slippery when wet, making laminate flooring a questionable option for baths.

Installing laminate flooring entails applying glue to the tongue-and-groove edges of each piece and pressing it into the abutting piece on the floor, without actually attaching it to the floor. The finish floor then “floats” above the substrate. There are currently two choices of underlayments, a -inch-thick, low-density fiber panel, 24 by 30 inches, or closed-cell foam cushion, which is shipped in rolls. Laminate flooring installs over concrete slab floors in much the same way as over wood-framed floors, except that a poly vapor barrier is placed over the slab before the underlayment material.

Composite Panels

A composite panel is composed of a layer of decorative paper impregnated with either melamine resin or polyester resin that is thermal set or thermal fused (fused with heat and pressure) to a substrate of particleboard, fiberboard, or some other material. It is sold as laminate board. This differs from high-pressure laminate, which is sold in sheets to fabricators who apply it to boards themselves. It is sometimes known as thermally fused melamine, low-pressure laminate, short-cycle laminate, melamine, or MCP.

Composite panels generally have just one print sheet on the surface, although some suppliers offer an overlay sheet. Both front and back of the panels are laminated to avoid warping. Generally, these panels are offered in a limited range of colors and patterns.

Composite panels are used in vertical or light-use horizontal applications, such as shelving. They should not be used for countertops.

Generally, the layer of decorative paper is thermal-fused to the substrate; therefore, there is a stronger bond than high-pressure laminate, paper, or other surfaces, which are mechanically fused to their substrate. The decorative paper will not delaminate because it becomes part of the substrate surface .

Composite panels have a lower weight than high-pressure laminates and offer some cost savings. However, composite panels typically offer less impact and abrasion resistance than high-pressure laminates.

High-Pressure Decorative Laminates

High-pressure decorative laminates typically are composed of three types of paper fused under heat and pressure into a single surface. The top coat is a melamine resin-saturated overlay. The second sheet is the decorative paper, consisting of a melamine resin-saturated paper carrying either a surface color or a gravure print. Under these two levels is a core or body made up of three to nine sheets of phenolic resin-saturated Kraft paper.

The entire assembly is pressed at between 1,000 to 1,200 pounds (454 kg– 544.8 kg) per square inch for about one hour at temperatures exceeding 280° F (137.78° C).

High-pressure decorative laminates are divided into forming and nonforming grades. Nonforming laminate is rigid, while forming laminate has been engineered to be more flexible so it can be bent under heat. This process is called post-forming.

The cabinet industry uses vertical-grade high-pressure decorative laminate that is 0.030 inch thick and may be formable. Countertop fabricators use a horizontal grade of high-pressure decorative laminate that is .050 inch thick and is typically not formable. The post-forming countertop grade is .042 inch thick.

High-pressure decorative laminates are used most frequently on countertop surfaces (see Figure 7.35). They are also used by many cabinet manufacturers for door styles. High-pressure decorative laminates are generally applied to a particleboard substrate. Green manufacturing processes now produce environmentally friendly substrates.

Of all the laminates available, high-pressure decorative laminates offer the greatest impact resistance. They are available in a wide range of colors, patterns, textures, and finishes, as seen in Figure 7.36 and Figure 7.37. Improved printing methods have created realistic stonelike patterns in laminate products. These surfaces can be textured to make their visual appearance even closer to natural stone. Some manufacturers offer special fire-resistant, abrasion-resistant, and chemical-resistant surfaces.

Generally, all high-pressure decorative laminates have excellent stain, abrasion, scuff, and wear resistance. However, because the laminate is applied on a substrate, if a chip occurs, it is not repairable. Smooth glossy finishes show scratches more easily than matte and textured. Solid colors typically show scratches more readily than pattern surfaces.

PAINT

Painting is one of the finishing steps in a kitchen or bathroom project. Often the designer is not responsible for this activity but is expected to understand the craft and make recommendations to the client. Therefore, a basic understanding of paints will aid the designer.

Paint Coverage

Paint is designed to bond itself to either a fresh, new surface or an old, uneven one. It should cover and help to protect the surface against the assaults of weather, airborne chemicals, and dirt. It should remain flexible enough to stay intact for years while the walls settle, vibrate, expand, and contract.

