1 Joanne Braxton, “Paul Laurence Dunbar,” in The Concise Oxford Companion to African American Literature, eds. William L. Andrews, Frances Smith-Foster, and Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 119–20.
2 Paul Laurence Dunbar, The Complete Poems of Paul Laurence Dunbar (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1922), 50–51.
3 William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880 (New York: Atheneum, 1935), 104, 111.
4 Most of what we know about war and the politics of memory in the nineteenth century is based on the study of the Civil War and its immediate aftermath. See, for example, the insightful work of David Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War and American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003) and Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1991).
5 US Congress, Senate, Committee on Veterans’ Affairs, Medal of Honor Recipients, 1863–1978: “In the Name of the Congress of the United States” (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1979), 1–5; Brevet Major-General St. Clair A. Mulholland, Military Order Congress Medal of Honor Legion of the United States (Philadelphia: Town Printing Company, 1905), 51–52.
6 Department of the Army, The Medal of Honor of the United States (1948), 8; Mark C. Mollan, “The Army Medal of Honor: The First Fifty-Five Years,” Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives and Records Administration 33:2 (Summer 2001), www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2001/summer/medal-of-honor-1.html (accessed March 8, 2018).
7 “The Obituary of Milton Lee Olive,” undated; Letter, Milton Olive Jr. to Pauline Redmond Coggs, May 1968, all in the Pauline Redmond Coggs Clipping File (in the possession of the author).
8 Lyndon B. Johnson, “Remarks Upon Presenting the Medal of Honor (Posthumous) to the Father of Milton L. Olive III, April 21, 1966, Online, by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=27552 (accessed January 9, 2017).
9 Frank N. Schubert, “Reflection Essay: Sesquicentennial Reflection on the Black Regulars,” Journal of Military History 80:4 (October 2016), 1011–16.
10 Colin L. Powell, with Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey (New York: Random House, 1995), 591.
1 Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the Civil War (1953, rep. New York: Russell & Russell, 1968); Dudley Taylor Cornish, The Sable Arm: Negro Troops in the Union Army, 1861–1865 (1956, rep. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1966); James M. McPherson, The Negro’s Civil War: How American Negroes Felt and Acted during the War for the Union (New York: Pantheon Books, 1965); Ira Berlin, et al., Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867, Series II: The Black Military Experience (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Bernard Nalty, Strength for the Fight (New York: Free Press, 1986); Joseph T. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle (New York: Free Press, 1990); Noah A. Trudeau, Like Men of War: Black Troops in the Civil War, 1862–1865 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1998); Keith Wilson, Camp Fires of Freedom: The Camp Life of Black Soldiers during the Civil War (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2002); John David Smith, ed., Black Solders in Blue: African American Troops in the Civil War Era (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Stephen V. Ash, Firebrand of Liberty: The Story of Two Black Regiments that Changed the Course of the Civil War (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008).
2 William Dobak, Freedom by the Sword: The US Colored Troops, 1862–1867 (Washington, DC: The Center of Military History, 2011), 9–10. For more on Sherman’s disparaging views on black units, see Joseph T. Glatthaar, Forged in Battle, 197.
3 William W. Freehling, “Sure, Black Troops Helped the Union Win the Civil War, But How?” (Presentation at the Southern Historical Association Meeting, November 2000), courtesy of Frank N. Schubert (in the possession of the author).
4 William A. Dobak, Freedom by the Sword, 8; James McPherson, The Negro’s Civil War: How American Negroes Felt and Acted during the War for the Union (New York: Pantheon Books, 1965), 48–49; Dudley Taylor Cornish, The Sable Arm, 130.
5 Milton M. Holland, Athens (OH) Messenger (February 4, 1864), reprinted in Edwin S. Redkey, ed., A Grand Army of Black Men: Letters from African American Soldiers in the Union Army, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 93.
6 “Interesting Correspondence,” Liberator (November 6, 1863), 45.
7 “The Flag Never Touched the Ground,” in W. F. Beyer and O. F. Keydel, eds., Deeds of Valor from the Records in the Archives of the United States Government: How American Heroes Won the Medal of Honor (Detroit, MI: The Perrien-Keydel Company, 1907), 258–59; Brevet Major-General St. Clair A. Mulholland, Military Order Congress Medal of Honor Legion of the United States (Philadelphia: Town Printing Company, 1905), 309–10; Report of Col. Edward N. Hallowell, Fifty-Fourth Massachusetts (Colored) Infantry, November 7, 1863, OR, Ser. I, Vol. 28, Part 1, 362; Letter, Cpl. James G. Gooding to the Editors of the New Bedford Mercury, July 20, 1863, in Virginia M. Adams, ed., On the Altar of Freedom: A Black Soldier’s Civil War Letters from the Front / James Henry Gooding (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1991), 36–39. For observations made by other noncommissioned officers with the 54th Massachusetts who were present at the front at the time, see Donald Yacovone, ed., A Voice of Thunder: The Civil War Letters of George E. Stephens (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997).
8 Matt Helm, “William H. Carney, 1840–1908,” BlackPast.Org, www.blackpast.org/aah/carney-william-h-1840-1908 (accessed February 27, 2017); Letter, Gooding to the New Bedford Mercury, May 20, 1863, in Adams, ed., On the Altar of Freedom, 22.
9 Melvin Claxton and Mark Puls, Uncommon Valor: A Story of Race, Patriotism, and Glory in the Final Battles of the Civil War (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006), 18.
10 Charles Johnson Jr., “Christian Abraham Fleetwood,” in Dictionary of American Negro Biography, eds. Rayford W. Logan and Michael R. Winston (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1982), 123–24.
11 Letter, Christian A. Fleetwood to Dr. James Hall, June 8, 1865, Christian A. Fleetwood Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
12 “The Negro as a Soldier,” written by Christian A. Fleetwood, Late Sergeant-Major 4th US Colored Troops, for the Negro Congress at the Cotton States and International Exposition, Atlanta, Georgia, November 11 to November 28, 1895 (Washington, DC: Howard University Print, 1895), 6.
13 Benjamin Butler, Butler’s Book: Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of Major General Benjamin Butler (Boston: AM Thayer & Co., 1892), 721–22; Letter, Asst. Adj. Gen. Edward W. Smith to Headquarters Department of Virginia and North Carolina, Army of the James, October 11, 1864, OR, Ser. I, Vol. 42, Part 3, 168–69; Chaplain (Col.) John Brinsfield, “The Battle of New Market Heights,” Soldiers 51:2 (February 1996), 50; Barry Popcock, “A Shower of Stars at New Market Heights; Butler’s ‘Contrabands’ Prove Their Mettle,” Civil War Magazine 46 (August 1994), 34; Richard J. Sommers, Richmond Redeemed: The Siege at Petersburg (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1981), 75–76; Letter, Milton Holland to the Athens (OH) Messenger, July 24, 1864, in A Grand Army of Black Men, 106; John E. Aliyetti, “Gallantry Under Fire,” Civil War Times Illustrated 35:5 (October 1996), 53–54; www.history.army.mil/moh/civilwar_gl.html (accessed February 27, 2017); Letter, MG EOC, HQ, Department of VA, April 17, 1865, to AAG, Brevet Brig. Gen. E. D. Townsend, Record Group 94, Enlisted Branch, LR, 1862–1889, National Archives and Records Administration II, College Park, MD (hereafter cited as NARA II); Maj. Augustus S. Boernstein, 4th USCT, Headquarters in the Field, VA, to AAG 3rd Division, 18th Army Corps, October 4, 1864, RG 94, NARA II.
