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Self-Esteem Change: Addressing the Possibility of Enduring Improvements in Feelings of Self-Worth
Most definitions of self-esteem suggest that it is a stable and enduring characteristic. Rosenberg (1965), for example, described self-esteem as “the evaluation which an individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself [or herself]; it expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval” (p. 5, emphasis added). Whether or not self-esteem is indeed stable, however, is an important question that has received considerable attention in the research literature (Harter & Whitesell, 2003). The occurrence of short-term fluctuations in self-esteem for many individuals has been convincingly demonstrated (Kernis, Cornell, Sun, & Berry, 1993). This essay, however, examines whether self-esteem can change in a more enduring manner. Additionally, a consideration of those aspects of self-esteem that may be more or less resistant to long-term change is undertaken. We conclude with a discussion of strategies that individuals may be able to use in a personal change program to modify their self-esteem.
Does Self-Esteem Change?
Developmental research provides evidence that self-esteem does change over the life course. Overall, findings of this research suggest that the average level of self-esteem is notably high during early childhood before becoming established at a somewhat lower level during middle and late childhood and then declines during the transition to adolescence (Eccles, Wigfield, Flanagan, Miller, Reuman, & Yee, 1989; Marsh, 1989; Marsh, Barnes, Cairns, & Tidman, 1984; Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling, & Potter, 2002; Savin-Williams & Demo, 1984; Twenge & Campbell, 2001). A recent large-scale (n = 326,641), cross-sectional, internet-based study also found evidence of change in levels of self-esteem during adulthood (Robins et al., 2002). These findings suggest that the self-esteem of adults tends to increase during their mid- to late 20s as well as in their 50s and 60s, but decrease significantly among adults of age 70 and older (Robins et al., 2002).
The preceding trends reflect only average self-esteem scores across all study participants and thus provide data only about mean group change over time. It is possible, however, that even when the average level of self-esteem changes with age, the self-esteem of different individuals relative to others in their age group may remain largely the same if everyone tends to shift to a similar degree. Conversely, even when there is little or no change in the group mean level of self-esteem, there may be considerable flux in self-esteem levels of different individuals with the increases of some offsetting the decreases of others. For these reasons, studies restricted to analyses of group averages provide limited information regarding whether the self-esteem of individuals changes and, if so, to what extent and with what degree of permanency.
One approach to gauging the extent of change in self-esteem at the individual level is to compute correlations between scores on a measure of self-esteem for a given set of individuals across different time points. These correlations indicate the degree to which the relative ordering of individuals according to their reported levels of self-esteem is maintained over time (this is also referred to as rank-order stability). Thus, lower test–retest correlations will occur to the extent that individuals are changing in self-esteem over time and reported levels of self-esteem are increasing over time for some individuals and decreasing for others. A meta-analysis of these types of correlations found evidence of moderate stability in self-esteem levels (correlations ranged from .40 to .65; correlations corrected for measurement error ranged from .53 to .71) over an average time interval of 3.2 years (SD = 4.4; Trzesniewski, Donnellan, & Robins, 2003). Stability was lowest in childhood, increasing from adolescence to adulthood, and then decreasing from adulthood to old age. This pattern of findings is similar to that found in a meta-analysis of personality trait stability (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000).
To examine change and stability in self-esteem over time at the individual level more directly, several studies have employed cluster analysis. This statistical procedure has been used to group individuals by their pattern of responses on a measure of self-esteem administered repeatedly over time. In a two-year, longitudinal study of 128 early adolescents experiencing the transition from elementary school to junior high (Hirsch & DuBois, 1991), cluster analysis revealed four groups of youth who were distinguished by their trajectories of self-esteem over four waves of assessment: consistently high (35%), chronically low (13%), steeply declining (21%), and small increase (31%). Similar trajectories of change were identified in a larger study of youth (n = 1160) assessed four times from 6th through 10th grade (Zimmerman, Copeland, Shope, & Dielman, 1997). Nearly half of the sample in this study comprised a consistently high self-esteem group and 13% a consistently low self-esteem group, whereas approximately 20% were in moderate and rising self-esteem and steadily decreasing self-esteem groups, respectively. Taken together these studies suggest that slightly more than half of adolescents experience little or no change in their levels of self-esteem even over periods as long as 4 years, whereas 20% experience decreases in self-esteem and another 20–30% experience increases in self-esteem.
The answer to whether self-esteem ever truly changes appears to be yes. In addition to evidence that the typical level of self-esteem changes in somewhat predictable ways over the course of development, it appears that there is only moderate stability of relative levels of self-esteem within any age group and that, at least during adolescence, individual trajectories of increasing or decreasing self-esteem are not uncommon. At the same time, it seems that self-esteem over the life course may be fairly stable such that even during periods of expected change (i.e., adolescence), stability is at least as common as patterns of growth or decline.