Paint Gloss Choices

The two major types of finishing coats—latex and alkyd paints—are available in different finish textures and sheen options. They are labeled eggshell, flat, semigloss/satin and high gloss.

Eggshell denotes a sheen that has a simulated textured finish. This is a very good choice if the wall surface is not perfectly smooth.
Flat paints provide a desirable low-glare surface for walls and ceilings that do not need frequent washing.
Semigloss or satin paints afford moderate durability with a less obtrusive shine for most woodwork.
High-gloss paints are the most wear-resistant and moisture-resistant because of their relatively high proportion of resin. The more resin, the heavier and tougher the film. The high-resin film of the glossy paints makes them ideal for areas subject to heavy use and frequent washing. However, the high sheen also makes any wall surface or finish imperfections very noticeable.

Paint Classification

Alkyd Paint

Alkyd paint has replaced oil-based paints in most cases. It is considered the best type of paint to use in rooms that will receive a great deal of use. Any painted or wallpapered surface or bare wood can be covered with paint made from a synthetic resin called alkyd (often combined with other resins). This type of paint will adhere to bare masonry or plaster but should not be used on bare wallboard because it will raise a nap on the wallboard’s paper covering.

Alkyd is the most durable of the common finishing paints. Most alkyds are sufficiently dry for a second coat in four to six hours. Although some latex paints will not bond well to alkyd, most other paints can be applied over it.

Latex Paint

Latex paint provides simplified cleanup, is practically odor-free, and is quick drying. Water is the solvent for latex paint, which is made of plastic resin and either acrylics or tough polyvinyl. Its water solvency gives latex advantages that have made it the most widely used paint for walls and ceilings in living areas, other than kitchens and bathrooms. Tools, spills, and hands can be cleaned with soap and water while the latex is wet. Latex paint is almost free of odor and harmful fumes, and a coat is usually dry in little more than an hour.

Latex adheres to most surfaces painted with flat oil or latex paint; it does not adhere to some alkyds and tends to peel away from any high-gloss finish. Latex can be used over unprimed wallboard, bare masonry, and fresh plaster patches that have set but are not quite dry.

Its water solvency imposes certain limitations on latex paint. Although it can be applied directly over wallpaper, the water in the paint may soak the paper away from the wall. If latex is applied to raw wood, the water swells the fibers and roughens the surface—a disadvantage where a smooth finish is desirable. Used on bare steel, it rusts the metal.

Flat latex is less resistant to abrasion and washing than either oil or alkyd paint, and the high-gloss latex is less shiny and less durable than comparable alkyds or oils.

Faux Finishes

Faux finishing is the fine art of creating illusions with paint. With combinations of colors, finishes, tools, and techniques, painters—or talented homeowners—create unique effects for wall and ceiling surfaces.

Faux techniques can be used to showcase a client’s individuality, create dramatic focal points, bring out the strengths of a room, or beautifully hide imperfections.

Trompe l’oeil. The term “trompe l’oeil” is French and means to “fool the eye.” It is often used to describe a three-dimensional mural created on a residential flat wall surface. It typically refers to a painted scene that fools the eye into looking like something with depth and distance.

Most major paint companies have faux finish systems and tools designed with well-written instructions for their application for the do-it-yourselfer. Many talented painting professionals are master faux finishers and will provide samples of their more creative techniques, upon request, for review by the designer and client.

The basic techniques typically seen are discussed next.

Color washing. This decorative paint technique creates visual texture by layering paint colors, bringing the room to life. Sometimes referred to as a modern-day fresco technique.
Crackling. Crackling is reflective of the aging process of wood finishes as well as deterioration of porcelain finishes. Porcelain crackle glazes are very small in pattern; weathered crackle glazes have a much larger overall effect. Many crackle techniques are created with color on color and may be best reserved for accent pieces. Some cabinet manufacturers offer crackle on their cabinetry.
Distressed wood finishes. Re-creating the antique appearance of furniture, paneling, trim, and accent pieces, this rustic finish softens the look of new wood, creating a vintage finish.