14 Christian A. Fleetwood, “Thought Only of Saving the Flag,” in Deeds of Valor: From Records in the Archives of the United States Government; How American Heroes Won the Medal of Honor; History of Our Recent Wars and Explorations, From Personal Reminiscences and Records of Officers and Enlisted Men Who were Rewarded by Congress for Most Conspicuous Acts of Bravery on the Battlefield on the High Seas and in Arctic Explorations, eds. W. F. Beyer and O. F. Keydel (Detroit, MI: The Perrien-Keydel Co., 1906), 434–35.
15 “Interview with Dorothy Franks,” Archie P. McDonald, “Milton M. Holland,” by Loblolly Staff, all in Jennifer Johnson, ed., Milton M. Holland: Panola County Recipient of the Medal of Honor (Gary, TX: Loblolly, Inc., 1992).
16 “Biographical Sketch: Andrew Jackson Smith,” Frank N. Schubert Clipping File (in the possession of the author).
17 “The Battle of Honey Hill,” The Liberator (December 16, 1864), 3; Charles B. Fox, Record of the Service of the Fifty-Fifth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry (Cambridge: Press of J. Wilson and Son, 1868), 41–43; Noah Andre Trudeau, ed., Voices of the 55th: Letters from the 55th Massachusetts Volunteers, 1861–1865, 25–27.
18 Andrew Smith, “Adventures of a Colored Boy in War,” National Tribune (March 21, 1929); Letter, George S. Walker to Burt G. Wilder, October 1914; and Letter, Jordan M. Bobson to Burt Wilder, March 14, 1917, in Voices of the 55th: Letters from the 55th Massachusetts Volunteers, 1861–1865, 191, 130–35, 169–70; “Clinton Honors Ex-President, Ex-Slave,” Washington Post (January 17, 2001), 10.
19 Records of Medals of Honor Issued to the Officers, and Enlisted Men of the United States Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, 1862–1917 (Washington, 1917), 7, 79; Herbert Aptheker, “The Negro in the Union Navy,” Journal of Negro History 32:2 (April 1947), 79; Deeds of Valor, vol. II, 61–62; David L. Valuska, “The Negro in the Union Navy: 1861–1865” (PhD dissertation, Lehigh University, 1973), 148–49.
20 Luis F. Emilio, A Brave Black Regiment: The History of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1863–1865 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1995), 324–25.
21 “Reception of the Toussaint Guards,” The Liberator (September 15, 1865); “Reception of the 55th Massachusetts Regiment,” The Liberator (September 29, 1865).
22 Andrew Smith, “Adventures of a Colored Boy in War,” in Noah Andre Trudeau, ed., Voices of the 55th: Letters from the 55th Massachusetts Volunteers, 1861–1865 (Dayton, OH: Morningside House, Inc., 1996), 191.
23 Claxton and Puls, Uncommon Valor, 156; Letter, Fleetwood to Hall, June 8, 1865; “The Negro as a Soldier,” written by Christian A. Fleetwood, 18.
24 Butler, Butler’s Book; George Sherman, “The Negro as a Soldier,” in Personal Narratives of Events in the War of the Rebellion, Being Papers Read Before the Rhode Island Soldiers and Sailors Historical Society 7 ser. no. 7 (Providence, RI: The Society, 1913); Luis F. Emilio, A Brave Black Regiment: The History of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1863–1865 (Boston: Boston Book Company, 1894); Charles Fox, Record of the Service of the Fifty-Fifth Regiment of Massachusetts Infantry; Burt G. Wilder, Fifty-Fifth Regiment of the Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, Colored: June 1863–September 1865 (1914); “The Grand Army; News from the Departments-New Posts,” National Tribune (July 24, 1890), 6.
25 “G.A.R. Committees; Colored Men Named to Assist in Welcoming Civil War Veterans to Washington, D.C.,” Washington Colored American (August 30, 1902), 6; “Died Suddenly,” Washington Bee (May 21, 1910), 1; “Washington Under the Calcium,” Washington Colored American (September 27, 1902), 7; Washington Bee (June 4, 1892), 1; Johnson Jr., “Christian Abraham Fleetwood,” in Dictionary of American Negro Biography, 224; “Medal of Honor Men,” Washington Evening Star (August 20, 1905), 12.
1 George W. Ford, First Sergeant, 10th US Cavalry, “Winning the West,” Winners of the West (April 1924).
2 W. E. B. Du Bois, Medal of Honor Men Have Received Medals of Honor in United States Army and Navy, reproduced from the Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; W. E. B. Du Bois, Official Records, United States Army and Navy Medal of Honor Men, reproduced from the Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; W. E. B. Du Bois, “The American Negro at Paris,” American Monthly Review of Reviews 22:5 (November 1900), 575–77; for more on Du Bois’s photographs and the commissioning of the American Negro Exhibit for the Paris Exhibition in 1900, please see David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1993); Shawn Michelle Smith, American Archives: Gender, Race, and Class in Visual Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999); Shawn Michelle Smith, “ ‘Looking at One’s Self through the Eyes of Others’: W. E. B. Du Bois’s Photographs for the 1900 Paris Exposition,” African American Review 34:4 (Winter 2000), 581–99.
3 Russell Weigley, History of the United States Army (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967, rep. 1984), 267; Annual Report of the Secretary of War, 1866, 3–4; Philip H. Sheridan, Personal Memoirs of P. H. Sheridan, General United States Army, vol. 2 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1992), 445–46; for more on Philip H. Sheridan, please see Paul A. Hutton, Phil Sheridan and His Army (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999).
4 Regimental Returns, 9th Cavalry, October 1866–February 1867, NARA RG 391 (M-744, Roll 87); Registers of Enlistments in the United States Army, 1798–1914, NARA, RG 94 (MIUSA1798_102891) (Fold3.com, accessed May 10, 2017); Grote Hutcheson, “The Ninth Regiment of Cavalry,” 283–84; Patrick A. Bowmaster, “Buffalo Soldier Emanuel Stance Received Medal of Honor,” Wild West 9:5 (February 1997).
5 Sergeant Emanuel Stance to Lieutenant B. M. Custer, Post Adjutant, Fort McKavett, May 26, 1870, LR, AGO, 1805–1889, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2); Endorsement, Captain Henry Carroll, June 1, 1870, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2); United States, Department of the Army, Public Information Division, The Medal of Honor of the United States Army (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1948), 214; Emanuel Stance to the Adjutant General, United States Army, July 24, 1870, LR, AGO, 18051889, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2).
6 “General News Items,” Las Vegas Gazette (May 5, 1877), 4 (downloaded from Newspapers.com on May 18, 2017); Monroe Lee Billington, New Mexico’s Buffalo Soldiers (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1991), 51; General Orders No. 5, Post Adjutant, February, 5, 1877, Fort Bayard, New Mexico, Enlisted Branch, Letters Received, 1862–1889, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2); Letter, Adjutant General to Chief Clerk, War Department, March 13, 1879, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2).
7 “Clinton Greaves,” in Irene Schubert and Frank N. Schubert, eds., On the Trail of the Buffalo Soldier: New and Revised Biographies of African Americans in the U.S. Army, 1866–1917 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995, rep. 2004), 117; Preston E. Amos, Above and Beyond in the West: Black Medal of Honor Winners, 1870–1890 (Potomac Corral, The Westerners: Washington, DC, 1974), 8; for more on the efforts made by Wright and others to gain official recognition of Greaves’s act of courage, see Frank N. Schubert’s very insightful study titled Black Valor: Buffalo Soldiers and the Medal of Honor, 1870–1898 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1997), 46–48.
