“There is a perfect gradation between sound people and insane”: Gruber, “Darwin on Man,” quoted in Roy Porter, Mind Forg’d Manacles: A History of Madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (London: Athlone Press, 1987), 37, 268.
This idea of animals as machines: William Coleman, Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function and Transformation, Cambridge Studies in the History of Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 121–22.
identifying humanlike emotions or consciousness in other animals: Lorraine Daston and Gregg Mitman, eds., Thinking with Animals: New Perspectives on Anthropomorphism, new ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006).
He believed that the similar emotional experiences of people and other creatures: Mental illness is also a key part of Expression because Darwin thought that the insane (as he called them) were a purer source for the study of emotion. Like any good Victorian he was preoccupied with all manner of social mores and inhibitions, and he felt, perhaps rightly, that many people in insane asylums had been loosed from the shackles of proper emotional control and expressed themselves more authentically.
Yet Darwin did not see these people as morally bankrupt, as many physicians of his time did. Instead he saw the insane as simply not self-conscious, as unaware of themselves and lacking an idea of self. Since they weren’t self-conscious, they couldn’t embarrass themselves and thus were unchecked in their expression of emotion. This, Darwin believed, made the insane into perfect study subjects for what despair, anger, fear, and more really felt and looked like. And so he devoted a lot of space in his book to covering the phenomenon of insanity in human beings, discussing such things as upset mentally ill humans raising the hair follicles on their heads just as dogs do their hackles (this last point not having withstood the test of observation) and poring over photos of people in insane asylums. Janet Browne, “Darwin and the Expression of the Emotions,” in The Darwinian Heritage, ed. David Kohn (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 307–26.
“with the manner in which she then tried”: Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: John Murray, 1872), 120.
“Not far from my house”: Ibid., 58, 60.
“a peculiar short snuffle”: Ibid., 129. Darwin may not have observed happy pumas or tigers himself. Nor had he seen crying elephants. Instead he relied on letters and published observations of people who had, coupled with his own careful observation of the animals he lived among, saw in his travels, and observed at the Regent’s Park Zoo.
“Man and the higher animals”: Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (London: John Murray, 1874), 79.
Darwin doesn’t seem to have done any original research: This is based on searches performed in 2010 and 2011 in the Darwin Correspondence Project (http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/), as well as personal communication with Janet Browne and David Kohn in 2009–10 and careful readings of citations in Darwin’s published works.
“I hope to prove that”: Richard Barnet and Michael Neve, “Dr Lauder Lindsay’s Lemmings,” Strange Attractor Journal 4 (2011): 153.
Lindsay believed that the minds of insane people: W. Lauder Lindsay, Mind in the Lower Animals, in Health and Disease, vol. 2 (New York: Appleton, 1880), 11–13.
Lindsay also wrote about feral children: Ibid., 14.
Insane humans were also compared to: Porter, Mind-Forg’d Manacles, 121–29.
some of the incurables “are kept as wild beasts”: John Webster, Observations on the Admission of Medical Pupils to the Wards of Bethlem Hospital for the Purpose of Studying Mental Diseases, 3rd ed. (London: Churchill, 1842), 85–86.
He was even convinced that some human lunatics: Lindsay, Mind in the Lower Animals, 18–19.
a mother stork who “let herself” be burned alive: Ibid., 131–33.
“Being in love is our most common version”: Mark Doty, Dog Years: A Memoir (New York: Harper, 2007), 2–3.
the past forty to fifty years of research: R. W. Burkhardt Jr., “Niko Tinbergen,” 2010, http://www.eebweb.arizona.edu/Courses/Ecol487/readings/Niko%20Tinbergen%20Biography.pdf (accessed August 5, 2012); Richard W. Burkhardt Jr., Patterns of Behavior: Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen, and the Founding of Ethology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).
Lorenz even described one of his geese as depressed: Heini Hediger, Wild Animals in Captivity (London: Butterworths Scientific, 1950), 50.
The neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp: Jaak Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 3.
YouTube videos . . . of Dr. Panksepp stirring: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-admRGFVNM (accessed May 1, 2013).
Panksepp believes the happy sound: Barbara Natterson-Horowitz and Kathryn Bowers, Zoobiquity: The Astonishing Connection Between Human and Animal Health (New York: Vintage, 2013), 95.
“increasingly wanted to understand how the human mind”: “Science of the Brain as a Gateway to Understanding Play: An Interview with Jaak Panskepp,” American Journal of Play 2, no. 3 (Winter 2010): 245–77.
believes that rabbits, for example: Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience, 13, 15.
An explosion of recent research on dogs: One representative example is Isabella Merola, Emanuela Prato-Previde, and Sarah Marshall-Pescini, “Dogs’ Social Referencing towards Owners and Strangers,” PLoS ONE 7, no. 10 (2012): e47653.
studies of hormonal fluctuations in baboons: Jonathan Balcombe, Second Nature: The Inner Lives of Animals (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 47.
A number of recent studies: Jason Castro, “Do Bees Have Feelings?,” Scientific American, August 2, 2011, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=do-bees-have-feelings; Sy Montgomery, “Deep Intellect,” Orion, November–December 2011, http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/6474/; “What Model Organisms Can Teach Us about Emotion,” Science Daily, February 21, 2010, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/02/100220184321.htm; Balcombe, Second Nature.
The results of these studies are changing debates: There have been some distinctions made within the neurosciences and affective sciences more generally about the differences between “emotions” and “feelings.” Antonio Damasio and Joseph LeDoux, for example, have argued that emotions are not necessarily conscious states, while feelings may be, and are the result of our minds trying to make sense of emotions. See, for example, Antonio R. Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1994), 131–32, 143.
As the neurologist Antonio Damasio has argued: Ibid.
“I think that emotions—although they are subject to selection”: Lori Marino, personal communication, May 4, 2011.
The ethologist Jonathan Balcombe believes that emotions: Balcombe, Second Nature, 46.
the only animals to have been proven self-aware: Although this is slightly different, I have never known a dog to be confused by his or her reflection in a mirror, sliding glass door, or the glossy surface of an oven. Perhaps some dimwitted dogs do bark or sniff at the reflection, but most don’t. While this doesn’t prove that they see the reflected dog as themselves, it doesn’t prove that they don’t.
African Grey parrots will use mirrors as tools to gather information about where food, toys, or playmates are, but they don’t necessarily groom while looking at their reflection. A parrot may recognize herself but might care to do something else with the information contained in the mirror (for instance, that a human it knows is busy making a fruit salad behind her). Even among the great apes, the degree to which chimpanzees identified themselves in mirrors depended on the individual chimpanzee. The same held true with gorillas. D. M. Broom, H. Sena, and K. L. Moynihan, “Pigs Learn What a Mirror Image Represents and Use It to Obtain Information,” Animal Behaviour 78, no. 5 (2009): 1037; I. M. Pepperberg et al., “Mirror Use by African Gray Parrots (Psittacus erithacus),” Journal of Comparative Psychology 109 (1995): 189–95; G. G. Gallup Jr., “Chimpanzees: Self-Recognition,” Science 167 (1970): 86–87; V. Walraven, Van L. Elsacker, and R. Verheyen, “Reactions of a Group of Pygmy Chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) to Their Mirror Images: Evidence of Self-Recognition,” Primates 36 (1995): 145–50; D. H. Ledbetter and J. A. Basen, “Failure to Demonstrate Self-Recognition in Gorillas,” American Journal of Primatology 2 (1982): 307–10; F. G. P. Patterson and R. H. Cohn, “Self-Recognition and Self-Awareness in Lowland Gorillas,” in Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives, ed. S. T. Parker and R. W. Mitchell (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 273–90.
In 2012 a group of prominent neuroanatomists: Philip Low, “The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness,” ed. Jaak Panksepp et al., Cambridge University, July 7, 2012.
Despite centuries of investigation by everyone from: Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience, 13.
The psychologist Paul Ekman put forth the most famous list: Paul Ekman, “Basic Emotions,” in Handbook of Cognition and Emotion, ed. Tim Dalgleish and Mick J. Power (New York: Wiley, 2005), 45–60; John Sabini and Maury Silver, “Ekman’s Basic Emotions: Why Not Love and Jealousy?,” Cognition and Emotion 19, no. 5 (2005): 693–712.
This sort of circular reasoning is: Jaak Panksepp cautions against circular interpretations of animal behavior in Affective Neuroscience, 13.
Behaviorally, the disease is similar: T. Satou et al., “Neurobiology of the Aging Dog,” Brain Research 774, nos. 1–2 (1997): 35–43; Carl W. Cotman and Elizabeth Head, “The Canine (Dog) Model of Human Aging and Disease: Dietary, Environmental and Immunotherapy Approaches,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 15, no. 4 (2008): 685–707.
Instead, canine Alzheimer’s seems to be due: Dr. Ralph Nixon, Director of Center of Excellence for Brain Aging and Executive Director of the Pearl Barlow Center for Memory Evaluation and Treatment, New York University, personal communication. December 5, 2013.
Learning about fear and responding to it involve neural pathways: Joseph LeDoux, “Emotion, Memory and the Brain: What We Do and How We Do It,” LeDoux Laboratory Research Overview, http://www.cns.nyu.edu/home/ledoux/overview.htm (accessed June 7, 2012).
John Fulton performed the first frontal lobotomies: Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 13, 48–65.
he called out in clear Italian: Shorter and Healy, Shock Therapy, 35–41.
By 1947, nine out of ten: Ibid., 78–80.
the OCD symptoms fade after the operation: P. Hay, P. Sachdev, S. Cumming, J. S. Smith, T. Lee, P. Kitchener, and J. Matheson, “Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder by Psychosurgery,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 87, no. 3 (March 1993): 197–207; E. Irle, C. Exner, K. Thielen, G. Weniger, and E. Rüther, “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Ventromedial Frontal Lesions: Clinical and Neuropsychological Findings,” The American Journal of Psychiatry 155, no. 2 (February 1998): 255–263; M. Polosan, B. Millet, T. Bougerol, J.-P. Olié, and B. Devaux, “Psychosurgical Treatment of Malignant OCD: Three Case-Reports,” L’Encéphale 29, no. 6 (December 2003): 545–552.
Recent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of dogs: Gregory Burns, “Dogs Are People, Too,” New York Times, Oct. 5, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/06/opinion/sunday/dogs-are-people-too.html?_r=0.
a recent estimate by the National Public Health Service: LeDoux, “Emotion, Memory and the Brain.”
changing levels of regulatory transmitters: Jacćek Dębiec, David E. A. Bush, and Joseph E. LeDoux, “Noradrenergic Enhancement of Reconsolidation in the Amygdala Impairs Extinction of Conditioned Fear in Rats: A Possible Mechanism for the Persistence of Traumatic Memories in PTSD,” Depression and Anxiety 28, no. 3 (2011): 186–93.
“It’s not the rat part of the rat”: He argues that testing phenomena that have to do with the neocortex (the deeply grooved and wrinkled gray matter that is much larger in humans and other apes—as it is in whale, dolphin, and elephant brains—may allow for extremely complex thinking) wouldn’t be as useful since there is no homologous structure in the rat. Joseph E. LeDoux, personal communication, January 28, 2010.
LeDoux believes that feelings, as humans think of them: Joseph E. LeDoux, “Rethinking the Emotional Brain,” Neuron 73, no. 4 (Feb. 23, 2012): 653–676.
Rats who have been shocked enough times to lose interest in food: Email correspondence with Joseph E. LeDoux, November 7, 2009.
They simply gave up: Martin E. Seligman and Steven Maier, “Failure to Escape Traumatic Shock.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 74, no. 1 (1967): 1–9. ; Bruce J. Overmier and Martin E. Seligman, “Effects of Inescapable Shock Upon Subsequent Escape and Avoidance Responding,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 63, no. 1 (1967): 28–33.
“uncontrollable events can significantly debilitate organisms”: Seligman, Martin E. “Learned Helplessness.” Annual Review of Medicine 23, no. 1 (1972): 407–412.
For the psychologist and cognitive researcher Diana Reiss: Diana Reiss, The Dolphin in the Mirror: Exploring Dolphin Minds and Saving Dolphin Lives (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011), 242–43.
Diana’s own dog: Personal communication, Diana Reiss, February 5, 2014.
Skinner wrote about superstitious animal behavior in 1947: B. F. Skinner, “Superstition in the Pigeon,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 38, June 5, 1947, 168–172.
Professional athletes may be: Justin Gmoser, “The Strangest Good Luck Rituals in Sports,” Business Insider, October 31, 2013.
“It is possible . . . that your simple man”: Quoted in Marc Bekoff, The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy, Sorrow, and Empathy—and Why They Matter (Novato, CA: New World Library, 2008), 122.
“Just because I say a dog is happy or jealous”: Ibid., 123.
these antagonized primates: Robert M. Sapolsky, A Primate’s Memoir (New York: Scribner, 2001); R. M. Sapolsky, “Why Stress Is Bad for Your Brain,” Science 273, no. 5276 (1996): 749.
His attention to their psychodramas: Robert M. Sapolsky, “Glucocorticoids and Hippocampal Atrophy in Neuropsychiatric Disorders,” Archives of General Psychiatry 57, no. 10 (2000): 925–35; Robert M. Sapolsky, L. M. Romero, and A. U. Munck, “How Do Glucocorticoids Influence Stress Responses? Integrating Permissive, Suppressive, Stimulatory, and Preparative Actions 1,” Endocrine Reviews 21, no. 1 (2000): 55–89; Robert M. Sapolsky, “Why Stress Is Bad for Your Brain,” 749; Sapolsky, A Primate’s Memoir.
“I’m not anthropomorphizing”: Robert Sapolsky, quoted in Bekoff, The Emotional Lives of Animals, 124.
Between 1955 and 1960 he and his team bred enough baby rhesus monkeys: Donna Haraway, Primate Visions: Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science (New York: Routledge, 1989), 231–32.
In a now infamous series of experiments: Harry Harlow and B. M. Foss, “Effects of Various Mother-Infant Relationships on Rhesus Monkey Behaviors,” Readings in Child Behavior and Development (1972): 202; Haraway, Primate Visions, 231–32, 238–39.
One series involved offering baby monkeys a choice: Haraway, Primate Visions, 238–39; Harlow and Foss. “Effects of Various Mother-Infant Relationships on Rhesus Monkey Behaviors,” 202.
Another of Harlow’s experiments demonstrated: Harry F. Harlow and Stephen J. Suomi, “Induced Depression in Monkeys,” Behavioral Biology 12, no. 3 (1974): 273–96; B. Seay, E. Hansen, and H. F. Harlow, “Mother-Infant Separation in Monkeys,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 3, nos. 3–4 (1962): 123–32; H. A. Cross and H. F. Harlow, “Prolonged and Progressive Effects of Partial Isolation on the Behavior of Macaque Monkeys,” Journal of Experimental Research in Personality 1, no. 1 (1965): 39–49.
the now extremely abnormally behaving monkeys: Stephen J. Suomi, Harry F. Harlow, and William T. McKinney, “Monkey Psychiatrists,” American Journal of Psychiatry 128, no. 8 (1972): 927–32; Stephen J. Suomi and Harry F. Harlow, “Social Rehabilitation of Isolate-Reared Monkeys,” Developmental Psychology 6, no. 3 (1972): 487–96.
psychoanalyst and psychiatrist René Spitz observed: Rachael Stryker, The Road to Evergreen: Adoption, Attachment Therapy, and the Promise of Family (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010), 14–15; R. A. Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Inquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 1 (1945): 53–74; R. A. Spitz, “Hospitalism: A Follow-Up Report on Investigation Described in Volume I, 1945,” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 2 (1946): 113–17, quoted in “Attachment,” Advokids, http://www.advokids.org/attachment.html (accessed March 23, 2012); John Bowlby, “John Bowlby and Ethology: An Annotated Interview with Robert Hinde,” Attachment and Human Development 9, no. 4 (2007): 321–35.
Spitz believed that the lack of human touch and affection: Deborah Blum, Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection (New York: Perseus, 2002), 50–52.
Bowlby’s and Spitz’s research, combined with Harlow’s experimental results: Frank C. P. van der Horst, Helen A. Leroy, and René van der Veer, “ ‘When Strangers Meet’: John Bowlby and Harry Harlow on Attachment Behavior,” Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science 42, no. 4 (2008): 370–88.
“lasting psychological connectedness between human beings”: Van der Veer, “ ‘When Strangers’ Meet.’ ”
Harlow’s monkeys also ended up helping: Friends of Bonobos, “The Sanctuary” (accessed February 2, 2012) http://www.friendsofbonobos.org/sanctuary.htm.
Scotland’s Overtoun Bridge, otherwise known as the “dog suicide bridge”: “Why Have So Many Dogs Leapt to Their Death from Overtoun Bridge?,” Daily Mail, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-411038/Why-dogs-leapt-deaths-Overtoun-Bridge.html (accessed January 9, 2014).
“Military Dogs of War”: James Dao, “More Military Dogs Show Signs of Combat Stress,” New York Times, December 1, 2011; Lee Charles Kelley, “Canine PTSD: Its Causes, Signs and Symptoms,” My Puppy, My Self, Psychology Today, August 8, 2012; Monica Mendoza, “Man’s Best Friend Not Immune to Stigmas of War; Overcomes PTSD,” Official Website of the U.S. Air Force, July 27, 2010, http://www.peterson.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123214946 (accessed Aug. 1, 2013); Marvin Hurst, “ ‘Something Snapped’: Service Dogs Get Help in PTSD Battle,” KENS5.com, February 10, 2012; Catherine Cheney, “For War Dogs, Life with PTSD Requires Patient Owners,” Atlantic, December 20, 2011; Jessie Knadler, “My Dog Solha: From Afghanistan, with PTSD,” The Daily Beast, March 14, 2013, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/03/13/my-dog-solha-from-afghanistan-with-ptsd.html (accessed Mar. 4, 2013).
Pavlov became interested in canine neurosis: According to Breuer, Anna’s hysteria symptoms included (among other things) partial paralysis of her limbs, weakness, loss of motion in her neck, a nervous cough, lack of appetite, hallucinations, agitation, mood swings, destructive behavior, amnesia, tunnel vision, odd speech patterns (in which she did not conjugate verbs), and difficulty speaking German (but was still able to translate German texts into English). John Launer, “Anna O and the ‘Talking Cure,’ ” QJM 98, no. 6 (2005): 465–66; G. Windholz, “Pavlov, Psychoanalysis, and Neuroses,” Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science 25, no. 2 (1990): 48–53.
The lab performed endless variations: Michael W. Fox, Abnormal Behavior in Animals (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1968), 81; Windholz, “Pavlov, Psychoanalysis, and Neuroses.”
Pavlov’s views on the similarities: Fox, Abnormal Behavior in Animals, 85, 119.
Pavlov had his critics: H. S. Liddell, “The Experimental Neurosis,” Annual Review of Physiology 9, no. 1 (1947): 569–80.
argued that Pavlov’s work was inferior to analysis: In 1929 one Viennese psychoanalyst argued that Pavlov’s work was far inferior to analysis when it came to understanding neurosis in humans. Pavlov countered that neurosis in both people and other animals was rooted in the collision of excitation and inhibition (the basic processes he was testing in the lab) and that if his dogs could speak they would most likely say that they could not control themselves and so they did what was forbidden and were punished. But none of these verbal dog reports, Pavlov continued, would add anything new to the knowledge gained from the experiments themselves. Windholz, “Pavlov, Psychoanalysis, and Neuroses”; Liddell, “The Experimental Neurosis.”
his ability to return his dogs to their normal, nonneurotic state: He may have changed his mind somewhat. A few years later, while working with humans at a clinic focused on nervous diseases, Pavlov began to put far more stock in the process of psychoanalysis, at least when it came to understanding humans, and he spent the last few years of his life researching the causes and manifestations of what were then the nervous diseases of hysteria, neurasthenia, and psychasthenia in people. Windholz, “Pavlov, Psychoanalysis, and Neuroses”; Liddell, “The Experimental Neurosis.”