Distressing effects may include physical distressing, which is created with a variety of tools and techniques to age the wood. Additionally, distressed finishes may include wear-through (wearing through the top layer of the finish to the raw wood or base coat) as well as glazing techniques. Glazing techniques typically are defined as burnished, antique, or striate.
Dragging, combing, and striate. These brushing techniques create a directional pattern with layered colors.
Sponging and rag rolling. In this process, a multicolored/layered faux finish is created by dabbing color on with a rag, roller, or sponge.
Stippling. The stippling technique transforms a flat surface into a finely grained finish, adding dimension to the wall surface.

Other special effects. Patterns, stripes, fabric reproductions, basket weaves, and metallic finishes and glazing are other special finishes possible.

QUARTZ COMPOSITE

Quartz composite captures the hard durability of stone in a man-made surfacing material. Manufacturers claim it is more resilient than granite and more stain-resistant than solid surfacing. However, the feature that is attracting designers and homeowners is the polished, elegant look that is attainable with color and pattern consistency (see Figures 7.38 and 7.39). In addition to consistency in pattern, new quartz materials have been introduced that have more movement in their pattern, reflecting granite or marble veining, as seen in Figure 7.40.

Quartz composite (also known as engineered stone) is comprised of 93 percent quartz and 7 percent polymers, pigments, and binder. Since the composites are man-made, they do not have the variations in color and texture of granite or marble. And because they are nonporous, they do not have to be sealed. The composites also are more stain-resistant than natural stone, and resins add a flexibility that prevents chipping. The composites also have a color consistency (see Figure 7.41) that saves homeowners from having to carefully choose slabs to ensure they match.

SOLID SURFACING

Designers have a broad range of solid surface manufacturers to choose from. The designer should compare these materials against the guidelines detailed in this review of the major products to ascertain their level of quality and durability. Although the major product offerings vary in material composition and breadth of product line, following are some common features.

All solid surfacing material is stain resistant because it is nonporous and repairable because the color runs through the material.

All manufacturers recommend cleaning with a damp cloth or sponge and ordinary household soap or mild cleanser.

The color-through feature of these materials means severe stains (including cigarette burns) can be removed with a Scotchbrite™ pad and cleanser. Deeper scratches can be removed with 320- to 400-grit sandpaper, steel wool, and/or a buffing pad. A certified fabricator should repair deeper scratches or damage.

While most products have excellent resistance to household chemicals, paint removers and oven cleaners can sometimes cause damage.

All manufacturers offer solid surfaces with a factory finish that may be sanded to a matte finish or can be buffed or polished to a high gloss. No manufacturer recommends high-gloss finish on dark colors in heavy-use areas, such as countertop surfaces.

When properly fabricated, the seam between two pieces of all the solid surfacing materials is almost imperceptible. However, you should never promise an invisible seam.

Solid surfacing is often associated with traditional kitchen designs, as seen in Figure 7.42, but can also be shaped into unique designs, as seen in Figure 7.43. Solid surface materials can be combined into dramatic designs, as in the kitchen pictured in Figure 7.44. It is quite fabricator sensitive, and all manufacturers stress the importance of retaining only qualified and/or certified fabricators.

Manufacturers recommend that unsupported overhangs should not exceed 12 inches with -inch sheets and 6 inches with -inch sheets.

METAL COUNTERTOPS

Stainless Steel

Long a mainstay of the commercial kitchen, stainless steel is increasingly finding its way into the home as a countertop material, as seen in Figure 7.45. While it is heat- and stain-proof as well as noncorrosive, its main attraction to homeowners might be that it looks great next to popular upscale stainless steel kitchen appliances and in contemporary rooms. Designers are also incorporating stainless steel into bathroom designs, as seen in Figure 7.46.

Stainless steel is susceptible to dents and scratches; since it shows fingerprints, water marks, and smudges, it needs to be cleaned frequently.

Specialty Metals

Regional manufacturers produce pewter and copper countertops and other interesting metal surfacing. They are typically used as accent surfaces. Sourcing such products should be based on availability, installation expertise, and anticipated care requirements.