8 Frost Woodhull, “The Seminole Indian Scouts on the Border,” Frontier Times 15 (December 1937), 119; Kenneth W. Porter, “The Seminole in Mexico, 1850–1861,” Hispanic American Historical Review 31:1 (February 1951), 1–36; Kenneth W. Porter, “The Seminole Negro-Indian Scouts, 1870–1881,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 55:3 (January 1952), 361; William H. Brown, Wilson Brown, William Loren Katz, and Adam Paine, “Six ‘New’ Medal of Honor Men,” Journal of Negro History 53:1 (January 1968), 79–80.
9 Report, 1st Lt. John L. Bullis, 24th Infantry, to Lt. G. W. Smith, 9th Cavalry, Post Adjutant, General Order 10, Headquarters Department of Texas, Fort Clark, Texas, April 27, 1875, NARA, RG 94 (M929, Roll 2).
10 John Allen Johnson, “The Medal of Honor and Sergeant John Ward and Private Pompey Factor,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 29:4 (Winter 1970), 372; Special Orders No. 113, Thomas Vincent, Assistant Adjutant General, Headquarters Department of Texas, San Antonio, Texas, May 31, 1879, RG 94, Orders and Circulars, 1797–1910 (M929, Roll 2); Pompey Factor, Organization Index to Pension Files of Veterans Who Served Between 1861 and 1900, NARA T289, Pension Applications for Service in the US Army between 1861 and 1900, Grouped According to the Unit in Which the Veterans Served, Roll 754, Fold3.com (accessed May 31, 2017); Michael Bowlin, “Honoring Brave Deeds of Long Ago: Descendants Keep Scouts’ Memory Alive at Gathering,” Kerrville Times (May 3, 1992), 1.
11 Arlen L. Fowler, The Black Infantry in the West, 1869–1891 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 1971; rep. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 75, 82–86; Howard Roberts Lamar, The Far Southwest, 1846–1912: A Territorial History (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1970), 458–86; Larry T. Upton and Larry D. Ball, “Who Robbed Major Wham? Facts and Folklore behind Arizona’s Great Paymaster Robbery,” Journal of Arizona History 38 (Summer 1997).
12 “The Robbery Case: The Trial Now in Progress in the US Court; Major Wham, Lieutenant George S. Cartwright, Sergeant Brown on the Witness Stand,” Arizona Daily Star (November 16, 1889), 4.
13 “The Wham Robbery; Witnesses Short, Young, Arrington, and Mays,” Arizona Daily Star (November 17, 1889), 4. For an extended examination of the events surrounding the Wham Robbery of 1889, see Larry D. Ball, Ambush at Bloody Run: The Wham Paymaster Robbery of 1889: A Story of Politics, Religion, Race, and Banditry in Arizona Territory (Tucson: Arizona Historical Society, 2000). (I am grateful to Durwood Ball for bringing this to my attention.)
14 Letter, Maj. Joseph W. Wham, Paymaster, US Army, to the Secretary of War, September 1, 1889, Endorsement, AGO, General Correspondence File, 1890–1917, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2).
15 Col. Zenas R. Bliss to Adj. Gen., USA, November 9, 1889; Memorandum, AGO to CO, 24th Infantry, February 27, 1890, all in AGO, General Correspondence File, 1890–1917, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2).
16 Second Endorsement, Col. Robert Hall, Acting Inspector General, Department of Arizona, November 13, 1889, General Correspondence File, 1890–1917, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2).
17 Memorandum, John C. Kelton, Adjutant General, January 28, 1890, AGO, General Correspondence File, 1890–1917, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2).
18 United States, Department of the Army, Public Information Division, The Medal of Honor of the United States Army (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1948), 235. For more on the controversy surrounding the army’s issuing of medals of honor to Benjamin Brown and Isaiah Mays, see Schubert, Black Valor, 97–98.
19 Frank N. Schubert, ed., Voices of the Buffalo Soldier: Records, Reports, and Recollections of Military Life and Service in the West (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2003), 163–69.
20 General Court-Martial Orders 39, Headquarters Department of the Platte, Omaha, Nebraska, May 19–20, 1891, Exhibit A, Affidavit of John Denny, Fort Duchesne, Utah, May 8, 1881, all in Records of the Office of the Judge Advocate General (Army), NARA, RG 153, Court-Martial Case Files, 1809–1894, (M-929, Roll 2).
21 Army and Navy Journal 25 (December 31, 1887), 442; E. J. Brooks, Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs, to Secretary of the Interior, July 10, 1880, in AGO, LR, 1805–1889, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2).
22 Irene Schubert and Frank N. Schubert, On the Trail of the Buffalo Soldier: Biographies of African Americans in the U.S. Army, 1866–1917 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1995), 117.
23 United States Department of the Army, The Medal of Honor of the United States Army (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1948), 235; NARA M233, Registers of Enlistments in the United States Army, 1798–1914, NARA, RG 94, Heitman’s Register and Dictionary of the US Army, US Army Historical Register, Volume 2, Part III, Officers of Volunteer Regiments during the War with Spain and Philippine Insurrection, 1898 to 1903, 50; William McBryar, World War I Draft Registration Cards, Pennsylvania, Allegheny County, 1917–1918, William McBryar, World War II “Old Man’s Draft” Registration Cards; www.fold3.com/search/#s_given_name=William&s_surname=McBryar&offset=12&preview=1 (Fold3.com, accessed September 29, 2017); US Civil War Pension Index: General Index to Pension Files, 1861–1934 for William McBryar, Pennsylvania, Death Certificates, 1906–1964 for William McBryar, www.ancestry.com/interactive/4654/32959_032958-04419?pid=5140158&usePUB=true (Ancestry.com, accessed September 29, 2017).
1 Charles Young, Military Morale of Nations and Races (Kansas City, MO: Franklin Hudson Publishing Co., 1912), foreword.
2 George P. Marks, III, ed., The Black Press Views American Imperialism, 1898–1900 (New York: Arno Press, 1971), 7–13; Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 26–27; “Mrs. Ida Wells-Barnett Calls on President McKinley,” Cleveland Gazette (April 9, 1898), in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, Vol. 2: From the Reconstruction to the Founding of the N.A.A.C.P. (New York: Citadel Press, 1951, rep. 1992), 798.
3 Marks, The Black Press Views American Imperialism, 29–30.
4 Edward L. Baker Jr., “The Environments of the Enlisted Man of the United States Army of Today,” Georgia Baptist (April 13, 1899), 1.
5 Marvin Fletcher, The Black Soldier and Officer in the United States Army, 1891–1917, 34; Russell Weigley, History of the United States Army, 301–07; T. G. Steward, Buffalo Soldiers: The Colored Regulars in the United States Army (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 1904, rep. 2003), 100–02; William G. Muller, The Twenty-fourth Infantry, Past and Present.
6 Report, 1st Lt. Carter P. Johnson, Tenth Cavalry, to Post Adj. Gen. W. H. Carter, February 18, 1899, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3); United States, The Medal of Honor of the United States Army (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1948), 239; “George Henry Wanton,” Negro History Bulletin (January 1, 1941), 87.
7 Letter, Johnson to W. H. Carter, February 18, 1899, NARA; Letter, U.S.V. Brig. Gen. Theo Lehman to Capt. George Ahern, February 25, 1899, NARA; Miles V. Lynk, The Black Troopers; or, The Daring Heroism of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (New York: AMS Press, 1899, rep. 1971), 51–52; Letter, Asst. Adj. Gen. W. A. Simpson to George H. Wanton, June 23, 1899, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3); Letter, Asst. Adj. Gen. W. A. Simpson to William H. Thompkins, June 23, 1899, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3).