These ideas were adopted by the military: Liddell, “The Experimental Neurosis.”
Pavlovian ideas of conditioning and deconditioning: Other animals are part of this story as well, as is the idea of “traumatic memory,” which was sometimes seen as related to nervous disorders. Our modern concept of traumatic memory dates back to the years leading up to World War I, stemming from experiments like Pavlov’s, but also, in part, to the earlier work of two American physicians, George Crile and Walter Cannon, and their experiments on cats and dogs. One of their research foci was on nervous shock. Crile and Cannon believed that extreme fear could cause physical problems similar to surgical shock in both humans and cats (a potentially lethal condition that left surgical patients pallid, faint, cold, anxious, and with a weak pulse, among other symptoms). Cannon’s experiments on felines, in which he destroyed the connection between the cat’s cortex and the rest of its nervous system, caused an extreme emotional reaction that looked a lot like fearful arousal: the cats’ hair stood on end, sweat seeped from their toes, their heart rate and blood pressure spiked, and they eventually collapsed and died. Cannon called this “sham rage” and used the cats’ experiences to explain the deaths of men who had been exposed to severe emotional shocks. Allan Young, The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 24, 42; Frederick Heaton Millham, “A Brief History of Shock,” Surgery 148, no. 5 (2010): 1026–37.
PTSD sufferers also experience a variety of symptoms: “DSM-5 Criteria for PTSD,” U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/pages/dsm-iv-tr-ptsd.asp (accessed July 1, 2013); “Post Traumatic Stress Disorder,” A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia, National Library of Medicine, March 8, 2013, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001923/ (accessed December 5, 2013).
Doctors treating soldiers in the wake of World War I: More recently, evolutionary psychologists have argued that today’s PTSD may be an extreme adaptive behavior; that is, the soldier’s harrowing response to the horror he witnessed could be an unconscious attempt to keep himself away from war in the future. I believe this is an oversimplification of a complex reaction to trauma and anxiety. See, for example, Lance Workman and Will Reader, Evolutionary Psychology: An Introduction (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 229; Young, The Harmony of Illusions, 64.
African elephant calves: Hope R. Ferdowsian et al., “Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees,” PLoS ONE 6, no. 6 (2011). See also G. A. Bradshaw et al., “Building an Inner Sanctuary: Complex PTSD in Chimpanzees,” Journal of Trauma and Dissociation: The Official Journal of the International Society for the Study of Dissociation 9, no. 1 (2008): 9–34; G. A. Bradshaw, Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach Us about Humanity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010).
Chimps who have spent time at testing facilities: Ferdowsian et al., “Signs of Mood and Anxiety Disorders in Chimpanzees,” e19855. See also Bradshaw et al., “Building an Inner Sanctuary.”
an account of this sort of suffering: Balcombe. Second Nature, 59.
Whether these animals were indeed experiencing the same sorts: Young, The Harmony of Illusions, 284.
disorders such as “shell shock” and “war neuroses”: Ibid.
Traumatized infants and pre-school-age children: Judith A. Cohen and Michael S. Scheeringa, “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Diagnosis in Children: Challenges and Promises,” Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 11, no. 1 (March 2009): 91–99; M. S. Scheeringa, C. H. Zeanah, M. J. Drell, and J. A. Larrieu, “Two Approaches to the Diagnosis of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Infancy and Early Childhood,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34, no. 2 (February 1995): 191–200; Richard Meiser-Stedman, Patrick Smith, Edward Glucksman, William Yule, and Tim Dalgleish, “The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Diagnosis in Preschool- and Elementary School-Age Children Exposed to Motor Vehicle Accidents,” The American Journal of Psychiatry 165, no. 10 (October 2008): 1326–1337.
A few search and rescue dogs exposed to the loud, dangerous: Personal communication, Nicole Cottam, June 19, 2009, August 2, 2009; personal communication, Jim Crosby, March 14, 2011.
He offers a checklist for people interested in diagnosing their own pets: Lee Charles Kelley, “Canine PTSD Symptom Scale,” http://www.leecharleskelley.com/images/CPTSD_Symptom_Scale.pdf.
Kelley found that asking him to bark: Lee Charles Kelley, “Case History No. 1—My Dog Fred,” originally published in “My Puppy My Self,” at PsychologyToday.com on July 10, 2012; http://canineptsdblog.blogspot.com/2013/02/canine-ptsd-case-history-no-1my-dog-fred.html.
Of the roughly 650 American military dogs deployed: Dao, “More Military Dogs Show Signs of Combat Stress”; Lee Charles Kelley, “Canine PTSD: Its Causes, Signs and Symptoms,” My Puppy, My Self, Psychology Today, August 8, 2012; Monica Mendoza, “Man’s Best Friend Not Immune to Stigmas of War; Overcomes PTSD,” U.S. Air Force, July 27, 2010, http://www.peterson.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123214946 (accessed November 5, 2012); Marvin Hurst, “ ‘Something Snapped’: Service Dogs Get Help in PTSD Battle,” KENS5.com, February 10, 2012; Cheney, “For War Dogs, Life with PTSD Requires Patient Owners.”
Dr. Walter Burghardt . . . believes the disorder applies to many dogs: See, for example, Kelly McEvers, “ ‘Sticky IED’ Attacks Increase in Iraq,” National Public Radio, December 3, 2010; Craig Whitlock, “IED Casualties in Afghanistan Spike,” Washington Post, January 26, 2011; James Dao and Andrew Lehren, “The Reach of War: In Toll of 2,000, New Portrait of Afghan War,” New York Times, August 22, 2012; Malia Wollan, “Duplicating Afghanistan from the Ground Up,” New York Times, April 14, 2012; Mark Thompson, “The Pentagon’s New IED Report,” Time, February 5, 2012; Ahmad Saadawi, “A Decade of Despair in Iraq,” New York Times, March 19, 2013; Michael Barbero, “Improvised Explosive Devices Are Here to Stay,” Washington Post, May 17, 2013; Terri Gross with Brian Castnor, “The Life That Follows: Disarming IEDs in Iraq,” Fresh Air, National Public Radio, June 7, 2013.
dog noses are still the most effective tools: Spencer Ackerman, “$19 Billion Later, Pentagon’s Best Bomb-Detector Is a Dog,” Wired, October 10, 2010; Allen St. John, “Let the Dog Do It: Training Black Labs to Sniff Out IEDs Better Than Military Gadgets” Forbes, April 9, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/allenstjohn/2012/04/09/let-the-dog-do-it-training-black-labs-to-sniff-out-ieds-better-than-military-gadgets/ (accessed April 10, 2012).
physicians who treated various forms of insanity: Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997) 53, 90–91, 113–14; Roy Porter, A Social History of Madness: The World through the Eyes of the Insane (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987); Andrew T. Scull, Hysteria: The Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 8–13.
the word madness has meant many different things: See “mad, adv.,” Oxford English Dictionary Online, June 2011, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/6512?redirectedFrom=mad.
The disease was also scary because: Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 168–69.
A mad dog could be anywhere: Ibid., 177.
The public’s anxieties about mad dogs: Examples include “Mad Dogs Running Amuck: A Hydrophobia Panic Prevails in Connecticut,” New York Times, June 29, 1890; “Mad Dog Owned the House: Senorita Isabel’s Foundling Pet Takes Possession,” New York Times, June 18, 1894; “Lynn in Terror,” Boston Daily Globe, June 27, 1898; “Suburbs Demand Death to Canines: Englewood and Hyde Park, Aroused by Biting of Children, Ask Extermination. Hesitation by Police. Say ‘Mad Dog Panic’ Order of ‘Shoot on Sight’ Would Sacrifice Fine Animals. Forbids Reckless Shooting. Victims of Vicious Dogs. Dog Disperses Euchre Party,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 7, 1908; “Mad Dog Is a Public Enemy,” Virginia Law Register 15, no. 5 (1909): 409.
The historian Harriet Ritvo: Ritvo, Animal Estate, 175, 177, 180–81, 193.
Infection was also thought to jump from dogs to other animals: “Mad Horse Attacks Men: Veterinary Who Shot the Animal from Haymow Says It Had Rabies,” New York Times, April 6, 1909; “Mad Horses Despatched: Soldiers’ Home Animals Are Killed for Rabies: Equines Bitten by Afflicted Dog Are Isolated and, after a Few Weeks Show Signs of Having Been Infected. Death Warrant Quickly Executed. Other Horses Affected,” Los Angeles Times, May 9, 1906; “Burro with Hydrophobia: Bites Man, Kills Dog and Takes Chunk from Neck of Horse,” Los Angeles Times, March 16, 1911; “Career of a Crazy Lynx: The Mad Beast Killed by a Woman after Running Amuck for Thirty Miles,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 10, 1890; “Stampeded by Mad Cow: Animal Charges Saloon and Restaurant, People Fleeing for Safety,” Los Angeles Times, June 5, 1909; “Bitten by a Mad Monkey: Little Mabel Hogle Attacked by a Museum Animal. While Viewing Curios with Her Father, George Hogle, 912 North Clark Street, the Beast Rushes upon the Girl. Lively Battle Ensues. Father Kicks the Animal Away and the Daughter Faints. Brute, Said to Be Mad, Is Killed. Wound Cauterized,” Chicago Daily Tribune, November 28, 1897.
when Oliver Goldsmith published the poem: Oliver Goldsmith, “An Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Children’s Literature, ed. Jack Zipes (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
One small dog, for example, discovered with a pig: “Wreck in Midocean; a Mad Dog and a Little Pig the Sole Occupants of a Brig,” New York Times, March 9, 1890.
Animals could also go mad from a lifetime of abuse: “ ‘Smiles,’ the Big Park Rhinoceros: Bought at Auction for $14,000, She Needs Constant Care, Although She Has an Ugly Temper,” New York Times, March 29, 1903.
Maddened horses, as they were known: “Dragged by Mad Horses: A Lady’s Dress Catches in the Wheels. She May Recover,” Los Angeles Times, April 30, 1888; “Runaways in Central Park: Two Horses Wreck Three Carriages and a Bicycle. M. J. Sullivan’s Team Had a Long and Disastrous Run before a Park Policeman Caught It. Mrs. Crystal and Her Children Have a Narrow Escape. Julius Kaufman Gives a Mounted Policeman a Chance to Distinguish Himself,” New York Times, June 4, 1894; “Mad Horses’ Wild Chase: Dashed through Streets with 1,000 People at His Heels. Hero Who Saved Three Tots Hurt, Fatally Maybe, While Trying to Stop Him. Thrown by Trolley Car,” New York Times, September 14, 1903; “A Mad Horse,” New York Times, June 20, 1881.
the monkey mascot of a New Orleans baseball team: “Mad Monkey Scares Fans: Queer Mascot of New Orleans Ball Team Makes Trouble and Game Stops,” Los Angeles Times, July 19, 1909.
As late as the 1920s and 1930s: On the set of a 1930s Paramount film being shot in the Santa Monica Mountains, actress Dorothy Lamour was attacked by a “mad ape” (the film’s chimp actor, named Jiggs) and saved by a young man from the props department. A few years later a second mad monkey was on the loose in the Los Angeles suburb of Tarzana and ended up caged after its exploits ended in one angry neighbor’s garage. “Mad Cats in Madder Orgy,” Los Angeles Times, May 2, 1924; “A Mad Cow Mutilates Two People,” Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1889; “Color of Mad Parrot Saves It from Death,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 3, 1913; “Film Aide Saves Actress from Mad Ape’s Attack,” Los Angeles Times, July 7, 1936; “Monkey Caged after Biting Second Person,” Los Angeles Times, January 8, 1939.
just a few months before forging an alliance with Hitler: “Mussolini Attacked by Mad Ox: African Fete Throng in Panic as Horns Barely Miss Premier,” New York Times, March 15, 1937.
many of the most enduring stories concern elephants: “Bad Elephants,” Los Angeles Times, January 16, 1887; “Mad Elephants: A Showman’s Recollections of Keepers Killed and Destruction Done by Them. Peculiarities of the Beasts,” Boston Daily Globe, November 20, 1881; “Mad Elephants: The Havoc the Great Beast Causes When He Rebels against Irksome Captivity,” New York Times, August 26, 1880; “Mad Elephants: Big Charley Killed His Keeper at Peru, Indiana. Twice Hurled Him into a Stream and Then Stood upon Him,” Boston Daily Globe, April 26, 1901; “Death of Mandarin: Huge Mad Elephant Strangled with the Help of a Tug and a Big Chain,” Boston Daily Globe, November 9, 1902; “Bullet Ends Gunda, Bronx Zoo Elephant: Dr. Hornaday Ordered Execution Because Gunda Reverted to Murderous Traits. Died without a Struggle. His Mounted Skin Will Adorn Museum of Natural History and His Flesh Goes to Feed the Lions,” New York Times, June 23, 1915; “Death of Gunda,” Zoological Society Bulletin 18, no. 4 (1915): 1248–49; “British Soldier’s Miraculous Escape from Death on Tusks of a Mad Elephant,” Boston Daily Globe, September 19, 1920; “Mad Elephant Rips Chains and Walls: Six-Ton Tusko Wrecks Portland (Ore.) Building before Recapture by Ruse. Sharpshooters Cover Him. Thousands Watch Small Army of Men Trap Pachyderm with Steel Nooses Hitched to Trucks,” New York Times, December 26, 1931.
the mad elephant genre, published in the New York Times in 1880: “Mad Elephants: The Havoc the Great Beast Causes When He Rebels against Irksome Captivity.”
Accounts of elephants going mad: See, for example, “An Elephant Ran Amok During the Shooting of a Film,” Orlando (FL) Sentinel, March 7, 1988; “Woman Trying to Ride an Elephant Is Killed,” New York Times, July 7, 1985; “Elephant Storms Out of Circus in Queens,” New York Times, July 11, 1995; Phil Maggitti, “Tyke the Elephant,” Animals’ Agenda 14, no. 5 (1994): 34; Karl E. Kristofferson, “Elephant on the Rampage!,” Reader’s Digest 142, no. 854 (1993): 42; “African Elephant Kills Circus Trainer,” New York Times, August 22, 1994.
Captive elephants have been known to suddenly explode into violence: While it would end up being applied predominantly to animals and human children, in the seventeenth century the phrase running amok concerned Malaysians and opium. Traveling Portuguese described frenzied Malaysians as “Amucos,” and many reports associated the state with being high. In his 1833 Naval History of England R. Southey wrote about the “pitch of fury which the Malays excite in themselves by a deleterious drug, before they run amuck” (perhaps ignoring the more obvious role of colonization and oppression in any frenzied behavior among Malaysians). Twenty-five years later it was being applied to animals. See “amok, n. and adv.,” Oxford English Dictionary Online, June 2011, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/6512?redirectedFrom=amok. Other elephants targeted no individual but rampaged around until they were caught and hanged, electrocuted, or otherwise punished. In 1902 a “huge mad elephant” named Mandarin was strangled with a chain in New York after running amok with the Barnum and Bailey Circus. In 1920 a story of the dramatic escape by a British soldier from the tusks “of a mad elephant” made the American papers. “Bad Elephants,” Los Angeles Times, January 16, 1887; “Mad Elephant: Big Charley Killed His Keeper at Peru, Indiana”; “Death of Mandarin”; “British Soldier’s Miraculous Escape from Death on Tusks of a Mad Elephant”; “Mad Elephant Rips Chains and Walls.”
Campbell flopped to the side, limp: “African Elephant Kills Circus Trainer,” New York Times, August 22, 1994.; video footage of Tyke’s attack, Banned from TV, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ym7MS4I7znQ (accessed January 7, 2014).
“And the next thing I knew, it was running by me, bloody”: Will Hoover, “Slain elephant left tenuous legacy in animal rights,” Honolulu Advertiser, August 20, 2004, http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/08/16/news/story2.html.
He claimed he was punishing her: Rosemarie Bernardo, “Shots Killing Elephant Echo across a Decade,” Star Bulletin, August 16, 2004, http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/08/16/news/story2.html.
she was suffering from skin abscesses: Christi Parsons, “ ’93 Incident by Cuneo Elephant Told,” Chicago Tribune, August 24, 1994, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994–08–24/news/9408240223_1_circus-officials-shrine-circus-tyke; “Hawthorn Corporation Factsheet,” PETA, http://www.mediapeta.com/peta/pdf/hawthorn-corporation-pdf.pdf.; “A Cruel Jungle Tale in Richmond,” Chicago Tribune, January 13, 2005, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2005–01–13/news/0501130241_1_elephants-animal-welfare-act-hawthorn-corp.
A year later the USDA: Maryann Mott, “Elephant Abuse Charges Add Fuel to Circus Debate,” National Geographic, April 6, 2004, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/04/0406_040406_circuselephants_2.html.
Chunee, a once docile Asian elephant: Ritvo, Animal Estate, 225–27.
Gunda too was once an approachable star elephant: “Death of Gunda.”
Debates over what to do with him captivated New Yorkers: Ibid.; William Bridges, Gathering of Animals: An Unconventional History of the New York Zoological Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 234–42; “Bullet Ends Gunda, Bronx Zoo Elephant.”
Forepaugh’s shows included: Advertisement for Adam Forepaugh’s Circus in Athletic Park, Washington, D.C., National Republican, April 11, 1885, http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn86053573/1885–04–11/ed-1/seq-6/ (accessed May 1, 2012).
Tip was “docile as a lamb”: “An Elephant for New York: Adam Forepaugh Presents the City with His $8,000 Tip,” New York Times, January 1, 1889; “Tip Is Royally Received: Forepaugh’s Gift Elephant Arrived Yesterday. Met at the Ferry and Escorted through the Streets by Thousands of Admirers,” New York Times, January 2, 1889.
For his first few years inside the Central Park elephant house: “Tip’s Life in the Balance: The Murderous Elephant’s Fate to Be Decided Tomorrow,” New York Times, May 8, 1894; Wyndham Martyn, “Bill Snyder, Elephant Man,” Pearson’s Magazine 35 (1916): 180–85; John W. Smith, “Central Park Animals as Their Keeper Knows Them,” Outing: Sport, Adventure, Travel, Fiction 42 (1903): 248–54.
“must reform or die”: “Tip Must Reform or Die: Central Park’s Big Elephant on Trial for His Life,” New York Times, May 3, 1894.
One morning, as the keeper went to feed Tip his breakfast: Ibid.; Smith, “Central Park Animals as Their Keeper Knows Them,” 252–54.
The elephant waited three years to try to hurt Snyder again: “Tip Must Reform or Die”; “Tip’s Life in the Balance”; Martyn, “Bill Snyder,” 180–85.
Daily newspaper articles covered his plight: Charles David, a man who had worked for Forepaugh and known Tip for years, put it this way: “I think Snyder doesn’t exercise Tip enough. . . . In circuses, when an elephant gets unruly, they punish him . . . or they walk him from one town to another, twenty miles or so. That takes the ugliness out of him. If Snyder cannot subdue Tip, then they ought to get another keeper.” Apparently David was ignored.“Tip Must Reform or Die”; “Tip’s Life in the Balance”; “Tip’s Life May Be Sacred: Mr. Davis Says the City Agreed He Should Not Be Killed,” New York Times, May 7, 1894.