STONE

Flagstone

Flagging is a process whereby stone is split into thin slabs suitable for paving. Although generally identified as flagstone, bluestone and slate are the most common types of flagging stones used.

Bluestone is a rough sandstone paver, usually buff, blue, green, or gray in color. Slate is a smooth, gray, sedimentary stone. The thicker the stones, the less likely cracks will occur over the lifetime of the floor. The weight of the floor must be carefully computed when used over wood foundations.

Both bluestone and slate absorb heat rather than reflect it, and can get quite hot. Irregularly cut stones are the least expensive precut patterned stone.

Granite

Polished and honed granite countertops are a popular element of upscale kitchens and bathrooms. A natural stone countertop conveys a sense of beauty and warmth that is combined with a durable work surface that can withstand the expected high use of the new space. Figures 7.47, 7.48, 7.49, and 7.50 are examples of granite used in a variety of kitchen designs.

Granite begins as the liquid magma (hot molten stone) in the center of the earth. It is a type of stone called igneous. Due to extreme pressure within the earth and the absence of atmosphere, granite is formed very dense with no pores. Granite is really a host of ingredients including common minerals like feldspar, quartz, and mica. Feldspar is the major mineral component of granite, comprising 60 to 80 percent of the stone.

Granite is not as subject to staining as marble is because of an extremely low absorption rate. It also is less prone to scratching than marble. Its coarse grain also makes it more slip-resistant than marble.

Although granite is more appropriate than marble in a residential kitchen, it will be more serviceable if it is sealed. Many natural characteristics of the granite itself impact how porous the stone is, which determines if it should be sealed or not. However, most experts suggest initially sealing the granite when it is installed and resealing it every year or every two years.

Coloration

Granites vary widely in shade, clarity, and movement of pattern. There will be variations from slab to slab because of mineral content and veining, which adds to the character of the natural stone. Therefore, most granite selections are made at the stone yard, allowing clients to reserve their stone slabs.

Granite is available in three different finishes: a highly polished surface, which is appropriate for most countertop applications; a flamed finish, which has a rough-textured touch; and a honed finish, which provides a matte surface ideal for kitchen and bathroom floor applications.

Fabrication

Granite countertops are templated at the job site and fabricated at the yard (stone fabrication facility) before final installation at the job site. For some projects, measuring the countertop for installation can be completed when the cabinets are ordered. Working from the design layout and using newly developed measuring techniques to calculate exact dimensions, fabricators can prefabricate and deliver granite tops to the job site ready for installation.

Sizing

For most countertops, the optimum thickness is inches. The difference in cost over more fragile -inch slabs is minimal, and the added thickness gives more strength for extensions and cutouts while reducing the risk of breakage during transport and installation. This thickness also eliminates the need for a built-up edge. For example, a -inch granite slab can support 12 inches of overhang. Keep in mind the weight of these tops as you schedule the installation crews.

Granite slabs for countertops are available in a variety of sizes. Should more than one piece be necessary, the slabs can be matched to another in the sequence for color and grain consistency and then cut to butt squarely against each other. For this type of installation, locate seams in the most inconspicuous area possible, around cutouts or back corners.

Limestone

Limestone is popular for its earthy tones and its variety of colors and characteristics. Even more easily stained and etched than marble, limestone is not a typical kitchen countertop choice, but it does wear well enough to be used on floors, backsplash areas, and bathroom surfaces. To decrease the material’s susceptibility to staining, it must be regularly sealed.

Limestone is the result of millions of years of seashells and bones of sea creatures settling as the sediment on an ocean floor. The calcium in the bones and shells combines with the carbon dioxide in the water to form calcium carbonate, which is the basic mineral structure of all limestone and marble. Less than 3 percent of the stone is the color, which are simply other natural elements present when the stone is formed. Given enough heat and pressure, limestone will crystallize, resulting in marble. Limestone that has not been crystallized will not be able to be polished and will be honed.