8 David F. Trask, The War with Spain (New York: Macmillan, 1981), 231, 238–40; Francis L. Lewis, “Negro Army Regulars in the Spanish-American War: Smoked Yankees at Santiago de Cuba,” (MA thesis: University of Texas at Austin, 1969), 18–19; E. L. Glass, The History of the Tenth Cavalry, 1866–1921 (Tucson, AZ: Acme Printing, 1921), 33; “Diary of Edward L. Baker, Sergeant Major Tenth Cavalry,” cited in T. G. Steward, Buffalo Soldiers: The Colored Regulars in the United States Army (Philadelphia: A.M.E. Book Concern, 1904, rep. 2003), 258.
9 Frank N. Schubert, “Edward Lee Baker, Jr.,” cited in Rayford W. Logan and Michael R. Winston, eds., Dictionary of American Negro Biography, 21; Chaplain C. C. Bateman, U.S.A., “Biographical Sketch of Edward L. Baker, Jr., undated, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3); “Diary of Edward L. Baker, Sergeant Major Tenth Cavalry,” 271–72.
10 Letter, William McBryar to the Secretary of War, February 3, 1905, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 2); Buffalo Soldier: First Sergeant Augustus Walley, www.fold3.com/page/732_buffalo_soldierfirst_sgt_augustus_walley#description (Fold3.com, accessed August 31, 2017).
11 Theodore Roosevelt, “The Rough Riders,” Scribner’s Magazine (April 1899); Buffalo Soldier: First Sergeant Augustus Walley, www.fold3.com/page/732_buffalo_soldierfirst_sgt_augustus_walley#description (Fold3.com, accessed August 31, 2017); Herschel V. Cashin, Under Fire with the Tenth Cavalry (Chicago: American Publishing House, 1902), 202.
12 David F. Trask, “Battle of San Juan Hill,” in John Whiteclay Chambers II, et al., eds., The Oxford Companion to American Military History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 635; Richard Harding Davis quoted in David F. Trask, The War with Spain in 1898, 239; “Diary of Edward L. Baker, Sergeant Major Tenth Cavalry,” 262.
13 Walter Millis, The Martial Spirit (Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1931), 290–91; Trask, The War with Spain in 1898, 243; Horace B. Bivins, Letter to the Editor, Southern Workman, July 8, 1989, cited in Willard B. Gatewood Jr., “Smoked Yankees” and the Struggle for Empire: Letters from Negro Soldiers, 1898–1902 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 49–50; W. H. Crogman, “The Negro Soldier in the Cuban Insurrection and Spanish-American War,” in J. L. Nichols and William H. Crogman, eds., Progress of a Race, or the Remarkable Advancement of the Negro (Naperville, IL: J. L. Nichols, 1925), 131–38; Marcos E. Kinevan, Brigadier General, USAF (Ret.), Frontier Cavalryman: Lieutenant John Bigelow with the Buffalo Soldiers in Texas (El Paso, TX: Texas Western Press, 1998); Frank E. Vandiver, Black Jack: The Life and Times of John J. Pershing, vol. 1 (College Station: Texas A & M Press, 1977), 47–104, 136–51, 176–312.
14 “Diary of Edward L. Baker, Sergeant Major Tenth Cavalry,” 262–66; Letter, 2nd Lt. Jacob C. Smith, 9th USV Infantry, to Theodore Baldwin, March 15, 1899, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3).
15 “More Troops for Montauk; Rough Riders from Tampa and Three Cavalry Regiments from Georgia Arrive,” New York Times (August 11, 1898), 2; “The Black Regiment,” New York World (July 9, 1898), 1; Stephen Bonsal, “The Negro Soldier in War and Peace,” North American Review (June 7, 1909), 186, 616; Edward A. Johnson, History of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (Raleigh, NC: Capital Publishing Company, 1899), 85; “Men’s Gift to Roosevelt,” New York Times (September 14, 1898), 3.
16 “Brave as the Bravest,” Afro-American Sentinel (July 30, 1898), 2; “Negro Officers for the Regular Army,” The Fair Play (July 29, 1898), 1.
17 The term “immunes” refers to the nearly ten thousand black enlisted men and officers who served in the volunteer regiments during the war. At the time, many quarters of American society subscribed to the superstitious notion that African Americans possessed natural immunity to tropical diseases. Accordingly, state and federal units, along with the 24th Infantry, were assigned to work details in hospital quarters located in the United States and at Siboney during the course of the war. For more on these units, see Marvin Fletcher, “The Black Volunteers in the Spanish-American War,” Military Affairs 38 (April 1974), 48–53; and Trask, The War with Spain in 1898, 311, 326.
18 Michael C. Robinson and Frank N. Schubert, “David Fagen: An Afro-American Rebel in the Philippines, 1899–1901,” Pacific Historical Review 44:1 (February 1975), 71; Letter to the Editor, William Simms, 1901, cited in Gatewood Jr., “Smoked Yankees” and the Struggle for Empire, 237; Robinson and Schubert, “David Fagen,” 71.
19 Individual Service Report, Special Orders No. 122, June 1, 1908, Proceedings of Examining Board, Case of 1st Lt. Edward L. Baker, July 9, 1908, Appendices A–C; Special Orders, Maj. Gen. J. Franklin Bell, Chief of Staff to the AGO, January 6, 1910, Memorandum, Commanding General to the AGO, August 27, 1913; General Correspondence File, 1890–1917, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3); Frank N. Schubert, “Edward Lee Baker, Jr.,” Logan and Winston, eds., Dictionary of American Negro Biography, 21.
20 Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (Dallas, TX: Taylor Publishing, 1997, rep., originally published as an article in Scribner’s Magazine [April 1899]; Letter, Presley Holiday, New York Age (April 22, 1899), cited in Gatewood Jr., “Smoked Yankees” and the Struggle for Empire, 92–97; John D. Weaver, The Brownsville Raid (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1970); Marvin Fletcher, The Black Soldier and Officer in the United States Army, 1891–1917 (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1974), 160.
21 Irvin H. Lee, Negro Medal of Honor Men, 98; Frank Schubert, Black Valor, 141–42; War Department, Special Orders No. 260, November 4, 1914, Affidavit, Cpl. William Thompkins to Adj. Gen., June 27, 1902, Memorandum for Colonel Ennis, September 30, 1902, all in Adjutant General’s Office, General Correspondence File, 1890–1917, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3).
22 US Army Center of Military History, Medal of Honor Recipients, War with Spain, Robert Penn, www.history.army.mil/html/moh/warsspain.html (accessed on September 28, 2017).
23 Letter, Cora Taylor to President Theodore Roosevelt, January 22, 1906; Letter, National Commander of the Regular Army and Navy Union of the United States of America, Henry Shindler to the Adjutant General, October 6, 1899, all in Adjutant General’s Office, General Correspondence File, 1890–1917, NARA, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3); “Watchman Wears Medal of Honor,” Morning Call (undated), Memorandum, George H. Wanton to Commanding Officer, Tenth Cavalry, August 6, 1915, Subject: Re-Enlistment as a Married Man, all in Orders and Circulars, 1797–1910, RG 94 (M-929, Roll 3); “George Henry Wanton,” Negro History Bulletin (January 1, 1941), 87.
1 Gregory L. Mixon, “The Atlanta Riot of 1906” (PhD dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1989); Rayford W. Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro: From Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson (New York: Collier Books, 1965), 350; Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 90–97; Leon Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Vintage Books), 370–73; C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951), 218–21.
2 “William Monroe Trotter’s Address to the President,” cited in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, Vol. 3: From the N.A.A.C.P. to the New Deal (New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1973), 73–78; David M. Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The First Century of the Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1965 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965), 26–27; Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro, 362–63.
3 James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (New York: Da Capo Press, 1933, rep. 2000), 154–56; James Weldon Johnson, “Views and Reviews: Between the Devil and the Deep Sea,” New York Age (September 27, 1917), 4.