He also may have been going through musth: An elegant account of another elephant in musth is the centerpiece of George Orwell’s 1936 essay “Shooting an Elephant.” As a colonial officer in Burma, he was pressured to shoot a “mad elephant”: “I watched him beating his bunch of grass against his knees, with that preoccupied grandmotherly air that elephants have. It seemed to me that it would be murder to shoot him.” George Orwell, Shooting an Elephant, and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1950); Preecha Phuangkum, Richard C. Lair, and Taweepoke Angkawanith, Elephant Care Manual for Mahouts and Camp Managers (Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 2005), 52–54.
a new wave of animal advocates: See Anita Guerrini, Experimenting with Humans and Animals: From Galen to Animal Rights (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Carol Lansbury, The Old Brown Dog: Women, Workers, and Vivisection in Edwardian England (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985); Susan J. Pearson, The Rights of the Defenseless: Protecting Animals and Children in Gilded Age America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011); Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: A History of the Modern Sensibility (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983).
the Central Park commissioners unanimously decided: I was not able to verify whether Tip actually killed anyone, and I doubt the Parks Commission was able to either. “Tip Tried and Convicted; Park Commissioners Sentence the Elephant to Death,” New York Times, May 10, 1894; “Tip Swallowed the Dose; But Ate His Hay with Accustomed Regularity in the Afternoon. Tried to Poison an Elephant. It Was Unsuccessful at Barnum & Bailey’s Winter Quarters Yesterday. If It Fails To-day the Animal Will Be Shot,” New York Times, March 16, 1894; “Tip to Die by Poison To-Day; Hydrocyanic Acid Capsules in a Carrot at 6 A.M.,” New York Times, May 11, 1894.
The park flooded with visitors: “Big Elephant Tip Dead: Killed with Poison after Long Hours of Suffering,” New York Times, May 12, 1894.
The term nostalgia could be used interchangeably with homesickness: Nostalgia was first diagnosed in 1678 by a Swiss doctor, Johannes Hofer, and was considered an “affliction of the imagination” caused by the desire to go back to one’s native land. Soldiers, students, prisoners, exiles, or anyone barred from returning to their home could contract the disease, according to another Swiss doctor in 1720. The disease was characterized by the single-minded obsession with return. Nostalgia wasn’t “demedicalized” until the turn of the twentieth century, when it lost its “bodily connotations and became even more linked with time.” Jennifer K. Ladino, Reclaiming Nostalgia: Longing for Nature in American Literature (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012), 6–7.
During the Civil War, for example: Susan J. Matt, Homesickness: An American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 5–6.
African Americans, Native Americans, and women: Ibid.
“Nostalgia . . . is the first and most effective aid”: Ibid.
Working out of his shop in London’s East End: “John Daniel Hamlyn (1858–1922),” St George-in-the-East Church, http://www.stgite.org.uk/media/hamlyn.html (accessed June 15, 2013); “The Avicultural Society,” Avicultural Magazine: For the Study of Foreign and British Birds in Freedom and Captivity 112 (2006).
Hamlyn was also said to have kept chimpanzees as children in his house: Bo Beolens, Michael Watkins, and Michael Grayson, The Eponym Dictionary of Mammals (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), 175; Hamlyn’s Menagerie Magazine 1, no. 1 (London, 1915), Biodiversity Heritage Library, http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/61908.
When the young gorilla arrived from Gabon: “John Daniel Hamlyn (1858–1922)”; American Museum of Natural History, “Mammalogy,” Natural History 21 (1921): 654.
A young woman named Alyse Cunningham: Alyse Cunningham, “A Gorilla’s Life in Civilization,” Zoological Society Bulletin 24, no. 5 (1921): 118–19.
She was convinced that his fears stemmed: Ibid.
John was a picky eater: Ibid.
he had been trying to secure a gorilla: Bridges, Gathering of Animals, 346.
One of the few gorillas to live more than a few months: “Garner Found Ape That Talked to Him: Waa-hooa, Said the Monkey: Ahoo-ahoo, Replied Professor at Their Meeting,” New York Times, June 6, 1919; “Zoo’s Only Gorilla Dead: Mlle. Ninjo Could Not Endure Our Civilization. Nostalgia Ailed Her,” New York Times, October 6, 1911; “Death of a Young Gorilla,” New York Times, January 3, 1888; “Jungle Baby Lolls in Invalid’s Luxury,” New York Times, December 21, 1914.
On a trip to Gabon in 1893: R. L. Garner, “Among the Gorillas,” Los Angeles Times, August 27, 1893.
fine health didn’t seem to be due to his diet: William T. Hornaday, “Gorilla a Model for Small Boys: He Always Put Things Back,” Boston Daily Globe, November 25, 1923.
Just three years earlier Hornaday had proclaimed: William T. Hornaday, “Gorillas Past and Present,” Zoological Society Bulletin 18, no. 1 (1915): 1185.
For more than two years Alyse and Rupert encouraged: Cunningham, “A Gorilla’s Life in Civilization,” 123.
Occasionally, they brought him to the London Zoo: Fred D. Pfenig Jr. and Richard J. Reynolds III, “In Ringling Barnum Gorillas and Their Cages,” Bandwagon (November–December), 6.
“The only way to deal with him”: Ibid.
It’s not clear why they weren’t able to locate a suitable spot for him: Ibid.
“sitting quietly in one corner”: “Circus’s Gorilla a Bit Homesick,” New York Times, April 3, 1921.
Soon both circus-goers and the press reported: “Gorilla Dies of Homesickness,” Los Angeles Times, 1921; “Grieving Gorilla Dead at Garden,” New York Times, April 18, 1921.
In the weeks before his death: “Grieving Gorilla Dead at Garden.”
In the three weeks that Ringling Brothers displayed John: “Gorilla Dies of Homesickness”; “Inflation Calculator,” Dollar Times, http://www.dollartimes.com/calculators/inflation.htm.
The famous primatologist Robert Yerkes came to the museum: Richard J. Reynolds III, circus historian, personal communication, March 14, 2011; Fred D. Pfenig Jr. and Richard J. Reynolds III, “The Ringling-Barnum Gorillas and Their Cages,” Bandwagon 50, no. 6 (November -December 2006): 4–29; James C. Young, “John Daniel, Gorilla, Sees the Passing Show,” New York Times, April 13, 1924.
“He offers . . . ocular proof of everything”: Young, “John Daniel, Gorilla, Sees the Passing Show.”
and only occasionally bit his mistress: Richard J. Reynolds III, circus historian, personal communication, March 14, 2011, and his images, featured here http://bucklesw.blogspot.com/2009_04_01_archive.html; Pfenig Jr. and Reynolds, “The Ringling-Barnum Gorillas and Their Cages,” 4–29; John C. Young, “John, the Gorilla, Bites His Mistress,” New York Times, April 8, 1924.
her first gorilla had been mounted and studied: “Darwinian Theory Given New Boost: Educated Gorilla’s Big Toe Became Much Like That of Human,” Los Angeles Times, April 17, 1922; “Gorilla Most Like Us, Say Scientists: Nearer to Man in ‘Dictatorial Egoism’ than Other Primates, Neurologist Finds. Comparison with a Child Surgeons Report Study of ‘John Daniel,’ Dead Circus Gorilla, to Society of Mammalogists. No Mention of Bryan. Chimpanzees Got Drunk. Darwin’s Theory Discussed,” New York Times, May 18, 1922; “Specialists Study John Daniel’s Body,” New York Times, April 25, 1921.
Almost a hundred years after his death: John and Meshie are only two of the many human-raised ape-children whose responses to their domestic environment shifted perceptions of apes’ emotional lives and intelligence and reflected back, often uncomfortably, the desires of those who raised them. Henry Cushier Raven, “Meshie: The Child of a Chimpanzee. A Creature of the African Jungle Emigrates to America,” Natural History Magazine, April 1932; Joyce Wadler, “Reunion with a Childhood Bully, Taxidermied,” New York Times, June 6, 2009. See also the case of J. T. Junior, monkey captured and raised by the Akeley family first in Africa and then in their apartment in New York City, until she was sent to the National Zoo. Delia J. Akeley, “J. T. Jr.”: The Biography of an African Monkey (New York: Macmillan, 1928). Toto the gorilla was raised by an American woman in her home and then given to the circus. Augusta Maria Daurer Hoyt, Toto and I: A Gorilla in the Family (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1941). Lucy the signing chimpanzee was sent from the human home in America where she was raised to Africa, where she was eventually killed. Maurice K. Temerlin, Lucy: Growing Up Human. A Chimpanzee Daughter in a Psychotherapist’s Family (Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books, 1976); Eugene Linden, Silent Partners: The Legacy of the Ape Language Experiments (New York: Times Books, 1986). On Nim Chimpsky the chimpanzee, see Elizabeth Hess, Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human (New York: Bantam Books, 2009).
The psychological effects of the fighting: Matt, Homesickness, 178–83.
During the war era and for some time afterward: Hayden Church, “American Women in London Minister to Homesick Yankees in British Hospitals,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 16, 1917; Helen Dare, “Seeing to It That Soldier Boy Won’t Feel Homesick: Even Has Society Organized for Keeping His Mind Off the Girl He Left behind Him,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 12, 1917; “Our Men in France Often Feel Homesick,” New York Times, June 9, 1918; “Need Musical Instruments: Appeal by Dr. Rouland in Behalf of Homesick Soldiers,” New York Times, November 24, 1918; “Recipe for Fried Chicken Gives Soldier Nostalgia,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 11, 1919; “Doty Was Homesick, and Denies Cowardice: Explains Desertion from French Foreign Legion. Will Be Tried but Not Shot,” New York Times, June 18, 1926; “Nostalgia,” New York Times, June 27, 1929.
Away from the front, war brides: “War Bride Takes Gas: German Girl Who Married American Soldier Was Homesick,” New York Times, July 2, 1921; “Woman Jumps into Bay with Child Rescued.”
Country boys new to cities: “Geisha Girls Are Homesick: Japanese World’s Fair Commissioner Resorts to Courts to Secure Return of Maids to Japan,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 9, 1904; “Boy Coming into a City Finds It Hard to Save: Exaggerate Value of Salary. Adopts More Economical Plan. Country Dollar Is 50c in City. ‘Blues’ Bred in Hall Bedrooms,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 4, 1905; “Glass Eye Blocks Suicide: Deflects Bullet Fired by Owner Who Is Ill and Homesick in New York,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 6, 1910; “Homesick: Ends Life. Irish Girl, Unable to Get Back to Erin to See Her Mother, Takes Gas,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 8, 1916; “English Writer, Ill, Ends His Life Here: Bertram Forsyth, Homesick and Depressed, Dies by Gas in Apartment. Left Letter to His Wife. ‘Life of Little Account,’ He Wrote, Expressing Hope His Son Had Not Inherited His Pessimism,” New York Times, September 17, 1927; “Homesick Stranger Steals Parrot That Welcomes Him: Heart of Albert Schwartz So Touched by Bird’s Greeting He Commits Theft, but Capture Follows,” Chicago Daily Tribune, January 2, 1908.
One case in 1892 concerned a mule: “Bill Zack and His Knowing Mule: Following His Master, He Walked from Louisiana to Tennessee,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 10, 1892.
Dogs who whined with nostalgia: “Care for Sick Pets: Chicago Sanitariums for Birds, Cats, and Dogs. Methods of Treatment. Queer Incident Recounted at the Animal Hospitals. Teach Parrots to Speak. School Where the Birds Learn to Repeat Catching Phrases. Swearing Is a Special Course. Died of a Broken Heart. School for Parrots. Hospital for Sick Cats. Sanitarium for Dogs. Canine Victim to Alcohol,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 9, 1897.
Jocko, a monkey mascot: “Jocko, Homesick, Tries to Die: Sailors’ Singing Awakens Fond Memories. Waving Farewell a Naval Mascot Swallows Poison,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 19, 1903.
an African elephant named Jingo: What killed him may have been seasickness, disease, his strict confinements, or any number of other stressors. “Jingo, Rival of Jumbo, Is Dead: Tallest Elephant Ever in Captivity Unable to Stand Ocean Voyage. Could Not Be Consoled. Refuses to Eat for Several Days and Is Thought to Have Died of Homesickness. Big Beast Is Homesick. Second Officer Tells His Story. Varying Views of Jingo’s Value,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 19, 1903.
a young female mountain gorilla named Congo: “Only One Gorilla Now in Captivity,” New York Times, July 18, 1926.
“What caused her death is unknown”: “Miss Congo, the Lonely Young Gorilla, Dies at Her Shrine on Ringling’s Florida Estate,” New York Times, April 25, 1928.
the family of a young San Francisco boy: “Broken Heart or Nostalgia Causes Pet Duck’s Death: Mandarin Gives Up Ghost at Park after Fight with Mudhens,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 10, 1919.
Ota Benga, an African pygmy man: Phillips Verner Bradford, Ota: The Pygmy in the Zoo (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992); Elwin R. Sanborn, ed., “Suicide of Ota Benga, the African Pygmy,” Zoological Society Bulletin 19, no. 3 (1916): 1356; Samuel P. Verner, “The Story of Ota Benga, the Pygmy,” Zoological Society Bulletin 19, no. 4 (1916): 1377–79.
“The asylums of this and every country”: “A Broken Heart: Often Said to Be a Cause of Death. What the Term Means. A Common Figure of Speech That Has Some Foundation in Fact,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 27, 1888.
many deaths attributed to heartbreak: Georges Minois, History of Suicide: Voluntary Death in Western Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 316.
There were lovers’ hearts that gave out: “Died Before His Wife Did: Husband, Who Had Said He Would Go before Her, Stricken as She Lay Dying,” New York Times, July 5, 1901; “Died of a Broken Heart,” New York Times, December 22, 1894; “Died of a Broken Heart,” New York Times, July 5, 1883; “Widow Killed by Grief: Dies of a Broken Heart Following Loss of Her Husband,” New York Times, January 9, 1910; “Veteran Dies of a Broken Heart: Fails to Rally after Wife Passes Beyond: He Soon Follows Her,” Los Angeles Times, September 4, 1915; “Died of a Broken Heart,” New York Times, June 27, 1884; “Died of a Broken Heart: Sad Ending of the Life of an Intelligent Girl,” New York Times, September 3, 1884; “Died of a Broken Heart: Sad End of Michigan Man Whose Wife Deserted Him for Love of Younger Man,” Los Angeles Times, October 21, 1910; “Brigham Young’s Heirs,” New York Times, March 10, 1879; “Died of a Broken Heart,” New York Times, January 9, 1886; “Broken Heart Kills Mother: Burden of Her Grief Too Heavy to Bear: Mrs. Franklin, Whose Son Met Cruel Fate in Santa Fe Train Collision on River Bridge, Ages in Few Months, Pines Away and Dies Pitifully,” Los Angeles Times, June 1, 1907; “Drowned Lad’s Mother Dies: News of His Death While Skating on Thin Ice Crushed Her,” New York Times, January 16, 1903; “Prostrated by His Son’s Death,” New York Times, November 13, 1893; “Kidnapped Children Recovered,” New York Times, July 22, 1879; “Died of a Broken Heart,” New York Times, December 8, 1897; “Girl Dies of a Broken Heart,” Los Angeles Times, April 11, 1905; “General G. K. Warren Obituary,” New York Times, August 9, 1882; “Spotted Tail’s Daughter: How the Princess Monica Died of a Broken Heart from Unrequited Love for a Pale-face Soldier. The Chaplain’s Story,” New York Times, July 15, 1877; Fort Laramie: Historical Handbook Number Twenty, National Park Service, 1954, http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/20/hh20m.htm.
Loyal hounds who died of heartbreak and sadness: Marjorie Garber, Dog Love (New York: Touchstone, 1997), 241–42, 249–52, 257–58.
Greyfriars Bobby: Ibid., Dog Love, 255–56. Recently a researcher in Cardiff has argued that Bobby was actually two dogs. “Greyfriars Bobby Was Just a Victorian Publicity Stunt, Claims Academic,” Telegraph, August 3, 2011, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/8678875/Greyfriars-Bobby-was-just-a-Victorian-publicity-stunt-claims-academic.html (accessed August 3, 2011).
a German Shepherd named Teddy stopped eating: “Horse Dies, Dog Follows: Shepherd Refused Food, Grieving over Passing of Friend,” New York Times, September 19, 1937.
Horses were also supposedly done in by heartbreak: “An Affectionate Horse,” New York Times, January 14, 1887.
“will strive and struggle to get out”: “Army Mule Aristocrat of Allied Armies’ Transport: Humble American Has Won the Heart of the British Army. Seldom Sick, and Never Afraid, He Survives Where Horses Succumb,” Boston Daily Globe, February 25, 1917.
Besides faithful dogs: “Rhinoceros Bomby Is Dead: New-York Climate and Isolation from His Sweetheart Killed Him,” New York Times, June 27, 1886; “Grieving Sea Lion Dies at Aquarium: Trudy Had Refused to Touch Food Since Death of Mate Ten Days Ago. Many Children Knew Her. Bought from California for a Circus Career. Blind Eye Kept Her from Learning Tricks,” New York Times, September 10, 1928; “Berlin Sea Elephant Dies of a Broken Heart,” New York Times, December 31, 1935; “Zoo Penguin Dies of Broken Heart Mourning Mate,” Los Angeles Times, August 4, 1947.
Wild animals were occasionally thought to suffer: See, for example, Martin Johnston, “Helpless, but Unafraid, the Giraffe Thrives on Persecution,” Daily Boston Globe, December 2, 1928.
the inability to keep many animals, from lions to songbirds, alive: “The Story of a Lion’s Love: Wynant Hubbard’s Account of Moving Jungle Romance Wherein King of Beasts Enters Captivity out of Affection for His ‘Wife,’ ” Daily Boston Globe, May 19, 1929; “Most Fastidious of Wild Beasts Are the Leopards: So Says Mme. Morelli, and She Ought to Know, for They’ve Tried to Eat Her Several Times. How Bostock Saved the Plucky Woman Trainer. One of Her Pets Died from a Broken Heart,” New York Times, June 18, 1905; “Birds I Know,” Daily Boston Globe, July 23, 1946.
In 1966 a killer whale named Namu: “Lovelorn Killer Whale Dies in Frantic Dash for Freedom,” Los Angeles Times, July 11, 1966; David Kirby, Death at SeaWorld: Shamu and the Dark Side of Killer Whales in Captivity (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012), 151–52.
Belle Benchley, director of the San Diego Zoo: Belle J. Benchley, “ ‘Zoo-Man’ Beings,” Los Angeles Times (1923—Current File), August 14, 1932; Belle J. Benchley, “The Story of Two Magnificent Gorillas,” Bulletin of the New York Zoological Society 43, no. 4 (1940): 105–16; Belle Jennings Benchley, My Animal Babies (London: Faber and Faber, 1946); Gerald B. Burtnett, “The Low Down on Animal Land,” Los Angeles Times (1923—Current File), June 2, 1935.
One of these friendships, at the Berlin Zoo: “Ape Porcupine Firm Friends: Melancholia Banished When Huge Monkey Romps with Strange Playmate,” Los Angeles Times (1923—Current File), November 27, 1924. Almost sixty years later my email inbox is full of friendships like this. Not a week goes by that someone doesn’t forward me photos of a dog and an orangutan splashing around in a plastic tub, or baby pigs cuddling up to a tiger, or a snake and a rabbit curled around each other in some sort of multispecies friendship ring. A number of these little photo essays, as anthropomorphic, cutesy, and staged as many of them are, also discuss loneliness and depression as reasons for the surprising relationships.