Marble

Marble and limestone begin as the same material. Given enough heat and pressure, limestone will crystallize, resulting in marble. The crystal structure allows marble to take a polish that brings out the color of the other trace elements. Italian marble is world renowned. Belgium, Spain, Greece, and France are also known for their marble quarries. Many U.S. quarries also produce beautiful marble slabs.

The patterns and color of marble are more varied than those of granite, and they create a softer appearance overall. Like granite, marble fits well in either contemporary or traditional settings (see Figure 7.52). However, because marble is not as hard as granite, it is more subject to surface damage. Therefore, some experts rule out unsealed marble for use on kitchen countertops. If properly sealed, a marble surface can be used in an actively planned kitchen. It is important to note that different marbles vary in their hardness factor. Generally, the lighter the color of the marble, the more delicate it is. Others suggest using very hard marble to resist wear and honed marble to hide scratches. Unless the finish is etched, honed, or pummeled, marble is slippery when wet. Therefore, make sure your clients understand a polished marble floor will be slippery.

Coloration and Durability

Numerous minerals are present that account for the markings and color range associated with marble. Marble is available in a wide color palette. Some marbles feature fluid directional patterns; others offer a general, overall design.

The more colorful and decorative the marble, the more fragile it is. Each vein in a stone is the result of natural discoloration from water. It is like a tiny fracture that, under pressure, can lead to breakage. Marble is rated according to an A-B-C-D classification based on the fragility of the stones. A and B marbles are solid and sound. C and D marbles are the most fragile but also the most colorful and decorative.

The grade of marble, rarity of the specific type of stone, and demand for the type of material affects pricing. Before specifying marble, advise the client about durability.

Marble is soft and porous. This means it stains easily if not initially sealed with at least two coats of a penetrating seal. In addition, it must be resealed frequently. White marble is softer and less dense than colored marble, so it is more easily stained. Dark marble shows scratches more easily.

Slate

Durable, elegant, and acid- and stain-resistant, slate has a natural cleft, a split face, and a texture similar to split-cedar shingles. New England slate is stronger than granite and marble because it is made of laminated stone. The wide range of colors includes hues that range from earth tones to reds (see Figure 7.53). With its satiny, nonshiny surface, a slate countertop would blend well with matte finish cabinets in Shaker-and Victorian-style houses, where high-gloss granite might be overwhelming. But beware: Tables and chairs may rock on the irregular cleft face of a slate floor.

Slate is a metamorphic rock formed from the low-grade metamorphism of the sedimentary rock shale. Slate, like shale (mudstone), is a very fine-grained rock of mostly microscopic quartz and calcite. Slate can also contain some of the same minerals found in granite, which makes some slate iridescent and/or hard. The alteration of shale by heat and pressure produces the pronounced partings that give slate its layered characteristics. Like limestone and marble, the colors come from trace metals. The vivid colors on most Chinese and Indian slate are the result of splitting the slate along natural layers, which exposes the metals to the atmosphere and causes them to rust.

Unlike granite and marble, slate—because it is nonporous—does not require a penetrating sealer, but a clear surface wax gives slate a wet look and enhances its color. Although slate scratches easily, marks that do not come off with normal cleaning usually can be removed with steel wool.

Soapstone

Soapstone earns kudos as a countertop for its resistance to chemicals and its appealing matte, smooth finish. One disadvantage: The maximum length of a slab of soapstone is 4 to 6 feet (1.2192 m to 1.8288 m), whereas granite slabs measure from 8 to 12 feet (2.4384 m to 3.6576 m) long. As for flooring, a low supply of soapstone has kept prices too high for widespread use.

Unlike granite and marble, soapstone—because it is nonporous— does not require a penetrating sealer. Treat soapstone with mineral oil monthly during the first year to speed the natural oxidation from light gray to a rich dark gray. After a year, clean with a standard household solution. Dents in soapstone can be feathered out with a block and sandpaper.

Terrazzo

An alternative to marble is terrazzo—a combination of marble, concrete, and cement that can be formed into a variety of configurations, such as a countertop with an integral sink.

Terrazzo is a slurry mixture of stone chips consisting of marble and cement. This marble aggregate concrete produces a hard and durable flooring surface. It is also used as a wall treatment.