4 James W. Johnson, “Views and Reviews: The Duty of the Hour,” New York Age (April 5, 1917); Kathryn M. Johnson, “The Negro and the World War,” Half-Century 2 (June 1917), 13; W. E. B. Du Bois, “Close Ranks,” The Crisis 16 (July 1918), 111.
5 Letter, Maj. Gen. Tasker H. Bliss, Assistant to the Chief of Staff, to General Robert K. Evans, April 4, 1917; Memorandum, Maj. Gen. Tasker H. Bliss for the Secretary of War, September 7, 1917, Subject: Mobilization and Utilization of Colored Drafted Men, all in Morris J. MacGregor and Bernard C. Nalty, eds., Blacks in the United States Armed Forces: Basic Documents, Vol. 4: Segregation Entrenched, 1917–1940 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1977), 3–5.
6 Memorandum, Maj. Gen. Tasker H. Bliss, Acting Chief of Staff, for the Adjutant General, May 17, 1917, Subject: Officers’ Training Camp for Colored Citizens, in MacGregor and Nalty, eds., Blacks in the United States Armed Forces: Basic Documents, Vol. 4, 101; Chad L. Williams, Torchbearers of Democracy: African American Soldiers in the World War I Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 46.
7 “The Spingarn Medal Award and N.A.A.C.P. Conference,” Washington Bee (May 12, 1917), 1; Letter, President Woodrow Wilson to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, June 25, 1917; Letter, Secretary of War Newton D. Baker to President Wilson, June 26, 1917, Note, Secretary of War Newton Baker to General Tasker Bliss, June 1917; Letter, Secretary of War Newton Baker to President Woodrow Wilson, July 7, 1917, all in MacGregor and Nalty, eds., Blacks in the United States Armed Forces: Basic Documents, Vol. 4; “War Department Says Young Is Now Retired,” New York Age (August 16, 1917), 1.
8 Fred Moore, “Editorial,” New York Age (June 28, 1917), 4; “Lieutenant Colonel Young Is to Be Retired,” Chicago Defender (June 30, 1917), 4; Letter, W. E. B. Du Bois to Lt. Col. Charles Young, June 28, 1917; Letter, Robert R. Moton to President Woodrow Wilson, July 7, 1917, Col. Charles Young Collection, Ohio Historical Society (online, accessed September 15, 2017); “What the N.A.A.C.P. Has Done for the Colored Soldier,” The Crisis (1918), in Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, Vol. 3, 207–08; “Colonel Young Visits War Department,” Chicago Defender (July 6, 1917).
9 American Battle Monuments Commission, 92nd Division Summary of Operations in the World War (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1944), 1, 34–36; American Battle Monuments Commission, 93rd Division Summary of Operations in the World War (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1944), 1–4, 35–36.
10 Jeffrey T. Sammons and John H. Morrow Jr., Harlem’s Rattlers and the Great War: The Undaunted 369th Regiment and the African American Quest for Equality (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2014), 97–98.
11 J. Victor, “Henry Johnson’s Paradox: A Soldier’s Story,” Afro-Americans in New York Life and History 21:2 (July 1997), 7; Henry Johnson, World War I Draft Registration Card, Registration State; Albany, Roll 1711816, Draft Board: 2, Ancestry.com, US, World I Draft Registration Cards, 1917–1918 [database online], Provo, UT, USA (Ancestry.com, accessed September 20, 2017); Arthur E. Barber and Florette Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974); Emmett J. Scott, Scott’s Official History of the American Negro in the World War (Chicago: Homewood Press, 1919), 256–59.
12 Sammons and Morrow, Harlem’s Rattlers and the Great War, 98; Chester D. Heywood, Negro Combat Troops in the World War, The Story of the 371st Infantry (Worcester, MA: Commonwealth Press, 1928), 3–4; 13; W. Allison Sweeney, History of the American Negro in the Great World War (Chicago: Cuneo-Henneberry, 1919), 131.
13 Monroe Mason and Arthur Furr, The American Negro Soldier with the Red Hand of France (Boston: Cornhill Company, 1920), 27–28; Arthur W. Little, From Harlem to the Rhine: The Story of New York’s Colored Volunteers (New York: Civic Press, 1936), 35, 12–13.
14 Little, From Harlem to the Rhine, 54–71; Sammons and Morrow, Harlem’s Rattlers and the Great War, 158–68.
15 Scott, Scott’s Official History of the American Negro in the World War, 81; for more on this incident, please see Richard Slotkin, Lost Battalions: The Great War and the Crisis of American Nationality (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2005), 123–25.
16 Scott, Scott’s Official History of the American Negro in the World War, 199; Little, From Harlem to the Rhine, 97.
17 Scott, Scott’s Official History of the American Negro in the World War, 201.
18 Cable History of the Subject Colored Soldiers, compiled by the Cable Section, General Staff, Cable from Pershing, #P. 454, January 5, 28, 1918, in MacGregor and Nalty, eds., Blacks in the United States Armed Forces: Basic Documents, Vol. 4, 135; William S. Braddan, Under Fire with the 370th Infantry (8th I.N.G.) A.E.F.: Memoirs of the World War (Chicago, n.d.), 44.
19 Michael Howard, The First World War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 99–100; Little, From Harlem to the Rhine, 99–100; John J. Pershing, My Experiences in the World War, Vol. 1 (New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1931), 291.
20 American Battle Monuments Commission, 93rd Division, Summary of Operations in the World War, 5–6; Scipio, With the Red Hand Division, 43–45; W. Allison Sweeney, History of the American Negro in the Great War: His Splendid Record in the Battle Zones of Europe (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1919, rep. 1969), 138; Needham Roberts, “Brief Adventures of the First American Soldiers Decorated in the World as Told by Needham Roberts,” 4; Chester D. Heywood, Negro Combat Troops in the World War: The Story of the 371st Infantry (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1928, 1969), 50.
21 American Battle Monuments Commission, 93rd Division, Summary of Operations in the World War, 4-8; Little, From Harlem to the Rhine, 176–79; Slotkin, Lost Battalions, 138
22 Freddie Stowers in the US Army Transport Service, Passenger Lists, 1910–1939, NARA, NAI Number: 6234477, RG 92: Records of the Office of the Quartermaster General, 1774–1985, Roll 534 (Ancestry.com, accessed September 11, 2017); “The Weather,” Newport News Daily Press (April 7, 1918), 1; Scott, Scott’s Official History of the American Negro in the World War, 231–32; Braddan, Under Fire with the 370th Infantry, 51.
23 Year: 1910; Census Place: Pendleton, Anderson, South Carolina; Roll: T624_1449; Page 14A; Enumeration District: 0058; FHL microfilm: 1375462; Ancestry.com. 1910 Federal Census [database online]. Provo, UT, USA (Ancestry.com, accessed September 11, 2017); Freddie Stowers in the US Army Transport Service, Passenger Lists, 1910–1939, NARA, NAI Number: 6234477, RG 92.
24 American Battle Monuments Commission, 93rd Division, Summary of Operations in the World War, 5–9.
25 Heywood, Negro Combat Troops in the World War, 55.
26 Scipio, With the Red Hand Division, 75–79.
27 Heywood, Negro Combat Troops in the World War, 162–68; Taylor V. Beattie, “Seventy-Three Years After His Bayonet Assault on Hill 188, Freddie Stowers Got His Medal of Honor,” Military History (August 2004), 74–76.