What Aspects of Self-Esteem are Difficult to Change?
Given evidence that self-esteem is stable over time for many people, consideration must be given to what may make self-esteem resistant to change. Self-verification theory posits that individuals are invested in maintaining consistent views of themselves (Swann, Rentfrow, & Guinn, 2002). Stable self-perceptions are believed to provide a feeling of security, as well as guidance regarding social interactions. Findings from experimental research, for example, indicate that people will make significant efforts to verify existing self-concepts by seeking self-confirmatory feedback and choosing interaction partners more likely to confirm self-views, even negative one’s (see Swann, 1990, for a review). Attempts to maintain existing self-concepts are more likely for important rather than unimportant self-views (Swann & Pelham, 2002). Thus, aspects of self-evaluation that are central to an individuals overall sense of self-worth may be the most difficult to change.
It also may be difficult to change aspects of self-esteem that are based on personal characteristics that are themselves difficult to alter. For example, aspects of self-esteem related to social interactions may be challenging to modify because the personality traits that contribute to social success (e.g., extraversion) have been indicated to be quite stable (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000). Additionally, individuals who are not successful socially in one environment, such as youth who are rejected by their peers, may have negative social experiences in other environments (Hardy, Bukowski, & Sippola, 2002). For such individuals, efforts to obtain increased social support or validation in new environments may have the effect of reinforcing, rather than ameliorating, feelings of low self-esteem that stem from a sense of social inadequacy.
Similar considerations apply to aspects of self-esteem that are influenced by factors in the person’s environment that are difficult to change or avoid. Illustratively, thinness is a pervasive standard for what constitutes physical attractiveness in Western culture (Thompson & Stice, 2001). Individuals with higher body weight, furthermore, are less likely to date and more likely to experience other types of social rejection (Halpern, Udry, Campbell, & Suchindran, 1999; Neumark-Sztainer, Falkner, Story, Perry, Hannan, & Mulert, 2002). For an individual who is overweight, avoiding exposure to negative appearance related feedback or the message that thinness is the standard for attractiveness is likely to be difficult.
Children and adolescents, in particular, have limited control over the environments within which they must function. Youth have restricted personal autonomy (Harter & Whitesell, 2003) and, thus, limited influence over the schools they attend, the peer groups to which they are exposed, and their home life. Adults typically have more freedom to select the environments in which they function. There are, however, many circumstances that can make leaving a given environment difficult. For example, although troubled marriages and problematic work environments have been indicated to negatively influence self-esteem (Saks & Ashforth, 1997; Shackelford, 2001; Voss, Markiewicz, & Doyle, 1999; Wiener, Muczyk, & Martin, 1992), one can imagine many reasons (e.g., children’s needs, financial constraints) why individuals might be unable to easily remove themselves from these types of situations.
How can Self-Esteem be Changed?
These considerations highlight the potential for both psychological and environmental challenges to any efforts that an individual might make to deliberately enhance his or her self-esteem. Nonetheless, as noted, there is considerable evidence that changes in self-esteem do occur throughout the life span. This, of course, is not equivalent to demonstrating that self-esteem can be purposefully modified in a positive direction. However, findings from evaluations of programs designed to enhance self-esteem provide persuasive evidence that this type of change is possible as well (Haney & Durlak, 1998; Hattie, 1992). In a meta-analysis of esteem-enhaneement programs for children, adolescents, and adults, Hattie (1992) reported an average effect size of .37 across 89 studies. This finding indicates that positive change on self-concept or self-esteem was evident for 65% of participants in the typical intervention. The size of the effect reported is indicative of moderate gains in self-esteem. Whether such gains are lasting and thus sustained over time has not been sufficiently investigated.
Hattie (1992) found that interventions intended to increase self-esteem directly or indirectly were similarly effective. The majority of the direct programs were didactic and individually focused. These programs typically are geared toward helping participants identify and appreciate positive sources of self-esteem in their lives and toward teaching cognitive-behavioral techniques that can be used in combating psychological threats to self-esteem (e.g., listing evidence disputing negative self-evaluations). Programs termed indirect were more likely to address skills and behaviors that may form the basis for making self-evaluations (e.g., enhancing academic achievement). A comprehensive psychosocial approach in which attention is given to the “inner” and “outer” forces affecting self-esteem may produce the best results (Hamachek, 1994).
Components from self-esteem enhancement interventions may be adapted for the purposes of a personal change program. However, just as group-based self-esteem programs with a basis in theory are more effective (Haney & Durlak, 1998), attempts by an individual to change his or her self-esteem are likely to be more successful if the individual has a sound understanding of the factors that are most likely to influence feelings of self-worth. As a first step, an individual seeking to change his or her self-esteem thus should become familiar with fundamental concepts about how self-esteem is developed and maintained.