It is available in field tiles of a more solid nature and decorative border tiles in various patterns and colors to match or contrast with the field tiles. Such a combination can provide a dramatic old-world look.

Travertine

Travertine begins as limestone, which, over time through geological shifting, has found its way deep in the earth. The porous nature of limestone makes it a great reservoir for liquids. Aquifers, which are enormous underground pools of water that feed our wells, were formed when the ice that covered much of the Earth melted. The water was absorbed by limestone. Heated by the earth’s inner core, the water rises as steam and hot pressurized water to form geysers. This rising hot water dissolves the limestone and brings with it granules from below, forming mud beds on the surface. If enough time transpires and the mud beds cool, they will crystallize into solid stone called travertine.

Stone Installation Guidelines

To determine the exact measurements necessary for a countertop, once the base cabinets are in place, installers first create a template on site that adjusts for dimensional inconsistencies resulting from the settling of cabinetry and walls. Once the template is complete, a stone fabricator uses it to create the slabs, including the necessary cutouts, such as those for a sink. While most of the cutting and finishing is done at the fabricator’s workshop, installers make minor cuts on site for a custom fit. The installers then place slabs together as tightly as possible, pack the joints with epoxy and adhesive, allow it to harden, and sand and buff the joints until they are almost invisible.

For flooring, a qualified installer cuts the tile to precise measurements on the job site, makes sure the slippage—the difference in face plane between tiles—falls within 1/12th of an inch of “true” (perfectly flat), and shuffles similar colors together to create a uniform appearance.

Although stone is many times heavier than man-made materials, it usually requires no special reinforcement of cabinetry or subflooring. Substrates between the joints and the stone floor, in order of preference according to rigidity, are a mortar or sand cement bed; a backer board of concrete and ash; and wood.

Slab versus Tile

Traditionally, stones are used in large slabs. Suppliers differ on the size and thickness of countertops they stock. Many slabs are available inches thick. Other suppliers, however, stock -inch-thick countertops; some carry -inch-thick slabs. The appearance of a -inch-thick counter can be achieved by joining the -inch counter to a -inch edge treatment. If pieces are glued together, the seam will be noticeable. It is better to offset one -inch slab from the second -inch slab of stone to minimize the joint seam.

Alternatives are 6- by 6-inch, 12- by 12-inch, and 24- by 24-inch tiles that are installed by a tile setter following specifications developed by the Ceramic Tile Institute.

VINYL RESILIENT FLOORING

Better materials and the manufacturers’ ability to improve photographic realism have improved the ability of vinyl to mimic natural materials, such as wood, marble, slate, granite and ceramic tile. However, the trend today in vinyl floor patterns is toward graphic simplicity that highlights simple, geometric patterns. Vinyl remains one of the easiest floors to maintain.

Vinyl Sheet

Vinyl sheet flooring is available as inlaid (the pattern going throughout the wear layer of vinyl) and as rotogravure (the pattern is printed on a sheet). Both are then covered with a layer of wearing surface. The thickness of the wear layer does not affect the durability of the floor or the price. Thick vinyl wear layers resist scuff and stains well but lose their gloss more quickly than a thinner urethane wear layer, which maintains a high-gloss surface better and provides a more scuff-resistant surface.

Vinyl sheet floor coverings range from having no cushion at all to a thick cushion beneath the wear layer. Although the thick cushion increases comfort, heavy objects can dent the vinyl.

Vinyl Tile

Solid or pure vinyl tiles are homogeneous vinyl that is unbacked and usually has uniform composition throughout. By far, the biggest seller is vinyl composition tile called vinyl tile.

Both solid (pure) and composition tile can be installed on suspended wood subfloors or over on-grade and below-grade concrete. They are durable and easily cleaned. Solid vinyl tiles do not have a wear layer topcoat. Composition vinyl tiles do have a wear layer top-coat and, therefore, are easier to maintain than pure vinyl tiles.

WALLPAPER

Within the kitchen and bathroom industry, a perplexing dilemma continually faces the designer—how to combine style with function. Wall coverings (see Figure 7.54) are often the planner’s salvation.