28 Slotkin, Lost Battalions, 482–84.
29 Victor, “Henry Johnson’s Paradox: A Soldier’s Story,” 7; “Taps Sounded for William H. Johnson, Greatest of World War Heroes; Famous Infantryman Died Recently in Poverty—His and Needham Roberts’s Exploits Recalled,” New York Amsterdam News (July 10, 1929), 1; Michael D. Shear, “Two World War I Soldiers Posthumously Receive Medal of Honor,” New York Times (June 2, 2015), A11.
30 Shear, “Two World War I Soldiers,” A11.
1 “Welcome War Hero at Wyoming Chapel,” Chicago Defender (March 22, 1947), 19A.
2 Ulysses G. Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops (CreateSpace, 2014), 15–50.
3 Jean Byers, “A Study of the Negro in Military Service (June 1947), 7.
4 Phillip McGuire, “Desegregation of the Armed Forces: Black Leadership, Protest, and World War II,” Journal of Negro History 68:2 (Spring 1983), 147–58.
5 Helen K. Black and William H. Thompson, “A War within a War: A World War II Buffalo Soldier’s Story,” Journal of Men’s Studies 20:1 (Winter 2012), 37.
6 Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, 499.
7 Ronald H. Spector, Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan (New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 143–44; Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, 497; Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 166–67.
8 Spector, Eagle Against the Sun, 143; Hildrus A. Poindexter, My World of Reality (Detroit: Balamp Publishing, 1973), 127.
9 George Watson, Selective Service Registration Cards, World War II: Multiple Registration, NARA, www.fold3.com/image/605284691 (accessed November 7, 2017); George Watson, Medal of Honor Recipients, 1863–2013 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2013), www.fold3.com/image/310761175?terms=George%20Watson (accessed November 7, 2017).
10 Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, 660–61; Gina M. DiNicolo, The Black Panthers: A Story of Race, War, and Courage: The 761st Tank Battalion in World War II (Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2014), 138–41; Trezzvant Anderson, Come Out Fighting: The Epic Tale of the 761st Tank Battalion, 1942–1945 (Germany: Salzburg, Druckerei and Verlag, 1945), 15, 21.
11 Joe W. Wilson, The 761st “Black Panther” Tank Battalion in World War II (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 1999), 53.
12 George Watson, Selective Service Registration Cards, NARA; Pvt. George Watson, Internet Archive WayBack Machine, https://msc.navy.mil/inventory/citations/watson.html; PFC Willy James, US World War II Draft Cards Young Men, 1940–1947, Ancestry.com (accessed October 16, 2017), Willy James, Find-A-Grave.com, Ruben Rivers, Find-A-Grave.com (accessed October 16, 2017).
13 Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, 664; Ruben Rivers, Medal of Honor Recipients, 1979– 2013 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2013), www.fold3.com/image/310761170 (accessed November 8, 2017).
14 “He Bled for It: Captain Gets DSC in France,” Pittsburgh Courier (March 24, 1945), 1, 4; Charles L. Thomas, Medal of Honor Recipients, 1979–2013 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2013), www.fold3.com/image/310761173 (accessed November 8, 2017).
15 Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, 536–37.
16 Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, 536–37; Jehu C. Hunter, “Triumph and Tribulation: Reflections on the Combat Experience of the 92nd Infantry,” Proceedings of the First Conference on Black Americans in World War II (Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Military History Institute, September 9, 1992), 4–5.
17 Hunter, “Triumph and Tribulation,” 5–6.
18 Hondon B. Hargrove, Buffalo Soldiers in Italy: Black Americans in World War II (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc., 1985), 53–65.
19 John R. Fox, Medal of Honor Recipients, 1979–2013 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2013), www.fold3.com/image/310761158 (accessed November 8, 2017); Elliott V. Converse III, Daniel K. Gibran, John A. Cash, Robert K. Griffith Jr., and Richard H. Kohn, The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc., 1997), 124; Dennette A. Harrod, “The 336th Infantry and Lieutenant John R. Fox,” Proceedings of the First Conference on Black Americans in World War II (Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Military History Institute, September 9, 1992), 21.
20 Charles Thomas, Year: 1940; Census Place: Detroit, Wayne, Michigan, Roll: T627_1868; Page: 1B; Enumeration District: 84-954; Ancestry.com. 1940 United States Federal Census [database online], Provo, UT, USA.; Baker, Lasting Valor, 123–25.
21 Hargrove, Buffalo Soldiers in Italy, 149–52; Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, 580–82.
22 Memorandum, 1st Lt. Vernon Baker to the Commanding General, 92nd Infantry Division (Through Channels), Subject: Narrative of Action, April 5, 195), June 12, 1945, File: Top Secret: 92nd Infantry Division Combat Efficiency Analysis and Supplementary Report, Military Field Branch, NARA II, Suitland, Maryland; “92nd Officer is Awarded DSC; 9 Others Cited,” Chicago Defender (July 14, 1945), 1; Vernon J. Baker, Medal of Honor Recipients: 1979–2013 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2013), www.fold3.com/image/310761154 (accessed November 7, 2017); Baker, Lasting Valor, 1.
23 Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops; Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 176–77.
24 “Edward A. Carter II,” Arlington National Cemetery Website, Fold3.com, https://www.fold3.com/image/310761155 (accessed October 30, 2017); Allene G. Carter and Robert L. Allen, Honoring Sergeant Carter: Redeeming a Black World War II Hero’s Legacy (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 79–91.
25 Carter and Allen, Honoring Sergeant Carter, 98–101.
26 Edward A. Carter Jr., Sergeant, US Army, Courtesy of the Pentagram, January 17, 1997 (accessed November 7, 2017).
27 Edward A. Carter, Medal of Honor Recipients: 1979–2013, www.fold3.com/image/310761155 (accessed November 7, 2017); “Kills Six . . . Gets DSC,” Pittsburgh Courier (December 8, 1945), 21.
28 Willy F. James Jr., Medal of Honor Recipients: 1979–2013 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2013), www.fold3.com/image/310761161 (accessed November 7, 2017); “President Honors and Commemorates Veterans in Margraten, The Netherlands,” Press Release, Office of the Press Secretary, The White House, President George W. Bush, March 8, 2005.
29 Letter, Maj. Gen. Edward M. Almond to Maj. Gen. A. V. Arnold, Army Ground Forces Headquarters, January 21, 1948, File: Top Secret: 92nd Infantry Division Combat Efficiency Analysis and Supplementary Report, Military Field Branch, NARA II, Suitland, Maryland.
30 Carter and Allen, Honoring Sergeant Carter: Redeeming a Black World War II Hero’s Legacy, 117–33.
31 Baker, Lasting Valor, 241.
32 “92nd Officer Is Awarded DSC; 9 Others Cited,” Chicago Defender (July 14, 1945), 1; Baker, Lasting Valor, 3, 23–24, 39–41, 85–91.
1 “U.S. Names Ship for Bronxite; Posthumous Honor for Korea Hero,” New York Amsterdam News (July 12, 1952), 2; “Honoring Memory of Korean War Hero,” New York Times (July 9, 1952), 3.
2 For example, see Richard J. Stillman, Integration of the Negro in the U.S. Army Forces (New York: Praeger, 1968); Lee Bogart, ed., Project Clear: Social Research and the Desegregation of the United States Army (New York: Markham, 1969; rep., New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1991); Richard Dalfiume, Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces: Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939–1953 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1969); Morris J. MacGregor, Defense Studies: Integration of the Armed Forces (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1981); Nalty, Strength for the Fight; and, more recently, John Sibley Butler, “African Americans in the Military,” in John Whiteclay Chambers II, ed., The Oxford Companion to American Military History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 7–9.