Monarch’s mounted body served as one of the models: Tracy I. Storer and Lloyd P. Tevis, California Grizzly (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 276.
few people know the bear was an actual: “Grizzly Comes as Mate to Monarch: Young Silver Tip Shipped from Idaho Arrives Safely and Is Now in Park Bear Pit,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 10, 1903.
Monarch was an icon of a recently neutered wilderness: There has been much good scholarship on the shifting attitudes toward Western wilderness over the course of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as American Indians were removed from the nation’s new national park system, grizzly and wolf populations were decimated, and the federal government established monitoring agencies (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Park Service, and more) to oversee the newly consolidated governmental land holdings—regulating who did or did not have access to resource-rich lands and how this both reflected and helped shape American conceptions of wilderness and the American frontier. William Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness,” in Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, ed. William Cronon (New York: Norton, 1995); Karl Jacoby, Crimes against Nature: Squatters, Poachers, Thieves, and the Hidden History of American Conservation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Roderick Frazier Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001); Philip Shabecoff, A Fierce Green Fire: The American Environmental Movement (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2003); Louis S. Warren, The Hunter’s Game: Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999); Richard White, Patricia Nelson Limerick, and James R. Grossman, The Frontier in American Culture: An Exhibition at the Newberry Library, August 26, 1994–January 7, 1995 (Chicago: Newberry Library, 1994).
In 1858 a sheriff in Sacramento: Susan Snyder, Bear in Mind: The California Grizzly (Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books, 2003), 117–40; Storer and Tevis, California Grizzly, 249.
the bears “were everywhere”: Snyder, Bear in Mind, 65.
Grizzly Adams, the famous bear hunter: Storer and Tevis, California Grizzly, 244–49.
Well into the 1860s captive bears: Snyder, Bear in Mind, 160; Storer and Tevis, California Grizzly, 240–41.
Those that hadn’t been killed: Storer and Tevis, California Grizzly, 249.
William Randolph Hearst, the eccentric California newspaper magnate: “The New Bear Flag Is Grizzlier,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 19, 1953; Storer and Tevis, California Grizzly, 249–50.
A few weeks became months: How verifiable those details are is a matter of interpretation, since no other account exists. While not everything that happened in the tale of Monarch may have happened to Monarch the individual, it probably happened at some point with some bear of Kelly’s. Ernest Thompson Seton questioned Kelly in 1889 about the authenticity of the Monarch account published in the Examiner. Seton wrote, “It is safe to say that many adventures ascribed to this bear belonged to various and different bears.” Storer and Tevis, California Grizzly, 250; Allen Kelly, Bears I Have Met—and Others (Philadelphia: Drexel Biddle, 1903), http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15276/15276-h/15276-h.htm.
a Mexican man trapped a large grizzly: Kelly, Bears I Have Met.
For a full week he raged and refused to touch food: Ibid.
Egged on by wildly embellished tales: Board of Parks Commissioners, Annual Report of the Board of Parks Commissioners 1895, June 30, 1895, California Academy of Sciences, 7, 15.
he had taken to spending all day inside a hole: “Grizzly Comes as Mate to Monarch.”
They also claimed that he might be grieving: Ibid.
These vast changes: Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind; Shabecoff, A Fierce Green Fire, 21–31, 61–67.
In 1896, seven years into Monarch’s stint in San Francisco: Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 146.
The country’s wildlands and wildlife: Ibid., 76.
Places like Yosemite and Yellowstone could now be seen as antidotes: The historian William Cronon has argued that when Turner announced the closing of the frontier, Americans who felt a sense of loss were already looking backward, mourning an older, simpler, and more peaceable country. The problem is that such a country never actually existed: the extirpation of native peoples, the decimation of buffalo, wolf, and grizzly populations, and the drastic ecological damage brought on by mining and massive deforestation were the kinds of violence that did not figure into romantic ideas of the nation’s wilderness ideals. Cronon, “The Trouble with Wilderness.”
Efforts to protect and celebrate these places: Ibid., 76, 78.
the new female “typified the saying”: “Grizzly Comes as Mate to Monarch.”
“The poor little cub died”: “Grizzly Bear Cub Is Dead,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 18, 1904. A subsequent article claimed the cub died of a head injury after Montana dropped it the day it was born. A second serving of disdain for Montana’s mothering skills was served up for San Franciscans: “Monarch and his diffident spouse Montana, the two grizzlies who live in an iron cage near the buffalo paddock, held an informal reception yesterday for many visitors who called to offer their sympathy for the untimely death of their offspring. Considering that Mrs. Monarch partially ate one of her twins and ignored the other almost entirely, the condolences of her visitors seemed ill-placed.” “Great Crowd Visits Park: Police Estimate Attendance of Fully Forty Thousand People at the Recreation Grounds,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 25, 1904.
Four years later Monarch was confirmed: Board of Parks Commissioners, Annual Report of the Board of Parks Commissioners 1910, June 30, 1910, 40–43.
after twenty-two years in captivity: “Park Museum Has New Attractions: Grizzly Monarch Will Be Put on Exhibition for the Labor Day Crowds,” San Francisco Chronicle (1869—Current File), August 28, 1911.
“Templeton,” said Wilbur in desperation: E. B. White, Charlotte’s Web, (New York: Harper Brothers, 1952).
two elderly male otters: “ ‘Heartbroken’ Male Otters Die within an Hour of Each Other,” April 1, 2010, Advocate.com, http://www.advocate.com/News/Daily_News/2010/04/01/Heartbroken_Male_Otters_Die_Within_An_Hour_of_Each_Other/ (accessed November 5, 2012).
the story of a Miniature Schnauzer named Pepsi: Bekoff, The Emotional Lives of Animals, 66.
In March 2011 another heartbreak story: Jill Lawless, “Hours after Soldier Killed in Action, His Faithful Dog Suffers Seizure,” Toronto Star, March 10, 2011.
Japanese cardiologists named the syndrome: Salim S. Virani, A. Nasser Khan, Cesar E. Mendoza, Alexandre C. Ferreira, and Eduardo de Marchena, “Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy, or Broken-Heart Syndrome,” Texas Heart Institute Journal 34, no. 1 (2007): 76–79.
proof of the powerful connection: Natterson-Horowitz and Bowers, Zoobiquity, 5.
She and Bowers point to a few fascinating public health statistics: Ibid., 110–13.
games that end in “sudden death” shootouts: Ibid., 112–13.
Since then, sudden death among terrified animals: Ibid., 118–20.
It wasn’t included in the DSM in 1980: Edward Shorter, A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 226–27.
Sunita was born in a residential house: Chris Dixon, “Last 39 Tigers are Moved from Unsafe Rescue Center,” New York Times, June 11, 2004; Lance Pugmire, Carla Hall, and Steve Hymon, “Clashing Views of Owner of Tiger Sanctuary Emerge,” Los Angeles Times, April 25, 2003. “Meet the Tigers,” Performing Animal Welfare Society Sanctuary, www.pawsweb.org/meet_tigers.html_ (accessed December 6, 2011).
Mel brought me to see Sunita: “Tic Disorders,” American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, May 2012, http://www.aacap.org/cs/root/facts_for_families/tic_disorders (accessed February 11, 2013); John T. Walkup et al., “Tic Disorders: Some Key Issues for DSM-V,” Depression and Anxiety 27 (2010): 600–610, http://www.dsm5.org/Research/Documents/Walkup_Tic.pdf.
like attention deficit disorder: Andrew Lakoff, “Adaptive Will: The Evolution of Attention Deficit Disorder,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 36, no. 2 (2000): 149–69.
Dogs can be diagnosed with the disorder today: “Separation Anxiety,” DSM-V Development, http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/RecentUpdates.aspx (accessed July 15, 2013).
It became a viable diagnosis in 1978: Shorter, A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry, 32.
Many people, at least those who: See Grier, Pets in America, 13–14, 121–30, 136.
The historian Katherine Grier: Grier, Pets in America, 156.
eventually, similar brain chemistry: See, for example, Cotman and Head, “The Canine (Dog) Model of Human Aging and Disease”; B. J. Cummings et al., “The Canine as an Animal Model of Human Aging and Dementia,” Neurobiology of Aging 17, no. 2 (1996): 259–68; Belén Rosado et al., “Blood Concentrations of Serotonin, Cortisol and Dehydroepiandrosterone in Aggressive Dogs,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 123, nos. 3–4 (2010): 124–30.
The American College of Veterinary Behaviorists currently certifies: American College of Veterinary Behaviorists, http://www.dacvb.org/resources/find/ (accessed August 1, 2013).
The actual number of vets diagnosing emotional problems: Center for Health Workforce Studies, “2013 U.S. Veterinary Workforce Study: Modeling Capacity Utilization Final Report,” American Veterinary Medical Association (April 16, 2013): vii.
equine self-mutilation syndrome, which is similar, he says, to Tourette’s: N. H. Dodman et al., “Equine Self-Mutilation Syndrome (57 Cases),” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 204, no. 8 (1994): 1219–23.
The AKC’s breed standard for Bernese Mountain Dogs: “Get to Know the Bernese Mountain Dog,” American Kennel Club, http://www.akc.org/breeds/bernese_mountain_dog/index.cfm (accessed March 1, 2002).
As for cats, Siamese, Burmese, Tonkinese, Singapura: Nicholas Dodman, If Only They Could Speak: Understanding the Powerful Bond between Dogs and Their Owners (New York: Norton, 2008), 260–62.
no animal disorder is a perfect mirror of a human condition: K. L. Overall, “Natural Animal Models of Human Psychiatric Conditions: Assessment of Mechanism and Validity,” Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 24, no. 5 (2000): 729.
diagnosed in people who feel excessively anxious: According to the DSM, these worries must also be out of proportion to the likelihood of the event itself, such as the relentless anxiety that you may be late to work, even if you’re never late, or the recurring fear that your daughter will be kidnapped on her way home from school. Yes, these things do happen, but for most people, worrying about them is only a passing thought, not a fixation. American Psychiatric Association, DSM-IV: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 1994), 432–33.
Before World War II, roughly two-thirds of Thailand: Larry Lohmann, “Land, Power and Forest Colonization in Thailand,” Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 3, no. 4/6 (1993): 180.
Since many of the prime logging regions: Richard Lair, Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity (Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1997), http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AC774E/ac774e00.htm (accessed December 28, 2011).
In his book . . . The Boy Who Was Raised as a Dog: Bruce D. Perry and Maia Szalavitz. The Boy Who Was Raised as a Dog and Other Stories from a Child Psychiatrist’s Notebook: What Traumatized Children Can Teach Us about Loss, Love and Healing (New York: Basic Books, 2007); Robert F. Anda, Vincent J. Felitti, J. Douglas Bremner, John D. Walker, Charles Whitfield, Bruce D. Perry, Shanta R. Dube, and Wayne H. Giles, “The Enduring Effects of Abuse and Related Adverse Experiences in Childhood: A Convergence of Evidence from Neurobiology and Epidemiology,” European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 256, no. 3 (April 2006): 174–186; B. D. Perry and R. Pollard, “Homeostasis, Stress, Trauma, and Adaptation: A Neurodevelopmental View of Childhood Trauma,” Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 7, no. 1 (January 1998): 33–51, viii; Bruce D. Perry, “Neurobiological Sequelae of Childhood Trauma: PTSD in Children,” In Catecholamine Function in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Emerging Concepts, 233–255 (Progress in Psychiatry 42, Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 1994); James E. McCarroll, “Healthy Families, Healthy Communities: An Interview with Bruce D. Perry,” Joining Forces Joining Families 10, no. 3 (2008), http://www.cstsonline.org/wp-content/resources/Joining_Forces_2008_01.pdf.
There may also be lasting effects: Perry and Szalavitz, The Boy Who Was Raised as a Dog, 19.
In 2009, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Child Welfare Information Gateway, Understanding the Effects of Maltreatment on Brain Development, Issue Brief, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, November 2009; Perry and Szalavitz, The Boy Who Was Raised as a Dog, 247.
Perry’s very first patient: Over the course of three years, Perry was able to help Tina regain control over her stress response and make decisions after thinking them through instead of blindly reacting. Unfortunately he was not able to help her change her behavior entirely. Perry felt that, in the end, her newfound control over her stress response only helped her to better hide her trauma. Perry and Szalavitz, The Boy Who Was Raised as a Dog, 22–28.
When I look at a gorilla: Dale Jamieson, professor of environmental studies and philisophy at NYU, has suggested that zoos also replicate problematic species distinctions and that they are woven into the very architecture (the confienment itself marking a false distinction between the animals who are caged and the human animals who are not). Dale Jamieson, Against Zoos,” in Morality’s Progress: Essays on Humans, Other Animals, and the Rest of Nature (Oxford: Oxford University Press USA, 2003), 166–175; and Dale Jameison, “The Rights of Animals and the Demands of Nature,” Environmental Values 17 (2008), 181–189.
Human stereotypies include: Deivasumathy Muthugovindan and Harvey Singer, “Motor Stereotypy Disorders,” Current Opinion in Neurology 22, no. 2 (April 2009): 131–136.
Horses may take small, rhythmic gulps of air: See, for example, Jean S. Akers and Deborah S. Schildkraut, “Regurgitation/Reingestion and Coprophagy in Captive Gorillas,” Zoo Biology 4, no. 2 (1985): 99–109; M. C. Appleby, A. B. Lawrence, and A. W. Illius, “Influence of Neighbours on Stereotypic Behaviour of Tethered Sows,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 24, no. 2 (1989): 137–46; M. J. Bashaw et al., “Environmental Effects on the Behavior of Zoo-Housed Lions and Tigers, with a Case Study of the Effects of a Visual Barrier on Pacing,” Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 10, no. 2 (2007): 95–109; Yvonne Chen et al., “Diagnosis and Treatment of Abnormal Food Regurgitation in a California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus),” in IAAAM Conference Proceedings 68 (International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine, 2009); Jonathan J. Cooper and Melissa J. Albentosa, “Behavioural Adaptation in the Domestic Horse: Potential Role of Apparently Abnormal Responses Including Stereotypic Behaviour,” Livestock Production Science 92, no. 2 (2005): 177–82; Leslie M. Dalton, Todd R. Robeck, and W. Glenn Youg, “Aberrant Behavior in a California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus),” in IAAAM Conference Proceedings 145–46 (International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine, 1997); J. E. L. Day et al., “The Separate and Interactive Effects of Handling and Environmental Enrichment on the Behaviour and Welfare of Growing Pigs,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 75, no. 3 (2002): 177–92; Andrzej Elzanowski and Agnieszka Sergiel, “Stereotypic Behavior of a Female Asiatic Elephant (Elephas maximus) in a Zoo,” Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 9, no. 3 (2006): 223–32; Loraine Tarou Fernandez et al., “Tongue Twisters: Feeding Enrichment to Reduce Oral Stereotypy in Giraffe,” Zoo Biology 27, no. 3 (2008): 200–212; Georgia J. Mason, “Stereotypies: A Critical Review,” Animal Behaviour 41, no. 6 (1991): 1015–37; Edwin Gould and Mimi Bres, “Regurgitation and Reingestion in Captive Gorillas: Description and Intervention,” Zoo Biology 5, no. 3 (1986): 241–50; T. M. Gruber et al., “Variation in Stereotypic Behavior Related to Restraint in Circus Elephants,” Zoo Biology 19, no. 3 (2000): 209–21; Steffen W. Hansen and Birthe M. Damgaard, “Running in a Running Wheel Substitutes for Stereotypies in Mink (Mustela vison) but Does It Improve Their Welfare?,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 118, nos. 1–2 (2009): 76–83; Lindsay A. Hogan and Andrew Tribe, “Prevalence and Cause of Stereotypic Behaviour in Common Wombats (Vombatus ursinus) Residing in Australian Zoos,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 105, nos. 1–3 (2007): 180–91; Kristen Lukas, “An Activity Budget for Gorillas in North American Zoos,” Disney’s Animal Kingdom and Brevard Zoo, 2008; Juan Liu et al., “Stereotypic Behavior and Fecal Cortisol Level in Captive Giant Pandas in Relation to Environmental Enrichment,” Zoo Biology 25, no. 6 (2006): 445–59; Kristen E. Lukas, “A Review of Nutritional and Motivational Factors Contributing to the Performance of Regurgitation and Reingestion in Captive Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla),” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 63, no. 3 (1999): 237–49; Avanti Mallapur and Ravi Chellam, “Environmental Influences on Stereotypy and the Activity Budget of Indian Leopards (Panthera pardus) in Four Zoos in Southern India,” Zoo Biology 21, no. 6 (2002): 585–95; L. M. Marriner and L. C. Drickamer, “Factors Influencing Stereotyped Behavior of Primates in a Zoo,” Zoo Biology 13, no. 3 (1994): 267–75; G. Mason and J. Rushen, eds., Stereotypic Animal Behavior: Fundamentals and Applications to Welfare, 2nd ed. (CABI, 2006); Lynn M. McAfee, Daniel S. Mills, and Jonathan J. Cooper, “The Use of Mirrors for the Control of Stereotypic Weaving Behaviour in the Stabled Horse,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 78, nos. 2–4 (2002): 159–73; Jeffrey Rushen, Anne Marie B. De Passillé, and Willem Schouten, “Stereotypic Behavior, Endogenous Opioids, and Postfeeding Hypoalgesia in Pigs,” Physiology and Behavior 48, no. 1 (1990): 91–96; U. Schwaibold and N. Pillay, “Stereotypic Behaviour Is Genetically Transmitted in the African Striped Mouse Rhabdomys pumilio,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 74, no. 4 (2001): 273–80; Loraine Rybiski Tarou, Meredith J. Bashaw, and Terry L. Maple, “Failure of a Chemical Spray to Significantly Reduce Stereotypic Licking in a Captive Giraffe,” Zoo Biology 22, no. 6 (2003): 601–7; Sophie Vickery and Georgia Mason, “Stereotypic Behavior in Asiatic Black and Malayan Sun Bears,” Zoo Biology 23, no. 5 (2004): 409–30; Beat Wechsler, “Stereotypies in Polar Bears,” Zoo Biology 10, no. 2 (1991): 177–88; Carissa L. Wickens and Camie R. Heleski, “Crib-Biting Behavior in Horses: A Review,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 128, nos. 1–4 (2010): 1–9; Hanno Würbel and Markus Stauffacher, “Prevention of Stereotypy in Laboratory Mice: Effects on Stress Physiology and Behaviour,” Physiology and Behavior 59, no. 6 (1996): 1163–70.
more than 16 billion farm and lab animals: Naomi R. Latham and G. J. Mason, “Maternal Deprivation and the Development of Stereotypic Behaviour,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 110, nos. 1–2 (2008): 99; Jeffrey Rushen and Georgia Mason, “A Decade-or-More’s Progress in Understanding Stereotypic Behaviour,” in Stereotypic Animal Behaviour, ed. Jeffrey Rushen and Georgia Mason (CABI, 2006), cited in Temple Grandin and Catherine Johnson, Animals Make Us Human: Creating the Best Life for Animals (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), 15.
This includes 91.5 percent of pigs: Rushen and Mason, “A Decade-or-More’s Progress in Understanding Stereotypic Behavior,” 15.
A large percentage of the roughly 100 million: Number of lab animals: Balcombe, Second Nature. For more on animal stereotypy, see chapter 3.
a strong correlation between lab, zoo, and farm animals: Latham and Mason, “Maternal Deprivation and the Development of Stereotypic Behaviour,” 84–108.
“really intense stereotypies”: Grandin and Johnson, Animals Make Us Human, 4.