James (1890) theorized that self-esteem is formed by comparing perceptions of one’s accomplishments to expectations of competence. From a multidimensional view of the self-system, these types of comparisons occur in multiple areas (e.g., work, relationships with family, physical appearance). Resulting appraisals for each domain then contribute to an overall sense of self-worth (Byrne, 1996; Harter, 1999). The specific domains that contribute most to self-esteem vary across individuals. Research, however, consistently indicates that both experiences of mastery or success and a sense of being valued by significant others are fundamentally important sources of self-esteem (Harter, 1999; Twenge & Campbell, 2001). Individuals seeking to raise their self-esteem thus should examine how positive or negative their self-evaluations are across a range of domains including performance at work, school, and other activities of personal importance (e.g., athletics or hobbies), as well as in regard to the quality of their relationships with friends, family, and romantic partners. Self-evaluations of appearance also merit consideration given that body image is one of the strongest predictors of overall feelings of self-worth (Harter, 1999).
Once those domains that seem likely to be the biggest culprits in lowering self-esteem are identified, the next step would be to assess the likely sources of one’s negative self-evaluations within different domains. It may be useful to distinguish aspects of low self-esteem that stem primarily from objective personal or environmental factors (e.g., a lack of skills needed to perform well at one’s job or an adverse work environment) and those that are attributable to more subjective, psychological factors. Two classes of psychological factors that should be considered are unrealistic beliefs about personal deficits (e.g., a conviction that one is unsuccessful at one’s job despite receiving positive evaluations) and the adoption of unreasonably high expectations or standards that cannot be met (e.g., a feeling that one must do better than any other employee at all aspects of work; Shirk, Burwell, & Harter, 2003).
Cognitive processes leading to low self-esteem such as overly critical self-perceptions or perfectionistic tendencies can be addressed by standard cognitive therapy techniques (Beck, 1995; Freeman, Pretzer, Fleming, & Simon, 1990; Young, 1999). General cognitive therapy methods have been adapted for individual use via self-help workbooks such as Mind Over Mood (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995). Workbook exercises can be utilized to challenge automatic thoughts, beliefs, and assumptions that are fueling negative self-evaluations. For example, systematically examining evidence that does not support negative beliefs about oneself may enable more favorable self-evaluations to take root in those areas (e.g., I’ve received positive evaluations from my supervisor which suggests that I am doing well at work). These modified beliefs, in turn, can provide the foundation for enhanced overall feelings of self-worth.
It also is important to recognize that the preceding types of techniques, if practiced in the extreme, paradoxically carry the risk of proving harmful to self-esteem (not to mention one’s overall health and well-being). Consider, for example, a pervasive tendency to discount or “filter out” evidence of one’s shortcomings. Although this type of denial might bolster (or at least protect) a person’s self-esteem in the short term, departures from reality like this are more likely in the long run to jeopardize one’s chances for sustaining a favorable sense of self-worth (DuBois, 2003). Taking action to address personal limitations is apt to be a more fruitful approach because this has the potential to lead to actual improvements in skills and functioning and thus provide a more sustained source of positive self-evaluation.
In accordance with these considerations, several of the interventions that have proved most successful at enhancing levels of self-esteem are oriented toward increasing participants’ actual day-to-day experiences of mastery and social connectedness (DuBois, 2003). These include interventions that focus primarily on skill development, as well as those that seek to modify aspects of the environment. For a personal self-esteem change program, efforts could be geared toward strengthening one’s skills or performance within areas where objective skill or performance limitations are identified as contributing to negative self-evaluations. For example, with respect to the areas of work and personal relationships, a person might pursue additional education to facilitate career advancement and endeavor to strengthen social skills through work with a therapist. As noted, programs that change environmental factors (e.g., restructuring schools) also have been found to be an effective means of improving feelings of self-worth (DuBois, 2003). Individuals, of course, may have difficulty personally modifying such aspects of their environments. Nonetheless, a person may be able to make some headway in this regard by seeking out new environments that are more affirming and by avoiding or taking steps to modify those aspects of a current environment that are damaging to self-esteem. For example, continuing with the previous example, in the area of work the person might attempt to find a new job that is a better match for his or her skills and in the area of personal relationships the person could seek marital therapy to help decrease critical feedback from a spouse.
Conclusion
Self-esteem appears to be fairly stable for most people most of the time. It is equally apparent, however, that levels of self-esteem do change over the life course and, furthermore, that self-esteem can be increased deliberately through planned interventions. Striving to alter personal beliefs and expectations that detract from feelings of self-worth and concerted efforts to engineer more frequent experiences of success and social connectedness in one’s day-to-day life are both viable avenues for improving self-esteem. Given the inherent challenges, the involvement of significant others who can provide support for positive change is a recommended component of any plan to improve self-esteem.
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