Manufacturing Methods

The patterns in wall coverings are achieved by using two methods: machine prints and hand prints. In machine printing, all the wallpaper rolls are printed in a continuous run and are identical in color. Hand prints are printed by a process called silk screening and cannot be matched for color as closely as machine prints because each roll is individually hand-screened with slight color or variations occurring from roll to roll. To protect the hand print edges, the rolls are normally manufactured with selvages (untrimmed edges). A color variation will also occur in grass cloths and similar materials. The fibers from which they are made do not respond evenly to dyes; color gradually lightens or darkens from one edge of a strip to the other, and varies along the length of the roll.

Determining Quantities

The following procedure is suggested to determine wallpaper quantities for papers from American sources, which are based on Imperial sizes and generally have 60 square feet of product on each double roll.

Measure the width of each wall to be prepared. Round the figure up to the next full foot measurement.
Add the wall dimensions together.
Multiply this figure by the ceiling height plus 4”. Again, round up the figure to the next full foot measurement.
Do not subtract the wall space covered by windows, doors, and appliances from the total square footage to be covered because the fall-off material must be discarded to maintain the match.
Depending on the pattern match, divide the actual wall space to be covered as follows:
18” Repeat = Divide by 30

19” to 24” Repeat = Divide by 27

25” Repeat = Divide by 24
Always round up to the next full number of rolls.

For papers, which are sized metrically, you can assume 28 to 30 square feet per roll. Therefore, you generally need to order twice the amount of product.

Job Site Considerations

The finished appearance of the wall covering can be only as good as the wall surface under it. The walls must be clean and smooth. Although foils are notorious for allowing imperfections to telescope through the covering, all wall coverings will reveal the surface below them to some extent. Walls must be properly sealed. The correct adhesive for the wall covering must be used.

Always open all rolls and inspect them for color match or defects before any installation begins. Because dye lots vary, it is important to check the material before installation begins. This same concern prohibits the installation of part of the wall covering before all the material ordered arrives.

SUMMARY

The variety of equipment and materials available for the kitchen and bathroom is extensive. Designers must have a broad base of knowledge to help them differentiate between the major categories. The information in this volume of the NKBA Professional Resource Library will help the designer reach this first plateau of product knowledge.

Once you have mastered this information, concentrate your efforts on learning everything you can about the specific surfacing products you represent. Visit the manufacturing facility, if possible. Spend time with your distributor’s representative learning about individual materials. Review possible products with your fabricator and installation experts as well.

Next, commit yourself to faithfully reading trade journals and attending local, regional, and product exhibitions so your surface material knowledge will be expanded each year of your professional practice. Regularly visiting reputable Web sites and attending webinars presented by respected manufacturers is an excellent way to continue your education.

Knowing all that is available is still not enough. You must challenge yourself to creatively combine the products available to you.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Explain the difference between a prefinished wood countertop and a polyurethane-finished wood countertop. (See “Wood Sealed with Polyurethane” page 235)
What does the term “crazing” mean as it relates to cast polymer bathroom fixtures? (See “Gel Coat Application” page 237)
What is the base material of a glazed tile versus a quarry tile? (See “Types of Tile” pages 240 and 246)
Can you use nonsanded grout in a tile installation with grout lines -inch thick? (See “Grouts” page 250)
Concrete countertops can only be installed in place. [True or False] (See “Concrete” page 257)
Describe the difference between a laminate wood floor and a renewable bamboo floor. (See “Renewable Bamboo Flooring” page 262)
Describe the difference among flat paint, semigloss paint, and high-gloss paint. (See “Paint Gloss Choices” page 268)
What is the difference between a quartz countertop and a granite countertop from a core material standpoint? (See “Quartz Composite” page 269)
List three advantages of solid surfacing material relating to durability of product. (See “Solid Surfacing” page 271)
Explain what the marble classifications of A, B, C, and D are based on. (See “Coloration and Durability” page 279)
What is the difference between vinyl flooring that are inlaid as opposed to rotogravure? (See “Vinyl Sheet” page 282)