She has categorized autism “as a way station”: Temple Grandin, “Animals in Translation,” http://www.grandin.com/inc/animals.in.translation.html (accessed December 1, 2013).
observed a wild coyote pup he called Harry: Marc Bekoff, “Do Wild Animals Suffer from PTSD and Other Psychological Disorders?,” Psychology Today, November 29, 2011, http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animal-emotions/201111/do-wild-animals-suffer-ptsd-and-other-psychological-disorders (accessed December 11, 2013).
dosed them with a gut microbe, Bacteroides fragilis: Hsiao et al., “Microbiota Modulate Behavioral and Physiological Abnormalities Associated with Neurodevelopmental Disorders,” Cell, (accessed December 11, 2013).
linked autism spectrum disorders to intestinal problems: Sara Reardon, “Bacterium Can Reverse Autism-like Behaviour in Mice,” Nature News, December 5, 2013, http://www.nature.com/news/bacterium-can-reverse-autism-like-behaviour-in-mice-1.14308 (accessed December 6, 2013); Natalia V. Malkova et al., “Maternal Immune Activation Yields Offspring Displaying Mouse Versions of the Three Core Symptoms of Autism,” Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 26, no. 4 (May 2012): 607–16; Isaac S. Kohane et al., “The Co-Morbidity Burden of Children and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” PloS One 7, no. 4 (2012): e33224.
According to the AZA, the average zoo and aquarium visitor: John H. Falk et al., “Why Zoos and Aquariums Matter: Assessing the Impact of a Visit to a Zoo or Aquarium,” Association of Zoos and Aquariums, 2007, http://www.aza.org/uploadedFiles/Education/why_zoos_matter.pdf; “Visitor Demographics, Association of Zoos and Aquariums,” http://www.aza.org/visitor-demographics/ (accessed March 10, 2013).
In 2007 the AZA published the results: Falk et al., “Why Zoos and Aquariums Matter”; Lori Marino et al., “Do Zoos and Aquariums Promote Attitude Change in Visitors? A Critical Evaluation of the American Zoo and Aquarium Study,” Society and Animals 18 (April 2010): 126–38, http://www.nbb.emory.edu/faculty/personal/documents/MarinoetalAZAStudy.pdf.
Most men and women pluck hairs: “Trichotillomania,” in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-V (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2013), 312.39.
The fifth edition of the DSM: Ibid.
The habit might be a symptom of anxiety: “Hair Pulling: Frequently Asked Questions, Trichotillomania Learning Center FAQ,” trich.org/about/hair -faqs.html (accessed November 28, 2010); “Pulling Hair: Trichotillomania and Its Treatment in Adults. A Guide for Clinicians,” the Scientific Advisory Board of the Trichotillomania Learning Center, at www.trich.org /about/for-professionals.html (accessed November 28, 2010); Mark Lewis and Kim Soo-Jeong, “The Pathophysiology of Restricted Repetitive Behavior,” Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders 1 (2009): 114–32.
Hair pulling has been reported in six primate species: Viktor Reinhardt, “Hair Pulling: A Review,” Laboratory Animals, no. 39 (2005): 361–69.
“Tache seems unable”: “Re: The Attempt to Save Noir from Barbering,” discussion post, January 26, 2010, www.fancymicebreeders.com/mousefancieforum (accessed November 28, 2010).
In fact it seems that their clients may enjoy it: F. A. Van den Broek, C. M. Omtzigt, and A. C. Beynen, “Whisker Trimming Behaviour in A2G Mice Is Not Prevented by Offering Means of Withdrawal from It,” Lab Animal Science, no. 27 (1993): 270–72.
A few researchers have suggested: Biji T. Kurien, Tim Gross, and R. Hal Scofield, “Barbering in Mice: A Model for Trichotillomania,” British Medical Journal, no. 331 (2005): 1503–5. See also Joseph D. Garner et al., “Barbering (Fur and Whisker Trimming) by Laboratory Mice as a Model of Human Trichotillomania and Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders,” Comparative Medicine 54, no. 2 (2004): 216–24.
Studies using mice as stand-ins: The fact that humans tend to pluck themselves and mice tend to pluck one another hasn’t stopped the use of mouse experimental models. Since both the barber mouse and her client engage in the process by choice, even though it must be at least a little painful, researchers have tended to assume, for better or for worse, that the behavior in people is simply spread between two individuals in the mice. Alice Moon-Fanelli, N. Dodman, and R. O’Sullivan, “Veterinary of Models Compulsive Self-Grooming Parallels with Trichotillomania,” in Trichotillomania, ed. Dan J. Stein, Gary A. Christenson, and Eric Hollander (Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Press, 1999), 72–74.
An experiment conducted in 2002: “Compulsive Behavior in Mice Cured by Bone Marrow Transplant,” Science Daily, May 27, 2010, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100527122150.htm (accessed November 28, 2010); Shau-Kwaun Chen et al., “Hematopoietic Origin of Pathological Grooming in Hoxb8 Mutant Mice,” Cell, 2010; 141 (5): 775; see also “Mental Illness Tied to Immune Defect: Bone Marrow Transplants Cure Mice of Hair-Pulling Compulsion,” News Center, University of Utah, www.unews.utah.edu/p/?r=022210–3 (accessed November 28, 2010).
birds pluck when bored, frustrated, or stressed: Lynne M. Seibert et al., “Placebo-Controlled Clomipramine Trial for the Treatment of Feather Picking Disorder in Cockatoos,” Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 40, no. 4 (2004): 261–69. See also Lynne M. Seibert, “Feather-Picking Disorder in Pet Birds,” in Manual of Parrot Behavior, ed. Andrew U. Luesche (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008).
Phoebe Greene Linden has lived with parrots: Phoebe Greene Linden, personal communication, November 5, 2010.
Joe roamed around the neighborhood: Brian MacQuarrie and Douglas Belkin, “Franklin Park Gorilla Escapes, Attacks 2,” Boston Globe, September 29, 2003.
Primatologists like Frans de Waal and Jane Goodall: Frans De Waal, The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections by a Primatologist (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 214–16; Bijal P. Trivedi, “ ‘Hot Tub Monkeys’ Offer Eye on Nonhuman ‘Culture,’ ” National Geographic News, February 6, 2004, news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/02/0206_040206_tvmacaques.html (accessed November 28, 2010).
According to the study’s lead researcher: Susanne Antonetta, “Language Garden,” Orion, April 2005, http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/152/ (accessed August 10, 2011).
Aristotle told the story: Edmund Ramsden and Duncan Wilson, “The Nature of Suicide: Science and the Self-Destructive Animal,” Endeavor 34, no. 1 (2010): 21.
Since its first documentation: “Suicide,” Oxford English Dictionary Online, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/193691?rskey=6JPREr&result=1. Before the eighteenth century, someone could be a “self-destroyer,” “self-killer” “self-murderer,” or “self-slayer,” but not a suicide victim.
The DSM-V does not include suicide: Nor does it mention people who choose to end their own lives because they have terminal diseases. “Proposed Revision,” DSM5.org, http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevision/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=584# (accessed April 1, 2013). See also American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994) for suicidal ideation and attempts but no suicidal disorder.
Self-destructive behaviors like these among nonhuman animals: See, for example, Kathryn Bayne and Melinda Novak, “Behavioral Disorders,” Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research (1998): 485–500; P. S. Bordnick, B. A. Thyer, and B. W. Ritchie, “Feather Picking Disorder and Trichotillomania: An Avian Model of Human Psychopathology,” Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 25, no. 3 (1994): 189–96; John C. Crabbe, John K. Belknap, and Kari J. Buck, “Genetic Animal Models of Alcohol and Drug Abuse,” Science 264, no. 5166 (1994): 1715–23; J. N. Crawley, M. E. Sutton, and D. Pickar, “Animal Models of Self-Destructive Behavior and Suicide,” Psychiatric Clinics of North America 8, no. 2 (1985): 299–310; Cross and Harlow, “Prolonged and Progressive Effects of Partial Isolation on the Behavior of Macaque Monkeys,” 39–49; Kalueff et al., “Hair Barbering in Mice”; A. J. Kinnaman, “Mental Life of Two Macacus Rhesus Monkeys in Captivity. I,” American Journal of Psychology 13, no. 1 (1902): 98–148; Kurien et al., “Barbering in Mice”; O. Malkesman et al., “Animal Models of Suicide-Trait-Related Behaviors,” Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 30, no. 4 (2009): 165–73; Melinda A. Novak and Stephen J. Suomi, “Abnormal Behavior in Nonhuman Primates and Models of Development,” Primate Models of Children’s Health and Developmental Disabilities (2008): 141–60; Overall, “Natural Animal Models of Human Psychiatric Conditions”; J. L. Rapoport, D. H. Ryland, and M. Kriete, “Drug Treatment of Canine Acral Lick: An Animal Model of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder,” Archives of General Psychiatry 49, no. 7 (1992): 517–21; Richard E. Tessel et al., “Rodent Models of Mental Retardation: Self-Injury, Aberrant Behavior, and Stress,” Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 1, no. 2 (1995): 99–103.
“self-destructive and suicidal behaviors”: Crawley, Sutton, and Pickar, “Animal Models of Self-Destructive Behavior and Suicide.”
In the twenty-five years since this study was published: For example, Nicholas H. Dodman and Louis Shuster, “Animal Models of Obsessive-Compulsive Behavior: A Neurobiological and Ethological Perspective,” in Concepts and Controversies in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, ed. Jonathan S. Abramowitz and Arthur C. Houts (New York: Springer, 2005), 53–71; Garner et al., “Barbering (Fur and Whisker Trimming) by Laboratory Mice as a Model of Human Trichotillomania and Obsessive-compulsive Spectrum Disorders”; Kurien et al., “Barbering in Mice” Rapoport et al., “Drug Treatment of Canine Acral Lick”; Bordnick et al., “Feather Picking Disorder and Trichotillomania”; Crabbe et al., “Genetic Animal Models of Alcohol and Drug Abuse”; Overall, “Natural Animal Models of Human Psychiatric Conditions”; Tessel et al., “Rodent Models of Mental Retardation.”
“Suicide is a complex behavior”: Malkesman et al., “Animal Models of Suicide-Trait-Related Behaviors.”
The traits and behaviors in lab animals: Ibid.
According to the American Association of Suicidology: A suicide note demonstrates that the person intended to kill themselves but the notes often stop short of explaining their motivations. There are clear-eyed exceptions, of course, full of insight or directions on how the person wants to be disposed of, or what they want in a memorial service, but more often than not the notes simply illustrate the range of emotions that the people writing them were feeling at the time. Eric Marcus, Why Suicide?: Answers to 200 of the Most Frequently Asked Questions about Suicide, Attempted Suicide, and Assisted Suicide (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1996), 14.
Their paper, “The Nature of Suicide”: Justin Nobel, “Do Animals Commit Suicide? A Scientific Debate,” Time, March 19, 2010; Larry O’Hanlon, “Animal Suicide Sheds Light on Human Behavior,” Discovery News, March 10, 2010, http://news.discovery.com/animals/animal-suicide-behavior.html?print=true; Rowan Hooper, “Animals Do Not Commit Suicide,” NewScientist, March 24, 2010, http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2010/03/animals-do-not-commit-suicide.html (accessed April 20, 2010).
“Scientists and social groups”: Ramsden and Wilson, “The Nature of Suicide,” 22.
The Victorian period was an extremely interesting time: Barbara T. Gates, Victorian Suicide: Mad Crimes and Sad Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), 37; Anne Shepherd and David Wright, “Madness, Suicide and the Victorian Asylum: Attempted Self-Murder in the Age of Non-Restraint,” Medical History 46, no. 2 (2002): 175–96.
In England, the families of suicidal people: Gates, Victorian Suicide, 38.
William Lauder Lindsay devoted an entire chapter: Lindsay, Mind in the Lower Animals, 130–48.
Lindsay’s work reflects a larger shift: Ramsden and Wilson, “The Nature of Suicide.”
“sufficiently barbarous . . . to induce”: C. Lloyd Morgan, “Suicide of Scorpions,” Nature 27 (1883): 313–14. Four years later another member of the Royal Society published a paper, “The Reputed Suicide of Scorpions,” arguing that insects were immune to their own venom, and the question of scorpion suicide seemed to be settled. A. G. Bourne, “The Reputed Suicide of Scorpions,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 42 (1887): 17–22.
he published Mental Evolution in Animals: George John Romanes, Mental Evolution in Animals (New York: D. Appleton, 1884).
Romanes, like Lindsay and Darwin, believed that insanity: Ibid., 148–74; Lorraine Daston has argued that for Romanes, anthropomorphism was a virtue and a necessity since it demonstrated a direct evolutionary relationship between humans and other animals. To Morgan, though, it was faulty human projection. Lorraine Daston, “Intelligences: Angelic, Animal, Human,” in Thinking with Animals: New Perspectives on Anthropomorphism, ed. Lorraine Daston and Gregg Mitman (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 37–58.
Meanwhile, the idea of suicide: Ramsden and Wilson, “The Nature of Suicide,” 24.
people’s motivations to do themselves in could have “secret causes”: Enrico Morselli, Suicide: An Essay on Comparative Moral Statistics (London: Kegan Paul, 1881), 8.
Durkheim published his landmark book: In the introduction he made a point of explaining why he would not be including nonhuman animals: “Our knowledge of animal intelligence does not really allow us to attribute to them an understanding anticipatory of their death nor, especially, of the means to accomplish it. . . . All cases cited at all authentically which might appear true suicides may be quite differently explained. If the irritated scorpion pierces itself with its sting (which is not at all certain), it is probably from an automatic, unreflecting reaction. The motive energy aroused by his irritation is discharged by chance and at random; the creature happens to become its victim, though it cannot be said to have had a preconception of the result of its action. On the other hand, if some dogs refuse to take food on losing their masters, it is because the sadness into which they are thrown has automatically caused lack of hunger; death has resulted, but without having been foreseen. Neither fasting in this case nor the wound in the other have been used as means to a known effect.” Emile Durkheim, Suicide: A Study in Sociology (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1951), 44–45.
in an article for the journal Mind: Ramsden and Wilson, “The Nature of Suicide,” 23.
In 1903 Morgan reiterated his earlier stance: Daston, “Intelligences,” 37–58.
“In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted: Conwy Lloyd Morgan, An Introduction to Comparative Psychology (London: Morgan, 1894), 53.
Accounts of animal suicides appeared: For fictionalized accounts, see, for example, Claire Goll, My Sentimental Zoo (New York: Peter Pauper Press, 1942). For other accounts, see all examples to follow, as well as “Texas Cattle: Peculiarities of the Long-Horned Beasts,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 7, 1885; “A Bull’s Suicide,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 22, 1891; Paul Eipper, Animals Looking at You (New York: Viking Press, 1929).
One early article, published in the New York Sun: “Suicide by Animals: Self-Destruction of Scorpion and Star-Fish,” New York Sun, December 18, 1881.
“You know, lions are as vain as a society woman”: “The Suicide of a Lion,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 25, 1901.
The most commonly reported suicidal animals: For representative samples, see “Suicide of a Dog,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 29, 1897; “Suicide: Do Animals Seek Their Own Death?,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 7, 1884; “A Mare’s Suicide,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 7, 1894.
Among the general population: Ritvo, The Animal Estate, 19, 35.
organizations like the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals: Ramsden and Wilson, “The Nature of Suicide,” 22.
As for horses, popular natural history writers: Ritvo, The Animal Estate, 19, 35.
In February 1905 a superior county court: “Court Decides That Horse Committed Suicide,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 2, 1905.
Other horses supposedly jumped: “Aged Gray Horse, Weary of Life, Commits Suicide,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 23, 1922; “Horse Fails in Suicide Attempts,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 22, 1922.
Ric O’Barry is an outspoken former dolphin trainer: He first discussed it in his book, then in an interview for a Frontline documentary. Richard O’Barry and Keith Coulbourn, Behind the Dolphin Smile: A True Story That Will Touch the Hearts of Animal Lovers Everywhere (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1999), 248–50; “Interview with Richard O’Barry,” Frontline: A Whale of a Business, PBS, November 11, 1997, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/whales/interviews/obarry2.html.
O’Barry writes that the part of Flipper: O’Barry and Coulbourn, Behind the Dolphin Smile, 136.
mounted capture expeditions: Ibid.; Richard O’Barry, personal communication, June 16, 2009.
Everything changed for O’Barry when: “Interview with Richard O’Barry.”
When O’Barry arrived at Seaquarium, he found Kathy: O’Barry and Coulbourn, Behind the Dolphin Smile, 248–50.
“Kathy died of suicide”: “Interview with Richard O’Barry.”
Twenty million people gathered: Shabecoff, A Fierce Green Fire, 131; “Earth Day: The History of a Movement,” Earth Day Network, http://www.earthday.org/earth-day-history-movement (accessed August 20, 2013).
A week later, inspired by this new environmental groundswell: O’Barry and Coulbourn, Behind the Dolphin Smile, 28–35.
She believes that suicide in captive whales and dolphins is possible: Dr. Naomi Rose, Humane Society of the United States, personal communication, April 13, 2010.
“The whole spectrum of open-ocean species”: Ibid.
Stranding events—two or more marine animals: “Three Beached Whales by Jan Wierix,” in R. Ellis, Monsters of the Sea (Robert Hale, 1994), http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Three_Beached_Whales%2C_1577.jpg; “Stranded Whale at Katwijk in Holland in 1598,” in Ellis, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stranded_whale_Katwijk_1598.jpg; “Scenes from Wellfleet Dolphin Stranding,” January 19, 2012, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGbdp4saMoI (accessed May 1, 2012); “Raw Video: Mass Stranding of Pilot Whales,” May 6, 2011, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w636wkpsBBg (accessed May 1, 2012).
Scientific statistics on stranding: Angela D’Amico et al., “Beaked Whale Strandings and Naval Exercises,” Aquatic Mammals 35 (December 1, 2009): 452–72.
From the 1930s on: This discussion is based on searches of historical archives of American newspapers from the nineteenth century through the present, including the New York Times, Washington Post, San Francisco Chronicle, Boston Globe, Los Angles Times, and other major newspapers.
In one representative account from 1937: “Enigma of Suicidal Whales,” New York Times, June 6, 1937.
“deliberately beached themselves”: “Whales Swim In and Die,” New York Times, October 8, 1948.
A particularly large mass stranding in Scotland: This is a rather unlikely explanation, considering such a self-destructive species would not live long. “Scotland’s 274 Dead Whales Stir Question,” Los Angeles Times, July 5, 1950.
cetologists increasingly reacted to reports: See, for example, Murray D. Dailey and William A. Walker, “Parasitism as a Factor (?) in Single Strandings of Southern California Cetaceans,” Journal of Parasitology 64, no. 4 (1978): 593–96; Robert D. Everitt et al., Marine Mammals of Northern Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca: A Report on Investigations, November 1, 1977–October 31, 1978, Environmental Research Laboratories, Marine Ecosystems Analysis Program, 1979; C. H. Fiscus and K. Niggol, “Observations of Cetaceans off California, Oregon, and Washington,” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report 498 (1965): 1–27; S. Ohsumi, “Interspecies Relationships among Some Biological Parameters in Cetaceans and Estimation of the Natural Mortality Coefficient of the Southern Hemisphere Minke Whale,” Report of the International Whaling Commission 29 (1979): 397–406; D. E. Sergeant, “Ecological Aspects of Cetacean Strandings,” in Biology of Marine Mammals: Insights through Strandings, ed. J. R. Geraci and D. J. St. Aubin, Marine Mammal Commission Report No. MMC-77/13, 1979, 94–113.