3 Roy E. Appleman, South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu: U.S. Army in the Korean War, June–November 1950 (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1961). For important correctives to this interpretation, please see Clair Blair, The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950–1953 (New York: Times Books, 1987); Selika M. Ducksworth, “What Hour of the Night: Black Enlisted Men’s Experiences and the Desegregation of the Army During the Korean War, 1950–1951” (PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 1993); Charles M. Bussey, Firefight at Yechon: Courage and Racism in the Korean War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002); William T. Bowers, William M. Hammond, and George L. MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army: The 24th Infantry Regiment in Korea (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1996); Kimberley L. Phillips, War! What Is It Good For? Black Freedom Struggles and the U.S. Military from World War II to Iraq (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); and Christine Knauer, Let Us Fight as Free Men: Black Soldiers and Civil Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014).
4 Phillips, War! What is It Good For?, 116; Herbert Shapiro, White Violence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988), 355–77.
5 Morris J. MacGregor Jr., Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940–1965 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1981), 152–63; Bowers, Hammond, and MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army, 31–32.
6 MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940–1965, 153–55.
7 MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940–1965, 153–55; Executive Order 9981, July 26, 1948, and the President’s News Conference of July 26, 1948, cited in Morris J. MacGregor and Bernard C. Nalty, eds., Blacks in the United States Armed Forces, Vol. 8, items 164–65 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1977).
8 Bowers, Hammond, and MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army, 37; Memorandum, President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services for Secretary of the Army, September 8, 1949, Subject: Substitution of a General Classification Test Quota for a Racial Quota, in MacGregor and Nalty, eds., Blacks in the United States Armed Forces, Vol. 11, item 22; Bussey, Firefight at Yechon, 42–44.
9 “24th Regiment Lands in Korea,” Atlanta Daily World (July 20, 1950), 1; Appleman, South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu, 7–18; Roy Flint, “Korean War,” in John Whiteclay Chambers II, ed., The Oxford Companion to American Military History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 369–73; L. Albert Scipio, Last of the Black Regulars: A History of the 24th Infantry Regiment (1869–1951), 85–87.
10 Bowers, Hammond, and MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army, 84–85.
11 Appleman, South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu, 270.
12 Bowers, Hammond, and MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army, 130.
13 Bowers, Hammond, and MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army, 130; “Negro Soldier Wins Medal of Honor in Korea,” Chicago Daily Tribune (June 14 1951), 2.
14 “Negro Soldier Wins Medal of Honor in Korea,” 2.
15 Appleman, South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu, 270; Bowers, Hammond, and MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army, 131; “Negro Soldier Wins Medal of Honor in Korea,” 2.
16 Edward F. Murphy, Korean War Heroes (Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1997), 21–22; Joan Potter, African American Firsts: Famous Little-Known and Unsung Triumphs of Blacks in America (New York: Kensington Books, 2009), 243; William Thompson in the U.S. World War II Army Enlistment Records, 1983–1946, Ancestry.com. U.S. World War II Army Enlistment Records, 1938–1946 [database online], Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com, 2005; Catherine Reef, African Americans in the Military (New York: Facts on File, Inc. 2010); Venice T. Spraggs, “Second Hero of Korea Gets Medal of Honor,” Chicago Defender (February 23, 1952), 1–2; West Virginia Veterans Memorial, Remember . . . Cornelius H. Charlton, 1929–1951, West Virginia Division of Culture and History.
17 Bowers, Hammond, and MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army, 253–56; Cornelius H. Charlton in the World War I, World War II, and Korean War Casualty Listings, Ancestry.com [database online], Provo, UT, USA.
18 “Sergeant Wins Honor Medal: Bravery in Korea Awarded,” Los Angeles Sentinel (February 14, 1952), A1; “Redbook Magazine Features Negro Hero,” Atlanta Daily World (May 15, 1953), 5; “Progress of Anti-Bias Told at Medal of Honor Presentation,” Atlanta Daily World (March 18, 1952), 1; Venice T. Spraggs, “Second Hero of Korea Gets Medal of Honor,” Chicago Defender (February 23, 1952),1; “Receives His Son’s Medal for Heroism,” New York Times (March 13, 1952), 6.
19 Shawn Pogatchnik, “After 39 Years, a Town Honors Its Black Hero,” Los Angeles Times (May 28, 1990), 3.
20 For more on this, please see Bowers, Hammond, and MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army.
1 Gerald Faris, “Remembering a Medal of Honor Marine,” Los Angeles Times (May 6, 1984), SB1.
2 Faris, “Remembering a Medal of Honor Marine”; “James Anderson Jr.,” George Lang, Raymond L. Collins, and Gerard F. White, comp., Medal of Honor Recipients: 1863–1994, Vol. II: World War II to Somalia (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1995), 657; Gary L. Telfer, Lane Rogers, and V. Keith Fleming Jr., U.S. Marines in Vietnam: Fighting the North Vietnamese, 1967 (Washington, DC: History and Museums Division Headquarters, 1984), 9–12.
3 “Vietnam War Medal of Honor Recipients (A–L) Medal of Honor Citations, US Army Center of Military History (accessed November 28, 2017); “James Anderson Jr.”
4 “U.S. Gives First Medal of Honor to a Negro Marine,” New York Times (August 22, 1968), 3; “Marines Honor Former Harbor College Student Who Gave Life,” Los Angeles Sentinel (June 20, 1985), A4.
5 Charles C. Moskos Jr., “The American Dilemma in Uniform: Race in the Military,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 406: The Military and American Society (March 1973), 94–106; James Westheider, African Americans and the Vietnam War: Fighting on Two Fronts (New York: New York University Press, 1997).
6 Nalty, Strength for the Fight, 276–81; MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, 504.
7 MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, 501–22.
8 MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, 522; Eric Pace, “Percentage of Negroes Drafted Is Higher than that for Whites,” New York Times (January 3, 1966), 6.
9 MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, 568; President’s Task Force on Manpower Commission, One-Third of a Nation: A Report on Young Men Found Unqualified for Military Service (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964).
10 President’s Task Force on Manpower Commission, One-Third of a Nation; Office Secretary of Defense, Project One Hundred Thousand: Characteristics and Performance of “New Standards” Men, September 1968 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1968); Benjamin Welles, “Negroes Expected to Make Up 30% of Draft ‘Salvage,’” New York Times (August 25, 1966), 1.
11 Thomas Meehan, “Moynihan of the Moynihan Report,” New York Times (July 31, 1966), 54.
12 “The Negro Soldier,” Chicago Defender (March 18, 1967), 12; “Draft System Seen [as] Unfair to Negroes,” Los Angeles Times (May 5, 1967), G5.
13 “Powell Rips Draft,” New York Amsterdam News (May 14, 1966), 1; “Dr. King Calls Draft Unfair to U.S. Negro,” New York Times (November 3, 1966), 29; Whitney M. Young Jr., “The Negro and the Armed Forces,” New York Amsterdam News (April 1, 1967), 12.
14 “Nation’s Newest War Hero Is Product of N.C. Slums,” Danville Register (March 10, 1967), 1; “Lawrence Joel,” in George Lang, Raymond L. Collins, and Gerard F. White, comp., Medal of Honor Recipients: 1863–1994, Vol. II: World War II to Somalia (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1995), 700.
15 Graham A. Cosmas, United States Army in Vietnam, MACV: The Joint Command in the Years of Escalation, 1962–1967 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 2006), 217–18.
16 “Vietnam War Medal of Honor Recipients (A–L) Medal of Honor Citations, US Army Center of Military History (accessed November 28, 2017); “Lawrence Joel,” in Lang, Collins, and White, comp., Medal of Honor Recipients: 1863–1994, Vol. II, 700; “Nation’s Newest War Hero Is Product of N.C. Slums,” 1; “Although Wounded, He Heard Their Pleas, Saving 13,” Danville Register (November 18, 1966), 1.