When twenty-four pilot whales stranded near Charleston: “Scientists Study Mystery of 24 Pilot Whales That Died after Stranding Themselves on Carolina Island Beach,” New York Times, October 8, 1973.
Reports of dolphin and whale mass suicides: See, for example, “Mass Suicide: Whale Beachings Puzzle to Experts,” Observer Reporter, July 27, 1976. One reason for the increasing numbers of reported strandings may have been, as Norman et al. suggest, the growing establishment of formal stranding responder networks between 1930 and 2002. Spikes of reported strandings also happen to occur during summer months, when more human observers are on beaches and along waterways, where they may witness stranded animals. S. A. Norman, et al., “Cetacean Strandings in Oregon and Washington between 1930 and 2002,” Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 6 (2004): 87–99.
One reason for the general public’s openness: D. Graham Burnett, “A Mind in the Water,” Orion, June 2010, http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/5503/ (accessed July 1, 2010); D. Graham Burnett, The Sounding of the Whale: Science and Cetaceans in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), chapter 6.
The historian Etienne Benson has argued: Etienne Benson, Wired Wilderness: Technologies of Tracking and the Making of Modern Wildlife (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 1–48.
doubt and confusion surrounding the reasons for strandings: National Research Council (U.S.), Committee on Potential Impacts of Ambient Noise in the Ocean on Marine Mammals, Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2003); L. S. Weilgart, “A Brief Review of Known Effects of Noise on Marine Mammals,” International Journal of Comparative Psychology 20 (2007): 159–68; D’Amico et al., “Beaked Whale Strandings and Naval Exercises”; K. C. Balcomb and D. E. Claridge, “A Mass Stranding of Cetaceans Caused by Naval Sonar in the Bahamas,” Bahamas Journal of Science 8, no. 2 (2001): 2–12; D. M. Anderson and A. W. White, “Marine Biotoxins at the Top of the Food Chain,” Oceanus 35, no. 3 (1992): 55–61; R. J. Law, C. R. Allchin, and L. K. Mead, “Brominated Diphenyl Ethers in Twelve Species of Marine Mammals Stranded in the UK,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 50 (2005): 356–59; R. J. Law et al., “Metals and Organochlorines in Pelagic Cetaceans Stranded on the Coasts of England and Wales,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 42 (2001): 522–26; R. J. Law et al., “Metals and Organochlorines in Tissues of a Blainville‘s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) and a Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) Stranded in the United Kingdom,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 34 (1997): 208–12; K. Evans et al., “Periodic Variability in Cetacean Strandings: Links to Large-Scale Climate Events,” Biology Letters 1, no. 2 (2005): 147–50; M. D. Dailey et al., “Prey, Parasites and Pathology Associated with the Mortality of a Juvenile Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus) Stranded along the Northern California Coast,” Diseases and Aquatic Organisms 42 (2000): 111–17; J. Geraci et al., “Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeanglie) Fatally Poisoned by Dinoflagellate Toxin,” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 46 (1989): 1895–98; H. Thurston, “The Fatal Shore,” Canadian Geographic, January–February 1995, 60–68.
These stressors, combined with recent research: See, for example, Felicity Muth, “Animal Culture: Insights from Whales,” Scientific American.com, April 27, 2013, http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/not-bad-science/2013/04/27/animal-culture-insights-from-whales/ (accessed April 28, 2013); Jenny Allen et al., “Network-Based Diffusion Analysis Reveals Cultural Transmission of Lobtail Feeding in Humpback Whales,” Science 340, no. 6131 (2013): 485–88; John K. B. Ford, “Vocal Traditions among Resident Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) in Coastal Waters of British Columbia,” Canadian Journal of Zoology 69, no. 6 (1991): 1454–83; Luke Rendell et al., “Can Genetic Differences Explain Vocal Dialect Variation in Sperm Whales, Physeter macrocephalus?,” Behavior Genetics 42, no. 2 (2011): 332–43.
predicated on really tight social bonds: J. R. Geraci and V. J. Lounsbury, Marine Mammals Ashore: A Field Guide for Strandings (Galveston: Texas A&M University Sea Grant College Program, 1993); A. F. González and A. López, “First Recorded Mass Stranding of Short-Finned Pilot Whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus Gray, 1846) in the Northeastern Atlantic,” Marine Mammal Science 16, no. 3 (2000): 640–46.
Attendees are largely unpaid volunteers: Other nations have their own stranding networks, such as New Zealand’s Project Jonah, http://www.projectjonah.org.nz; Indonesia’s Whale Strandings Indonesia, http://www.whalestrandingindonesia.com/index.php; and Canada’s Marine Mammal Response Society, http://www.marineanimals.ca/.
This may have affected the evolution of their social worlds: Richard C. Connor, “Group Living in Whales and Dolphins,” in Cetacean Societies: Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales, ed. Janet Mann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 199–218.
Only one of a pod of nineteen white-sided dolphins: “Why Do Cetaceans Strand? A Summary of Possible Causes,” Hal Whitehead Laboratory Group, http://whitelab.biology.dal.ca/strand/StrandingWebsite.html#social; E. Rogan et al., “A Mass Stranding of White-Sided Dolphins (Lagenorhynchus acutus) in Ireland: Biological and Pathological Studies,” Journal of Zoology 242, no. 2 (1997): 217–27.
Since the Hilo conference in 2010: These studies built on earlier published research that also suggested causal relationships. David Suzuki, “Sonar and Whales Are a Deadly Mix,” Huffington Post, February 27, 2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/david-suzuki/sonar-naval-training-kills-whales_b_2769130.html; Tyack et al., “Beaked Whales Respond to Simulated and Actual Navy Sonar”; National Resource Defense Council, “Lethal Sounds: The Use of Military Sonar Poses a Deadly Threat to Whales and Other Marine Mammals,” NRDC, http://www.nrdc.org/wildlife/marine/sonar.asp (accessed July 5, 2013); Weilgart, “A Brief Review of Known Effects of Noise on Marine Mammals”; National Research Council (U.S.), Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals.
The U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Navy released a report: “U.S. Sued over U.S. Navy Sonar Tests in Whale Waters,” NBC News, January 26, 2012, http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/01/26/10244852-us-sued-over-navy-sonar-tests-in-whale-waters?lite (accessed January 27, 2012); “Marine Mammals and the Navy’s 5-Year Plan,” New York Times, October 11, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/12/opinion/marine-mammals-and-the-navys-5-year-plan.html (accessed October 11, 2012); Natural Resources Defense Center Council, “Navy Training Blasts Marine Mammals with Harmful Sonar,” National Resource Defense Council Media, news release, January 26, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/media/2012/120126a.asp (accessed January 27, 2012).
Other, similar legal battles are now under way: Lauren Sommer, “Navy Sonar Criticized for Harming Marine Mammals,” All Things Considered, National Public Radio, April 26, 2013, http://www.npr.org/2013/04/26/179297747/navy-sonar-criticized-for-harming-marine-mammals; Jeremy A. Goldbogen et al., “Blue Whales Respond to Simulated Mid-Frequency Military Sonar,” Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences 280, no. 1765 (2013).
The latest study on these animals and anthropogenic sound: Goldbogen et al., “Blue Whales Respond to Simulated Mid-Frequency Military Sonar”; “Study: Military Sonar May Affect Endangered Blue Whale Population,” CBS News, July, 8, 2013, http://seattle.cbslocal.com/2013/07/08/study-military-sonar-may-affect-endangered-blue-whale-population; Suzuki, “Sonar and Whales Are a Deadly Mix” (accessed July 8, 2013); “U.S. Military Sonar May Affect Endangered Blue Whales, Study Suggests,” Washington Post, July 8, 2013, http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013–07–08/national/40435944_1_blue-whales-cascadia-research-collective-mid-frequency-sonar (accessed July 8, 2013); Damian Carrington, “Whales Flee from Military Sonar Leading to Mass Strandings, Research Shows,” Guardian, July 2, 2013; Victoria Gill, “Blue and Beaked Whales Affected by Simulated Navy Sonar,” BBC News, July 2, 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-23115939 (accessed July 8, 2013); Richard Gray, “Blue Whales Are Disturbed by Military Sonar,” Telegraph, July 3, 2013, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/wildlife/10158068/Blue-whales-are-disturbed-by-military-sonar.html (accessed July 4, 2013); Megan Gannon, “Military Sonar May Hurt Blue Whales,” Yahoo News, July 4, 2013, http://news.yahoo.com/military-sonar-may-hurt-blue-whales-141911253.html (accessed July 4, 2013).
“It would be like someone walking in front of a car”: Wynne Parry, “16 Whales Mysteriously Stranded in Florida Keys,” Live Science, May 6, 2011, http://www.livescience.com/14052-pilot-whale-stranding-florida-pod-noise.html (accessed May 6, 2011).
the hatters didn’t just shake: H. A. Waldron, “Did the Mad Hatter Have Mercury Poisoning?,” British Medical Journal 287, no. 6409 (1983): 1961.
Today the most widespread source of mercury exposure: Katherine H. Taber and Robin A. Hurley, “Mercury Exposure: Effects across the Lifespan,” Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 20, no. 4 (2008): 384–89; S. Allen Counter and Leo H. Buchanan, “Mercury Exposure in Children: A Review,” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 198, no. 2 (2004): 213.
Almost all of this ingested mercury: Counter and Buchanan, “Mercury Exposure in Children,” 213.
Chronic mercury poisoning can result in anxiety: Taber and Hurley, “Mercury Exposure,” 389.
The effect of mercury on marine mammals: Wendy Noke Durden et al., “Mercury and Selenium Concentrations in Stranded Bottlenose Dolphins from the Indian River Lagoon System, Florida,” Bulletin of Marine Science 81, no. 1 (2007): 37–54; H. Gomercic Srebocan and A. Prevendar Crnic, “Mercury Concentrations in the Tissues of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and Striped Dolphins (Stenella coeruloalba) Stranded on the Croatian Adriatic Coast,” Science and Technology 2009, no. 12 (2009): 598–604; Dan Ferber, “Sperm Whales Bear Testimony to Ocean Pollution,” Science Now, August 17, 2005, http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2005/08/17–02.html (accessed August 9, 2010); “Mercury Levels in Arctic Seals May Be Linked to Global Warming,” Science Daily, May 4, 2009, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/05/090504165950.htm (accessed May 5, 2009); A. Gaden et al., “Mercury Trends in Ringed Seals (Phoca hispida) from the Western Canadian Arctic since 1973: Associations with Length of Ice-Free Season,” Environmental Science and Technology 43 (May 15, 2009): 3646–51.
It has also been possible to work backward: Shawn Booth and Dirk Zeller, “Mercury, Food Webs, and Marine Mammals: Implications of Diet and Climate Change for Human Health,” Environmental Health Perspectives 113 (February 2, 2005): 521–26.
toxicologists have shown that the bodies: Durden et al., “Mercury and Selenium Concentrations in Stranded Bottlenose Dolphins from the Indian River Lagoon System, Florida”; Srebocan and Crnic, “Mercury Concentrations in the Tissues of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and Striped Dolphins (Stenella coeruloalba) Stranded on the Croatian Adriatic Coast”; Ferber, “Sperm Whales Bear Testimony to Ocean Pollution”; “Mercury Levels in Arctic Seals May Be Linked to Global Warming”; Gaden et al., “Mercury Trends in Ringed Seals (Phoca hispida) from the Western Canadian Arctic since 1973.”
In harbor seals this contamination: “Mercury Pollution Causes Immune Damage to Harbor Seals,” Science Daily, October 20, 2008, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081020191532.htm# (accessed May 30, 2010).
Mercury isn’t the only environmental toxin: Jordan Lite, “What Is Mercury Posioning?,” Scientific American, December 19, 2008, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=jeremy-piven-mercury-poisoning (accessed April 20, 2010); “Pollution ‘Makes Birds Mate with Each Other,’ Say Scientists,” Mail Online, December 10, 2010, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1334725/Mercury-diet-making-male-birds-gay.html (accessed December 11, 2010); “Fish Consumption Advisories,” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/hg/advisories.htm (accessed December 11, 2010); Bob Condor, “Living Well: How Much Mercury Is Safe? Go Fishing for Answers,” Seattlepi.com, October 19, 2008, http://www.seattlepi.com/lifestyle/health/article/Living-Well-How-much-mercury-is-safe-Go-fishing-1288719.php (accessed November 1, 2009); Francesca Lyman, “How Much Mercury Is in the Fish You Eat? Doctors Recommend Consuming Seafood, but Some Fish Are Tainted,” NBCNews.com, April 4, 2003, http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3076632/ns/health-your_environment/t/how-much-mercury-fish-you-eat/ (accessed January 4, 2011); “Weekly Health Tip: Mercury in Fish–-How Much Is Too Much?,” Huffpost Healthy Living: The Blog, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/deepak-chopra/mercury-fish_b_893631.html; “Mercury Mess: Wild Bird Sex Stifled,” Environmental Health News, September 22, 2011, http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/newscience/2011/08/2011–0920-mercury-messes-with-sex/ (accessed September 22, 2011).
Lead, manganese, arsenic, and organophosphate insecticides: M. R. Trimble and E. S. Krishnamoorthy, “The Role of Toxins in Disorders of Mood and Affect,” Neurologic Clinics 18, no. 3 (2000): 649–64; Celia Fischer, Anders Fredriksson, and Per Eriksson, “Coexposure of Neonatal Mice to a Flame Retardant PBDE 99 (2,2’,4,4’,5-pentabromodiphenyl ether) and Methyl Mercury Enhances Developmental Neurotoxic Defects,” Toxicological Sciences: An Official Journal of the Society of Toxicology 101, no. 2 (2008): 275–85.
In one human study, factory workers: Trimble and Krishnamoorthy, “The Role of Toxins in Disorders of Mood and Affect.”
exposure to lead, arsenic, mercury: See, for example, “Some Toxic Effects of Lead, Other Metals and Antibacterial Agents on the Nervous System: Animal Experiment Models,” Acta Neurologica Scandinavica Supplementum 100 (1984): 77–87; Minoru Yoshida et al., “Neurobehavioral Changes and Alteration of Gene Expression in the Brains of Metallothionein-I/II Null Mice Exposed to Low Levels of Mercury Vapor during Postnatal Development,” Journal of Toxicological Sciences 36, no. 5 (2011): 539–47; Shuhua Xi et al., “Prenatal and Early Life Arsenic Exposure Induced Oxidative Damage and Altered Activities and mRNA Expressions of Neurotransmitter Metabolic Enzymes in Offspring Rat Brain,” Journal of Biochemical and Molecular Toxicology 24, no. 6 (2010): 368–78.
the Czech scientist Jaroslav Flegr: Kathleen McAuliffe, “How Your Cat Is Making You Crazy,” Atlantic, March 2012.
Flegr puzzled over whether he might be: Ibid.
Flegr discovered that the French: Ibid.; “Common Parasite May Trigger Suicide Attempts: Inflammation from T. Gondii Produces Brain-Damaging Metabolites,” Science Daily, August 16, 2012, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120816170400.htm (accessed August 16, 2012).
the parasite transforms its host animals into cat-delivery systems: Patrick K. House, Ajai Vyas, and Robert Sapolsky, “Predator Cat Odors Activate Sexual Arousal Pathways in Brains of Toxoplasma Gondii Infected Rats,” ed. Georges Chapouthier, PLoS ONE 6, no. 8 (2011): e23277; “Toxo: A Conversation with Robert Sapolsky,” The Edge.org, December 4, 2009, http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/sapolsky09/sapolsky09_index.html (accessed August 19, 2012); Jaroslav Flegr, “Effects of Toxoplasma on Human Behavior,” Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33, no. 3 (2007), http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/3/757.full (accessed August 17, 2012).
Oddly, toxo also makes the infected males: McAuliffe, “How Your Cat Is Making You Crazy”; “Toxo: A Conversation with Robert Sapolsky”; Flegr, “Effects of Toxoplasma on Human Behavior.”
For decades we have known that pregnant women: “Toxoplasmosis,” Centers for Disease Control, http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/disease.html (accessed August 17, 2012).
He discovered that people who had been exposed to the parasite: Flegr, “Effects of Toxoplasma on Human Behavior”; McAuliffe, “How Your Cat Is Making You Crazy”; “Toxo: A Conversation with Robert Sapolsky.”
The psychiatric effects in people infected: Vinita J. Ling, David Lester, Preben Bo Mortensen, Patricia W. Langenberg, and Teodor T. Postolache, “Toxoplasma Gondii Seropositivity and Suicide Rates in Women,” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 199, no. 7 (July 2011): 440–444; Yuanfen Zhang, Lil Träskman-Bendz, Shorena Janelidze, Patricia Langenberg, Ahmed Saleh, Niel Constantine, Olaoluwa Okusaga, Cecilie Bay-Richter, Lena Brundin, and Teodor T. Postolache, “Toxoplasma Gondii Immunoglobulin G Antibodies and Nonfatal Suicidal Self-Directed Violence,” The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 73, no. 8 (August 2012): 1069–1076; David Lester, “Toxoplasma Gondii and Homicide,” Psychological Reports 111, no. 1 (August 2012): 196–197.
A 2012 Michigan State University study: “Common Parasite May Trigger Suicide Attempts.”
Otters started dying off in larger numbers: “California Sea Otters Numbers Drop Again,” United States Geological Survey, August 3, 2010 http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=2560; Miles Grant, “California Sea Otter Population Declining,” National Wildlife Federation, March 7, 2011, http://blog.nwf.org/2011/03/california-sea-otter-population-declining (accessed March 8, 2011); “California Sea Otters Mysteriously Disappearing,” CBS News, March 3, 2011, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/calif-sea-otters-mysteriously-disappearing (accessed May 4, 2011).
a professor and veterinary parasitologist: “Study Links Parasites in Freshwater Runoff to Sea Otter Deaths,” Science Daily, July 2, 2002, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2002/06/020627004404.htm (accessed October 30, 2010); P. A. Conrad, M. A. Miller, C. Kreuder, E. R. James, J. Mazet, H. Dabritz, D. A. Jessup, Frances Gulland, and M. E. Grigg, “Transmission of Toxoplasma: Clues from the Study of Sea Otters as Sentinels of Toxoplasma Gondii Flow into the Marine Environment,” International Journal for Parasitology 35, no. 11–12 (October 2005): 1155–1168; M. A. Miller, W. A. Miller, P. A. Conrad, E. R. James, A. C. Melli, C. M. Leutenegger, H. A. Dabritz, et al., “Type X Toxoplasma Gondii in a Wild Mussel and Terrestrial Carnivores from Coastal California: New Linkages between Terrestrial Mammals, Runoff and Toxoplasmosis of Sea Otters,” International Journal for Parasitology 38, no. 11 (September 2008): 1319–1328.
Conrad also found that otters: Paul Rincon, “Cat Parasite ‘Is Killing Otters,’ ” BBC, February 19, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4729810.stm (accessed December 5, 2012); Mariane B. Melo, Kirk D. C. Jensen, and Jeroen P. J. Saeij, “Toxoplasma Gondii Effectors Are Master Regulators of the Inflammatory Response,” Trends in Parasitology 27, no. 11 (November 2011): 487–495.
A 2011 study of marine mammals in the Pacific Northwest: “Dual Parasitic Infections Deadly to Marine Mammals,” Science Daily, May 25, 2011, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/05/110524171257.htm (accessed May 25, 2013).
Most of these blooms are harmless: Astrid Schnetzer et al., “Blooms of Pseudo-Nitzschia and Domoic Acid in the San Pedro Channel and Los Angeles Harbor Areas of the Southern California Bight, 2003–2004,” Harmful Algae 6, no. 3 (2007): 372–87; Frances Gulland, Domoic Acid Toxicity in California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) Stranded along the Central California Coast, May–October 1998, Report to the National Marine Fisheries Service Working Group on Unusual Marine Mammal Mortality Events, December, 2000; “Domoic Acid Toxicity,” Marine Mammal Center, http://www.marinemammalcenter.org/science/top-research-projects/domoic-acid-toxicity.html (accessed June 1, 2012); “Red Tide,” Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, http://www.whoi.edu/redtide (accessed June 1, 2012).
Domoic acid toxicosis was first diagnosed: Gulland, Domoic Acid Toxicity in California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) Stranded along the Central California Coast, May–October 1998.
In humans, exposure to the neurotoxin: “Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning,” Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=9679&tid=523&cid=27686 (accessed June 1, 2012); D. Baden, L. E. Fleming, and J. A. Bean, “Marine Toxins,” in Handbook of Clinical Neurology: Intoxications of the Nervous System, Part II. Natural Toxins and Drugs, ed. F. A. de Wolff (Amsterdam: Elsevier Press, 1995), 141–75.
Depending on where their primary hunting grounds are: Kate Thomas et al., “Movement, Dive Behavior, and Survival of California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) Posttreatment for Domoic Acid Toxicosis,” Marine Mammal Science 26, no. 1 (2010): 36–52; E. M. D. Gulland et al., “Domoic Acid Toxicity in Californian Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus): Clinical Signs, Treatment and Survival,” Veterinary Record 150, no. 15 (2002): 475–80.
Researchers at the Marine Mammal Center and elsewhere have located: Thomas et al., “Movement, Dive Behavior, and Survival of California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) Posttreatment for Domoic Acid Toxicosis.”
released a number of sea lions: Verbal communication with Lee Jackrel, crew leader, Marine Mammal Center, November and December 2010; Thomas et al., “Movement, Dive Behavior, and Survival of California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) Posttreatment for Domoic Acid Toxicosis.”
weirdly overconfident behavior: Gulland et al., “Domoic Acid Toxicity in Californian Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus)”; T. Goldstein et al., “Magnetic Resonance Imaging Quality and Volumes of Brain Structures from Live and Postmortem Imaging of California Sea Lions with Clinical Signs of Domoic Acid Toxicosis,” Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 91, no. 3 (2010): 243–56; Thomas et al., “Movement, Dive Behavior, and Survival of California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus) Posttreatment for Domoic Acid Toxicosis.”
Another sea lion, nicknamed Wilder: Mark Mullen, “Authorities Remove Sleeping Sea Lion,” KRON4 News, December 16, 2002.
In humans, the hippocampus plays an important role: M. Sala et al., “Stress and Hippocampal Abnormalities in Psychiatric Disorders,” European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology 14, no. 5 (2004): 393–405; Sapolsky, “Glucocorticoids and Hippocampal Atrophy in Neuropsychiatric Disorders”; Cheryl D. Conrad, “Chronic Stress-Induced Hippocampal Vulnerability: The Glucocorticoid Vulnerability Hypothesis,” Reviews in the Neurosciences 19, no. 6 (2008): 395–411.
According to the World Health Organization: J. A. Patz et al., “Climate Change and Infectious Disease,” in Climate Change and Human Health: Risks and Responses, ed. A. J. McMichael et al. (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2003), 103–32, http://www.who.int/globalchange/publications/climatechangechap6.pdf; “Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms,” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, http://www.cop.noaa.gov/stressors/extremeevents/hab/current/CC_habs.aspx (accessed May 1, 2012).
rising ocean temperatures may be increasing: Patz et al., “Climate Change and Infectious Disease”; “Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms”; T. Goldstein et al., “Novel Symptomatology and Changing Epidemiology of Domoic Acid Toxicosis in California Sea Lions (Zalophus californianus): An Increasing Risk to Marine Mammal Health,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 275, no. 1632 (2008): 267–76.
Until the mid-1980s miners carried the birds: “1986: Coal Mine Canaries Made Redundant,” BBC, December 30, 1986; Walter Hines Page and Arthur Wilson Page, The World’s Work (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1914), 474.
When the reality-TV star Anna Nicole Smith: “Eternal Sunshine,” Guardian, May 13, 2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2007/may/13/socialcare.medicineandhealth (accessed March 10, 2009).
Maltese and Bichon Frise mix, Sumo: Stanley Coren, “The Former French President’s Depressed Dog: Jacques Chirac and Sumo,” Psychology Today, October 5, 2009, http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/canine-corner/200910/the-former-french-president-s-depressed-dog-jacques-chirac-and-sumo (accessed April 5, 2012); Ian Sparks, “Former French President Chirac Hospitalised after Mauling by His Clinically Depressed Poodle,” Mail Online, January 21, 2009, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1126136/Former-French-President-Chirac-hospitalised-mauling-clinically-depressed-poodle.html (accessed April 5, 2012).
Fluoxetine, or generic Prozac, is available: “Fluoxetine (AS HCL): Oral Suspension,” Wedgewood Pharmacy, http://www.wedgewoodpetrx.com/items/fluoxetine-as-hcl-oral-suspension.html (accessed April 6, 2012).
Most small-animal doctoring, until the turn of the twentieth century: Nineteenth-century homeopathic practices also included pets. Homeopathic manuals for pet health were published well into the 1930s, and you could buy veterinary kits from homeopathic doctors. Katherine C. Grier, Pets in America: A History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 90–96.
In May 1950 Henry Hoyt and Frank Berger: Andrea Tone, The Age of Anxiety: A History of America’s Turbulent Affair with Tranquilizers (New York: Basic Books, 2008), 43–51.
another drug was relaxing rats: Shorter, A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry, 54.
In 1951, a company pharmacist: David Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 78.
Rats were given the antihistamine: Ibid., 80–81.
The rats’ indifference piqued the curiosity: Ibid., 46, 80–81, 84. Other uses were tested in dogs. It turned out that the compound made nauseated dogs stop vomiting, even in one experimental group that was swung incessantly in hammocks.
The drug also caused certain patients at Sainte-Anne: Ibid., 90–91.
A barber from Lyon, France, was a typical case: Ibid.
In 1954 Rhône-Poulenc sold the U.S. chlorpromazine license: Shorter, A Historical Dictionary of Psychiatry, 55.
It was marketed as an antinausea agent: Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology, 98–99.
One 1968 journal article summed up the veterinary use: J. W. Kakolewski, “Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental Subjects,” in Abnormal Behavior in Animals, ed. Michael W. Fox (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1968), 527.
“Litter-savaging” pigs: A. F. Fraser, “Behavior Disorders in Domestic Animals,” in Abnormal Behavior in Animals, ed. Michael W. Fox (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1968), 184.
Soon other new antipsychotic drugs: W. Ferguson, “Abnormal Behavior in Domestic Birds,” in Abnormal Behavior in Animals, ed. Michael W. Fox (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1968), 195.
A year after Smith Kline bought the chlorpromazine license: Tone, The Age of Anxiety, 43–52.
Meanwhile scientists at Walter Reed: Ibid., 109–10.
The 1950s was a key decade in the forging of new links: Jonathan Michel Metzl, Prozac on the Couch: Prescribing Gender in the Era of Wonder Drugs (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 72, 74–75.
Pharmaceutical marketing pitches: Ferdinand Lundberg and Marynia Farnham, Modern Woman: The Lost Sex (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947).
When tranquilizers arrived, these dangerous states: Metzl, Prozac on the Couch, 81, 159.
Before the mid-1950s talk therapy, not drugs: Ibid., 101–2.
Miltown went to market in 1955: Tone, The Age of Anxiety, 109–10.
Physicians’ reference manuals published by pharma companies: Roche Laboratories, Aspects of Anxiety (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1968).
two years after Miltown was released: Tone, The Age of Anxiety, 57, 108–10, 113.
Children were given the drug: Metzl, Prozac on the Couch, 100; R. Huebner, “Meprobamate in Canine Medicine: A Summary of 77 Cases,” Veterinary Medicine 51 (October 1956): 488.
If a drug could cure anxiety, Berger later argued: Metzl, Prozac on the Couch, 73.
the addictive nature of Miltown came to light: Tone, The Age of Anxiety, 144–47.
In 1967 it was placed under abuse control amendments: “Tranquilizer Is Put under U.S. Curbs,” New York Times, December 6, 1967.
The industry’s success: Ibid., 144–47, David Healy, Let Them Eat Prozac: The Unhealthy Relationship between the Pharmaceutical Industry and Depression (New York: New York University Press, 2004).
Other psychopharmaceutical drugs were also in development: Tone, The Age of Anxiety, 129.
The new drug also passed the industry-wide “cat test”: Ibid., 129, 135.
This cat-mouse-human relaxant: Ibid., 153–56.
Sometime in the 1960s he was captured in Congo: Rebecca Burns, “11 Years Ago This Month: Willie B.’s Memorial,” Atlantamagazine.com, February 2000, http://www.atlantamagazine.com/flashback/Story.aspx?id=1353208 (accessed July 20, 2012); Dorie Turner, “Famed Atlanta Resident Who Ate Bananas Comes to TV,” USA Today, August 5, 2008, http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008–08–05–2238724203_x.htm (accessed July 20, 2012).
The drugs are used to overcome phobias in birds: Liz Wilson and Andrew Luescher, “Parrots and Fear,” in Manual of Parrot Behavior, ed. Andrew Luescher (Ames, IA: Blackwell, 2006), 227; Peter Holz and James E. F. Barnett, “Long-Acting Tranquilizers: Their Use as a Management Tool in the Confinement of Free-Ranging Red-Necked Wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus),” Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 27, no. 1 (1996): 54–60; Y. Uchida, N. Dodman, and D. DeGhetto, “Animal Behavior Case of the Month: A Captive Bear Was Observed to Exhibit Signs of Separation Anxiety,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212, no. 3 (1998): 354–55; Thomas H. Reidarson, Jim McBain, and Judy St. Leger, “Side Effects of Haloperidol (Haldol(r)) to Treat Chronic Regurgitation in California Sea Lions,” IAAAM Conference Proceedings (2004): 124–25, http://www.vin.com/Proceedings/Proceedings.plx?&CID=IAAAM2004&PID=pr50067&O=Generic; Leslie M. Dalton and Todd R. Robeck, “Aberrant Behavior in a California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus),” IAAAM Conference Proceedings (1997): 145–46, http://www.vin.com/Proceedings/Proceedings.plx?&CID=IAAAM1997&PID=pr49310&O=Generic; Larry Gage et al., “Medical and Behavioral Management of Chronic Regurgitation in a Pacific Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens),” IAAAM Conference Proceedings (2000): 341–42, http://www.vin.com/Proceedings/Proceedings.plx?&CID=IAAAM2000&PID=pr49633&O=Generic.
At the Toledo Zoo Haldol was used: Jenny Laidman, “Zoos Using Drugs to Help Manage Anxious Animals,” Toledo Blade, September 14, 2005.
When the antipsychiatry movement: Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology, 5; Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason (New York: Vintage Books, 1973); Michael E. Staub, Madness Is Civilization: When the Diagnosis Was Social, 1948–1980 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 6, 139–40, 181–83; Roy W. Menninger and John C. Nemiah, eds., American Psychiatry after World War II, 1944–1994 (Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Press, 2000), 281–89.
Ken Kesey portrayed the psych ward: Ken Kesey, One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest (New York: Signet, 1963).
As the historian David Healy points out: Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology, 5, 148–56, 162–63.
their doctor-focused ad campaigns: Ibid., 237.
More than thirty years later: Lorna A. Rhodes, Total Confinement: Madness and Reason in the Maximum Security Prison (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 126–28. See also Laura Calkins, “Detained and Drugged: A Brief Overview of the Use of Pharmaceuticals for the Interrogation of Suspects, Prisoners, Patients, and POWs in the U.S.,” Bioethics 24, no. 1 (2010): 27–34; Charles Pillar, “California Prison Behavior Units Aim to Control Troublesome Inmates,” Sacramento Bee, May 10, 2010; Kenneth Adams and Joseph Ferrandino, “Managing Mentally Ill Inmates in Prisons,” Criminal Justice and Behavior 35, no. 8 (2008): 913–27; David Jones, A. Bernard Ackerman Professor of the Culture of Medicine, Harvard University, and psychiatrist, personal correspondence, July 29, 2013.
Antipsychotics, antidepressants, and antianxiety medications have, for example: M. Babette Fontenot et al., “Dose-Finding Study of Fluoxetine and Venlafaxine for the Treatment of Self-Injurious and Stereotypic Behavior in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta),” Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 48, no. 2 (2009): 176–84; M. Babette Fontenot et al., “The Effects of Fluoxetine and Buspirone on Self-Injurious and Stereotypic Behavior in Adult Male Rhesus Macaques,” Comparative Medicine 55, no. 1 (2005): 67–74; H. W. Murphy and R. Chafel, “The Use of Psychoactive Drugs in Great Apes: Survey Results,” Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Association of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians, and National Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Joint Conference (September 18, 2001): 244–49.
an easily agitated male gorilla in Ohio: Laidman, “Zoos Using Drugs to Help Manage Anxious Animals.”
At the Guadalajara Zoo in Mexico: D. Espinosa-Avilés et al., “Treatment of Acute Self Aggressive Behaviour in a Captive Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla),” Veterinary Record 154, no. 13 (2004): 401–2.
gorilla and his keeper were unloaded on the tarmac: Paul Luther, personal communication, June 2009; Also Darrel Glover, “Cranky Ape Puts His Foot Down, So Pilot Boots Him off Jet,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, October 17, 1996; Elizabeth Morell, “Transporting Wild Animals,” Risk Management (July 1998).
Dolphins, whales, sea lions, walruses: Dalton and Robeck, “Aberrant Behavior in a California Sea Lion (Zalophus Californianus),” 145–46; Reidarson et al., “Side Effects of Haloperidol (Haldol(r)) to Treat Chronic Regurgitation in California Sea Lions,” 124–25; Chen et al., “Diagnosis and Treatment of Abnormal Food Regurgitation in a California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus).”
There are incentives at these facilities: Kirby, Death at SeaWorld, 317–34.
A few of these published cases include: William Van Bonn, “Medical Management of Chronic Emesis in a Juvenile White Whale (Delphinapterus leucas),” IAAAM Conference Proceedings (2006): 150–52, http://www.vin.com/Proceedings/Proceedings.plx?CID=IAAAM2006&Category=7556&PID=50364&O=Generic.
The word antidepressant was coined: Edward Shorter, Before Prozac: The Troubled History of Mood Disorders in Psychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 2.
From roughly 1900 through 1980: Ibid., 4.
In Europe before the 1950s: Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology, 57.
Shorter has argued that the cause: Shorter, Before Prozac, 2.
Antidepressants, particularly Prozac: Peter D. Kramer, Listening to Prozac (New York: Viking, 1993); Healy, Let Them Eat Prozac, 264.
A human psychiatrist prescribed Remeron: Carla Hall, “Fido’s Little Helper,” Los Angeles Times, January 10, 2007, http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jan/10/local/me-animalmeds10 (accessed September 15, 2010).
Johari, a female gorilla at the Toledo Zoo: Laidman, “Zoos Using Drugs to Help Manage Anxious Animals.”
When tabloids broke the story: Tad Friend, “It’s a Jungle in Here,” New York Magazine, April 24, 1995.
The bear was on the cover of Newsday: Will Nixon, “Gus the Neurotic Bear: Polar Bear in New York City Central Park Zoo,” E the Environmental Magazine, December 1994.
Bipolar disorder came into vogue: David Healy, “Folie to Folly: The Modern Mania for Bipolar Disorders,” in Medicating Modern America: Prescription Drugs in History, ed. Andrea Tone and Elizabeth Siegel Watkins (New York: New York University Press, 2007), 43; Emily Martin, Bipolar Expeditions: Mania and Depression in American Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 223–27.
The zoo’s public affairs manager: Friend, “It’s a Jungle in Here.” A related sentiment is touched upon in Emily Martin’s Bipolar Expeditions, 225, in which she suggests that bipolarity was seen, at least for a time and by certain New Yorkers, as a New York City phenomenon—the frenetic pace of the city possibly attracting the already bipolar or inciting bipolarity in those prone to it, influenced the types of disorders New Yorkers recognized in their zoo animals.
In the wake of Gus’s news coverage: Friend, “It’s a Jungle in Here.”
In fact when Gus first arrived at the zoo from Ohio in 1988: Nixon, “Gus the Neurotic Bear”; Friend, “It’s a Jungle in Here.”
Hoping to curb the neurotic behavior: Ingrid Newkirk, The PETA Practical Guide to Animal Rights: Simple Acts of Kindness to Help Animals in Trouble (New York: Macmillan, 2009); Julia Naylor Rodriguez, “Experts Say Prozac for Pets Is a Pretty Depressing Idea,” Forth Worth Star, September 2, 1994; “Dogs Feeling Wuff in the City Getting a Boost from Prozac,” New York Daily News, January 11, 2007; June Naylor Rodriguez, “Prozac for Fido? Don’t Get Too Anxious for It, Vets Say,” Fort Worth Star, September 3, 1994.
The zoo also redesigned his exhibit: N. R. Kleinfeld, “Farewell to Gus, Whose Issues Made Him a Star,” New York Times, August 28, 2013; http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/29/nyregion/gus-new-yorks-most-famous-polar-bear-dies-at-27.html?_r=0.
In August 2013, Gus was euthanized: Ibid.
Because it’s impossible to replicate: E. M. Poulsen et al., “Use of Fluoxetine for the Treatment of Stereotypical Pacing Behavior in a Captive Polar Bear,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 209, no. 8 (1996): 1470–74. The study was paid for by Eli Lilly.
Abdi is a male brown bear: Yalcin and N. Aytug, “Use of Fluoxetine to Treat Stereotypical Pacing Behavior in a Brown Bear (Ursus arctos),” Journal of Veterinary Behavior Clinical Applications and Research 2, no. 3 (2007): 73–76.
Abdi is doing very well: Dr. Prof. Nilufer Aytug, Karacabey Bear Sanctuary, personal communication, February 5, 2012.
They tried one last antipsychotic: H. W. Murphy and M. Mufson. “The Use of Psychopharmaceuticals to Control Aggressive Behaviors in Captive Gorillas,” Proceedings of “The Apes: Challenges for the 21st Century,” Brookfield Zoo, Chicago (2000): 157–60.
Sadly, this isolation period: From Cages to Conservation, WBUR documentary, http://insideout.wbur.org/documentaries/zoos/ (accessed December 1, 2013).
After their experiences at the zoo in Boston: H. W. Murphy and R. Chafel, “The Use of Psychoactive Drugs in Great Apes: Survey Results,” Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, Association of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians, and National Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians Joint Conference (September 18, 2001): 244–49; Murphy and Mufson, “The Use of Psychopharmaceuticals to Control Aggressive Behaviors in Captive Gorillas.”
among 2.5 million insured Americans from 2001 to 2010: “America’s State of Mind,” Medco, 2011, http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s19032en/s19032en.pdf.
Americans spent more than $16 billion on antipsychotics: Brendan Smith, “Inappropriate Prescribing,” Monitor on Psychology, American Psychological Association, June 2012, Vol. 43, No. 6, 36. http://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/06/prescribing.aspx.
According to a recent study by the Centers for Disease Control: National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, Factsheet, Psychiatry, CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ahcd/NAMCS_Factsheet_PSY_2009.pdf (accessed September 1, 2010); Laura A. Pratt, Debra J. Brody, and Qiuping Gu, “Antidepressant Use in Persons Ages 12 and Over: United States, 2005–2008,” CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db76.htm (accessed September 1, 2010).