17 “President Gives Medal of Honor to Medic,” New York Times (March 10, 1967), 20; Walter Rugaber, “Winston-Salem Hails Negro Hero,” New York Times (April 9, 1967), 8.
18 Cosmas, MACV: The Joint Command in the Years of Escalation, 234–35.
19 Ward Just, “30,000 Dead Caused Little Notice, Comment,” Anniston Star (December 18, 1968), 1D.
20 Vietnam War Medal of Honor Recipients (M–Z), Medal of Honor Citations, US Army Center of Military History (accessed November 28, 2017); “Riley Leroy Pitts,” in Lang, Collins, and White, comp., Medal of Honor Recipients: 1863–1994, Vol. II, 731–32; “The Newsmakers: Reason for Pride—Heroism in Vietnam,” Los Angeles Times (December 11, 1968), M2; “Coca-Cola Underwrites OU Scholarship; Honors First Black Congressional Medal of Honor Recipient,” New Pittsburgh Courier (April 29, 1995), 1.
21 USA (Ret). Ira A. Hunt Jr., The 9th Infantry Division in Vietnam: Unparalleled and Unequaled (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2010).
22 Hunt, The 9th Infantry Division in Vietnam. “Oral History Interview with Clarence Sasser,” US Army Medical Department, http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/moh/bios/sasserInt.html (accessed November 28, 2017).
23 “Oral History Interview with Clarence Sasser.”
24 Vietnam War Medal of Honor Recipients (M–Z) Medal of Honor Citations; “Clarence Eugene Sasser” in Lang, Collins, and White, comp., Medal of Honor Recipients: 1863–1994, Vol. II, 739– 40; “Oral History Interview with Clarence Sasser.”
25 Clarence Sasser, Medal of Honor Recipient, “Stories of Valor,” Public Broadcasting System, www.pbs.org/weta/americanvalor/stories/sasser.html (accessed November 28, 2017); “Nixon Presents Medals of Honor to 3 Soldiers Who Fought in Vietnam,” New York Times (March 8, 1969), 10; “Oral History Interview with Clarence Sasser.”
26 Graham A. Cosmas, MACV: The Joint Command in the Years of Withdrawal, 1968–1973 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 2007), 13–14.
27 Jeff Edwards, “Charles Rogers: Medal of Honor Recipient,” https://m.warhistoryonline.com/?s=Charles+Rogers%3A+Medal+of+Honor+ (accessed November 28, 2017).
28 Vietnam War Medal of Honor Recipients (M–Z) Medal of Honor Citations.
29 Richard Nixon, “Remarks on Awarding the Congressional Medal of Honor to Twelve Members of the Armed Services, May 14, 1970, online, by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=27552 (accessed November 28, 2017).
30 Vietnam War Medal of Honor Recipients (A-L) Medal of Honor Citations.
31 Lea Sitton Stanley, Philadelphia Inquirer (April 8, 1997), B1.
32 James E. Westheider, “African Americans, Civil Rights, and the Armed Forces during the Vietnam War,” in Douglas Walter Bristol Jr. and Heather Marie Stur, eds., Integrating the U.S. Military: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation Since World War II (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017), 96–121; David Parks, GI Diary (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1968, rep. 1984), 105–06; “Honor Winners Back War Effort,” Florence Morning News (April 16, 1967), 8A.
33 Edward J. Boyer, “Vietnam’s Heartbreak Played Out in a Hero’s Tragedy,” Los Angeles Times (November 11, 2000), B1.
34 Vietnam War Medal of Honor Recipients (A-L) Medal of Honor Citations.
35 Jon Nordheimer, “From Dakto to Detroit: Death of a Troubled Hero,” New York Times (May 26, 1971), 1.
1 President George H. W. Bush Public Papers, Remarks at a Ceremony for the Posthumous Presentation of the Medal of Honor to Corporal Freddie Stowers, April 24, 1991, George Bush Presidential Library and Museum, https://bush41library.tamu.edu/archives/public-papers/2916 (accessed November 30, 2017); Jim DuPlessis, “Bush Pays Tribute to Black Soldier Who Led Charge,” Greenville News (April 25, 1991), 1; Donnie Radcliffe, “At Last, a Black Badge of Courage,” Washington Post (April 25, 1991), C3.
2 Elliott V. Converse III, Daniel K. Gibran, John A. Cash, Robert K. Griffith Jr., and Richard H. Kohn, The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II, 3–5; Baker, Lasting Valor, 286.
3 “Veteran Receives Medal of Honor Decades Later,” Tell Me More, Washington, DC: NPR (February 26, 2014); “Florida Man Shocked to Learn of Medal of Honor,” Gainesville Sun (February 22, 2014), 1.
4 Ibid.
5 Jada Smith, “Medals of Honor Go to 24 Veterans Who Had Been Denied,” New York Times (March 19, 2014), A15.
1 Cleveland Daily Leader (October 3, 1864); The Liberator (October 14, 1864); Columbus Daily Ohio Statesman (October 19, 1864); Thomas Morris Chester, “Chapin’s Bluff, 5 1/2 Miles from Richmond,” October 5, 1864, in R. J. M. Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, Black Civil War Correspondent: His Dispatches from the Virginia Front (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 140, 151; Proceedings of the National Convention of Colored Men, held in the City of Syracuse, New York, October 4–8, 1864, with the Bill of Wrongs and Rights and the Address to the American People, in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864 (New York: Arno Press, 1969), 1–62.
2 W. E. B. Du Bois, “Politics,” The Crisis 4 (August 1912), 180–81. For more on Du Bois’s thinking about Wilson, please see David Levering Lewis’s masterful biography, titled W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1993).
3 Woodrow Wilson to Bishop Alexander Bishop, nd., cited in Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, Vol. 3.
4 Clark Flint Kellogg, NAACP: A History of The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Vol. 1: 1909–1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves (New York: Norton, 1999); Stephen R. Fox, The Guardian of Boston: William Monroe Trotter (New York: Atheneum, 1970); Alfreda M. Duster, ed., Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 375–77.
5 Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 14.
6 Garna L. Christian, Black Soldiers in Jim Crow Texas, 1899–1917 (College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 1995) and Robert V. Haynes, A Night of Violence: The Houston Riot of 1917 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1976).
7 Robert F. Jefferson, Fighting for Hope: African American Troops of the 93rd Infantry Division in World War II and Postwar America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 33–34; “Should I Sacrifice to Live ‘Half American’?: Suggest Double VV for Double Victory Against Axis Forces and Ugly Prejudices on the Home Front,” Pittsburgh Courier (January 31, 1942), 3.
8 Bussey, Firefight at Yechon, 13–69; Lt. Gen. Julius Becton Jr., Autobiography of Becton: A Soldier and Public Servant (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press), 23–31.
9 “Gillem Report Called Failure by Roy Wilkins,” Chicago Defender (April 20, 1946), 13; Phillips, War! What is It Good For?, 85; “Gillem Report Doesn’t Solve Manpower Problem,” Pittsburgh Courier (April 5, 1947), 4; “Capital Spotlight,” Pittsburgh Courier (October 19, 1946), 10.
10 MacGregor, Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940–1965, 163.
11 For more on this, see Christine Knauer, Let Us Fight as Free Men, 63–111.
12 Knauer, Let Us Fight as Free Men, 112–13. For more discussion on Truman’s thinking, see Nalty, Strength for the Fight.
13 Lt. Col. Bradley Biggs, “The 24th Infantry Regiment: The ‘Deuce-Four’ in Korea,” Military Review (September–October 2003), 56; Bussey, Firefight at Yechon, 82–83.