The U.S. market for pet pharmaceuticals: Matt Wickenheiser, “Vet Biotech Aims at Generic Pet Medicine Market,” Bangalore Daily News, February 3, 2012, http://bangordailynews.com/2012/02/03/business/vet-biotech-aims-at-generic-pet-medicine-market/. “Pet Industry Market Size and Ownership Statistics,” American Pet Products Manufacturers Association, 2011–12, National Survey, http://www.americanpetproducts.org/press_industrytreras.asp.
raised $2.2 billion in its initial public offering: Chris Dietrich, “Zoetis Raises $2.2 Billion in IPO,” Wall Street Journal, January 31, 2013.
Elanco, a pet pharma company owned by Eli Lilly: “Eli Lilly: Offsetting Generic Erosion through Janssen’s Animal Health Business,” CommentWire, March 17, 2011.
Yearly sales of Pfizer’s animal pharmaceuticals: Susan Todd, “Retailers Shaking Up Pet Medicines Market, but Consumers Continue to Rely on Vets for Serious Remedies and Care,” Star-Ledger (NJ), October 2, 2011, http://www.nj.com/business/index.ssf/2011/10/retailers_shaking_up_pet_medic.html (accessed October 3, 2011).
The pet pharmaceutical industry: KPMG, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Packaged Facts, and William Blair and Co., Veterinary Economics, April 2008; and Allison Grant, “Veterinarians Scramble as Retailers Jump Into Pet Meds Market,” The Plain Dealer, January 9, 2012.
One market research firm recently claimed: David Lummis, “Human/Animal Bond and ‘Pet Parent’ Spending Insulate $53 Billion U.S. Pet Market against Downturn, Forecast to Drive Post-Recession Growth,” Packaged Facts, March 2, 2010, http://www.packagedfacts.com/Pet-Outlook-2553713/.
This has proven to be true: Susan Jones, Valuing Animals: Veterinarians and Their Patients in Modern America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 119; National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey.
The most lucrative human drugs in 2012: David Healy, Pharmageddon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 10–11.
The scale of investment in the development: Adriana Petryna, Andrew Lakoff, and Arthur Kleinman, eds., Global Pharmaceuticals: Ethics, Markets, Practices (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006) 9; See also Shorter, Before Prozac, 11–33.
Two key historical decisions: Healy, The Creation of Psychopharmacology, 35.
A second FDA decision in 1997: Shorter, Before Prozac, 194–96.
“One of the things that people called me was the Timothy Leary”: “Pet Pharm,” CBC Documentaries, September 10, 2010, http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/doczone/2010/petpharmacy/index.html.
Like Leary, Dodman acted as a sort of pied piper: See, for example, Nicholas H. Dodman and Louis Shuster, eds., Psychopharmacology of Animal Behaviour Disorders (Malden, MA: Blackwell Science, 1998); Dodman et al., “Equine Self-Mutilation Syndrome (57 Cases)”; N. H. Dodman et al., “Investigation into the Use of Narcotic Antagonists in the Treatment of a Stereotypic Behavior Pattern (Crib-Biting) in the Horse,” American Journal of Veterinary Research 48, no. 2 (1987): 311–19; N. H. Dodman et al., “Use of Narcotic Antagonists to Modify Stereotypic Self-Licking, Self-Chewing, and Scratching Behavior in Dogs,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 193, no. 7 (1988): 815–19; N. H. Dodman et al., “Use of Fluoxetine to Treat Dominance Aggression in Dogs,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 209, no. 9 (1996): 1585–87; “Dodman to Hold Behavior Workshops in Northern Calif.,” Veterinary Practice News, April 19, 2011, http://www.veterinarypracticenews.com/vet-breaking-news/2011/04/19/dodman-to-hold-behavior-workshops-in-northern-calif.aspx; Nicholas H. Dodman, “The Well Adjusted Cat—One Day Workshop: Secrets to Understanding Feline Behavior,” Pet Docs, http://www.thepetdocs.com/events.html.
He has published research: See, for example, Dodman et al., “Use of Narcotic Antagonists to Modify Stereotypic Self-Licking, Self-Chewing, and Scratching Behavior in Dogs”; Dodman et al., “Investigation into the Use of Narcotic Antagonists in the Treatment of a Stereotypic Behavior Pattern (Crib-Biting) in the Horse”; B. L. Hart et al., “Effectiveness of Buspirone on Urine Spraying and Inappropriate Urination in Cats,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 203, no. 2 (1993): 254–58; A. A. Moon-Fanelli and N. H. Dodman, “Description and Development of Compulsive Tail Chasing in Terriers and Response to Clomipramine Treatment,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212, no. 8 (1998): 1252–57; Raphael Wald, Nicholas Dodman, and Louis Shuster, “The Combined Effects of Memantine and Fluoxetine on an Animal Model of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder,” Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 17, no. 3 (2009): 191–97; L. S. Sawyer, A. A. Moon-Fanelli, and N. H. Dodman, “Psychogenic Alopecia in Cats: 11 Cases (1993–1996),” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 214, no. 1 (1999): 71–74.
In his book The Well-Adjusted Dog: Nicholas H. Dodman, The Well-Adjusted Dog: Dr. Dodman’s Seven Steps to Lifelong Health and Happiness for Your Best Friend (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008), 212.
Dodman prescribes a wide variety of psychopharmaceuticals: Buspar, another drug he uses, was first tested in the late 1980s in dogs with storm phobias. Dogs given the drug acted calmer when the thunder was far away but still got extremely anxious when it passed overhead. He has also used it for fear aggression and social anxiety and says it’s really effective for treating dogs who like to pee in the house and for canine car sickness. Dodman, The Well-Adjusted Dog, 233–34.
Dodman shared his ideas for the first time: James Vlahos, “Pill-Popping Pets,” New York Times Magazine, July 13, 2008.
Dodman remembers hearing the former dean of the Tufts vet school: Dodman, Well-Adjusted Dog, 232.
Dodman argues that the great salvation: “Pet Pharm.”
According to the ASPCA, 3.7 million of them: “Animal Shelter Euthanasia,” American Humane Asssociation, www.americanhumane.org/animals/stop-animal-abuse/fact-sheets/animal-shelter-euthanasia.htm (accessed December 20, 2013).
psychopharm for pets can be a useful way station: See, for example, D. A. Babcock et al., “Effects of Imipramine, Chlorimipramine, and Fluoxetine on Cataplexy in Dogs,” Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 5, no. 6 (1976): 599; Sharon L. Crowell-Davis and Thomas Murray, Veterinary Psychopharmacology (Wiley-Blackwell, 2005); Hart et al., “Effectiveness of Buspirone on Urine Spraying and Inappropriate Urination in Cats,” 254–58; Charmaine Hugo et al., “Fluoxetine Decreases Stereotypic Behavior in Primates,” Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 27, no. 4 (2003): 639–43; Mami Irimajiri et al., “Randomized, Controlled Clinical Trial of the Efficacy of Fluoxetine for Treatment of Compulsive Disorders in Dogs,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 235, no. 6 (2009): 705–9; Rapoport et al., “Drug Treatment of Canine Acral Lick,” 517; Wald et al., “The Combined Effects of Memantine and Fluoxetine on an Animal Model of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder.”
The humans who own the more than 78 million: “Pet Industry Market Size and Ownership Statistics,” American Pet Products Manufacturers Association, 2011–12, National Survey, http://www.americanpetproducts.org/press_industrytrends.asp.
Simultaneously the company released results: “Eli Lilly and Company Introduces ReconcileTM for Separation Anxiety in Dogs,” Medical News Today, April 26, 2007, http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/68990.php (accessed May 1, 2009).
A 2008 study estimated that 14 percent of American dogs: Vlahos, “Pill-Popping Pets.”
Lilly’s Reconcile website: www.reconcile.com (accessed January 15, 2012).
An older version of the site: www.reconcile.com/downloads (accessed June 15, 2009).
published in Veterinary Therapeutics in 2007: Barbara Sherman Simpson et al., “Effects of Reconcile (Fluoxetine) Chewable Tablets Plus Behavior Management for Canine Separation Anxiety,” Veterinary Therapeutics: Research in Applied Veterinary Medicine 8, no. 1 (2007): 18–31. Another study on the drug, also sponsored by Lilly but focused on the effect of fluoxetine on compulsive behaviors in dogs, was equivocal. Irimajiri et al., “Randomized, Controlled Clinical Trial of the Efficacy of Fluoxetine for Treatment of Compulsive Disorders in Dogs,” 705–9.
Beagles were sent traveling: Diane Frank, Audrey Gauthier, and Renée Bergeron, “Placebo-Controlled Double-Blind Clomipramine Trial for the Treatment of Anxiety or Fear in Beagles during Ground Transport,” Canadian Veterinary Journal 47, no. 11 (2006): 1102–8.
The drug has been more successful: E. Yalcin, “Comparison of Clomipramine and Fluoxetine Treatment of Dogs with Tail Chasing,” Tierärztliche Praxis: Ausgabe K, Kleintiere/Heimtiere 38, no. 5 (2010): 295–99; Moon-Fanelli and Dodman, “Description and Development of Compulsive Tail Chasing in Terriers and Response to Clomipramine Treatment,” 1252–57; Seibert et al., “Placebo-Controlled Clomipramine Trial for the Treatment of Feather Picking Disorder in Cockatoos”; Dodman and Shuster, “Animal Models of Obsessive-Compulsive Behavior: A Neurobiological and Ethological Perspective.”
Medicating a small dog costs roughly: 1–800PetMeds, http://www.1800petmeds.com/Clomicalm-prod10439.html (accessed February 4, 2012).
He leads training classes and workshops: “Dr. Ian Dunbar,” Sirius Dog Training, http://www.siriuspup.com/about_founder.html (accessed June 3, 2013); “Ian Dunbar Events and Training Courses,” https://www.jamesandkenneth.com/store/show_by_tags/Events (accessed June 3, 2013).
“Drugs are simply unnecessary”: “Pet Pharm”; Vlahos, “Pill-Popping Pets”; “About Founder,” Sirius Dog Training, http://www.siriuspup.com/about_founder.html (accessed June 3, 2013); “Ian Dunbar Events and Training Courses,” https://www.jamesandkenneth.com/store/show_by_tags/Events (accessed June 3, 2013).
Dunbar argues that pet owners: “Pet Pharm.”
Debating whether dosing other animals: Nigel Rothfels, Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 81.
demonstrated the presence of a range: Chris D. Metcalfe et al., “Antidepressants and Their Metabolites in Municipal Wastewater, and Downstream Exposure in an Urban Watershed,” Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 29, no. 1 (2010): 79–89.
In one experiment, bass exposed to Prozac: Ibid.; Janet Raloff, “Environment: Antidepressants Make for Sad Fish. Drugs May Affect Feeding, Swimming and Mate Attracting,” Science News 174, no. 13 (2008): 15.
Another study looked at the effects of Prozac: Nina Bai, “Prozac Ocean: Fish Absorb Our Drugs, and Suffer for It,” Discover Magazine Blog, December 2, 2008, http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/discoblog/2008/12/02/prozac-ocean-fish-absorb-our-drugs-and-suffer-for-it/ (accessed March 2, 2009); Yasmin Guler and Alex T. Ford, “Anti-Depressants Make Amphipods See the Light,” Aquatic Toxicology 99, no. 3 (2010): 397–404; Metcalfe et al., “Antidepressants and Their Metabolites in Municipal Wastewater, and Downstream Exposure in an Urban Watershed.”
found an array of psychopharmaceuticals in the feathers: D. C. Love et al., “Feather Meal: A Previously Unrecognized Route for Reentry into the Food Supply of Multiple Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs),” Environmental Science and Technology 46, no. 7 (2012): 3795–802; Sarah Parsons, “This Is Your Chicken on Drugs: Count the Antibiotics in Your Nuggets,” Good, April 10, 2012; “Researchers Find Evidence of Banned Antibiotics in Poultry Products,” Center for a Livable Future, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, April 2012.
According to the journalist Nicolas Kristof: Nicholas D. Kristof, “Arsenic in Our Chicken?,” New York Times, April 4, 2012; Love et al., “Feather Meal: A Previously Unrecognized Route for Reentry into the Food Supply of Multiple Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs); Sarah Parsons, “This Is Your Chicken on Drugs: Count the Antibiotics in Your Nuggets,” Good, April 10, 2012; “Researchers Find Evidence of Banned Antibiotics in Poultry Products,” Center for a Livable Future, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, April 2012.
Harriman tells the story of an eight-year-old rabbit: Marinell Harriman, House Rabbit Handbook: How to Live with an Urban Rabbit, 3rd ed. (Alameda, CA: Drollery Press, 1995), 92.
One member of the Rat Fan Club wrote: Angela King, “The Case against Single Rats,” The Rat Report, http://ratfanclub.org/single.html (accessed April 12, 2013); Angela Horn, “Why Rats Need Company,” National Fancy Rat Society, http://www.nfrs.org/company.html (accessed April 12, 2013). Also see Kathy Lovings, “Caring for Your Fancy Rat,” http://www.ratdippityrattery.com/CaringForYourFancyRat.htm (accessed April 1, 2013).
“Rats definitely notice”: Monika Lange, My Rat and Me (Barron’s Educational Series, 2002), 58.
The expression “getting your goat”: The writer H. L. Mencken floated this idea. See Christine Ammer, The American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1997), 242. The Oxford English Dictionary lists the first mention of the phrase: http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/79564?rskey=cKiv56&result=2&isAdvanced=false#eid.
Before Seabiscuit was a champion: Laura Hillenbrand, Seabiscuit: An American Legend (Random House Digital, 2003), 98–100.
a racehorse named Miss Edna Jackson: “Goat and Race Horse Chums: Filly at Belmont Park Won’t Eat If Her Friend Is Away,” New York Times, May 13, 1907.
a horse named Exterminator: Amy Lennard Goehner, “Animal Magnetism: Skittish Racehorses Tend to Calm Down When Given Goats as Pets,” Sports Illustrated, February 21, 1994, http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1004875/index.htm (accessed November 15, 2009).
Giving racehorses animal companions: Online forums for horse breeders, riders, racing enthusiasts, and others are rife with discussions about animal companions for horses. See, for example, “Companion Animals,” Horseinfo, http://www.horseinfo.com/info/faqs/faqcompanionQ2.html (accessed January 20, 2012); “Companion Animals for Horses,” Franklin Levinson’s Horse Help Center, http://www.wayofthehorse.org/horse-help/companion-animals-for-horses.php; “Readers Respond: Your Tips for Providing Horses with Companions,” About.com. http://horses.about.com/u/ua/basiccare/companionridertips.htm (accessed January 20, 2012); “What Animals with a Horse?,” Permies.com, http://www.permies.com/t/9560/critter-care/animals-horse; “Companion Animals for a Horse,” Horse Forum, http://www.horseforum.com/horse-training/companion-animals-horse-45342/ (accessed January 20, 2012).
John Veitch, an American Hall of Fame trainer: Goehner, “Animal Magnetism.”
Another Hall of Fame trainer, Jack Van Berg: Ibid.
A man in charge of one of the Jumbotron screens: Graham Parry, personal communication, June 28, 2011.
Potbellied pigs may indeed be useful: “Stable Goats Help Calm Skittish Thoroughbreds.”
the life of the Giant Pacific octopus: Devin Murphy, “Brains over Brawn,” Smithsonian Zoogoer, March 2011, http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/Zoogoer/2011/4/Cephalopods.cfm (accessed April 7, 2011); Ellen Byron, “Big Cats Obsess over Calvin Klein’s ‘Obsession for Men,’ ” Wall Street Journal, June 8, 2010; “Phoenix Zoo Tortoise Enrichment,” http://www.phoenixzoo.org/learn/animals/Giant_tortoise_article_22.pdf (accessed June 10, 2010).
Their website lists their library: The Shape of Enrichment, http://www.enrichment.org/miniwebfile.php?Region=Video_Library&File=collection.html&File2=collection_sb.html&NotFlag=1 (accessed June 10, 2010).
That year’s amendments to the Animal Welfare Act: “Environmental Enrichment and Exercise,” USDA, http://awic.nal.usda.gov/research-animals/environmental-enrichment-and-exercise (accessed June 10, 2010).
Recently, the Wilhelma Zoo in Stuttgart, Germany: Allan Hall and Willls Robinson, “How about ‘the Ape Escape’? Bonobos in German Zoo Have New Flat-Screen TV Installed Which Lets Them Pick Their Favourite Movie,” Daily Mail, November 26, 2013; http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2514113/Bonobos-apes-German-Zoo-flat-screen-TV-installed.html (accessed June 10, 2010); “Bonobo Apes in Hi-Tech German Zoo Go Bananas for Food, Not TV Porn,” NBC News, November 26, 2013; http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/26/21626507-bonobo-apes-in-hi-tech-german-zoo-go-bananas-for-food-not-tv-porn (accessed November 26, 2010).
James Breheny, the director of the Bronx Zoo: “Zoo Director (O.K. Be That Way),” New York Times, July 21, 2009.
fastest growing retail sector: Carol Tice, “Why Recession-Proof Industry Just Keeps Growing,” Forbes, October 30, 2012; “2013/2014 National Pet Owners Survey by American Pet Product Association, American Pet Product Association, December 2013.
Still, Donna Haraway, the philosopher of science: personal communication, Donna Haraway, February 17, 2014.
The cover of her 1995 book, Getting in TTouch: Not unlike the phrenologists of yesteryear who believed that the contours of the skull could shed light on a person’s character, Tellington has said that she can look at the different parts of a horse’s face and find clues to its personality.
Her patented TTouches have names: Tellington Touch Training, http://www.ttouch.com/whatisTTouch.shtml (accessed February 5, 2012).
She now works with all sorts of animals: Tellington-Jones isn’t the only person doing this. There are certification programs for lots of different types of animal massage. See, for example, International Association of Animal Massage and Bodywork/Association of Canine Water Therapy, http://www.iaamb.org/mission-and-goals.php (accessed February 5, 2012), or Chandra Beal, The Relaxed Rabbit: Massage for Your Pet Bunny (iUniverse, 2004), among many others.
A variety of studies on humans have demonstrated the power of massage: The role of massage in helping humans deal with anxiety has been evaluated in a few different contexts. See Susanne M. Cutshall et al., “Effect of Massage Therapy on Pain, Anxiety, and Tension in Cardiac Surgical Patients: A Pilot Study,” Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice 16, no. 2 (2010): 92–95; Tiffany Field, “Massage Therapy,” Medical Clinics of North America 86, no. 1 (2002): 163–71; Melodee Harris and Kathy C. Richards, “The Physiological and Psychological Effects of Slow-Stroke Back Massage and Hand Massage on Relaxation in Older People,” Journal of Clinical Nursing 19, no. 7–8 (2010): 917–26; Christopher A. Moyer et al., “Does Massage Therapy Reduce Cortisol? A Comprehensive Quantitative Review,” Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 15, no. 1 (2011): 3–14; Wendy Moyle, Amy Nicole Burne Johnston, and Siobhan Therese O’Dwyer, “Exploring the Effect of Foot Massage on Agitated Behaviours in Older People with Dementia: A Pilot Study,” Australasian Journal on Ageing 30, no. 3 (2011): 159–61.
Massage has also been used on dressage horses: Kevin K. Haussler, “The Role of Manual Therapies in Equine Pain Management,” Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice 26, no. 3 (2010): 579–601; Mike Scott and Lee Ann Swenson, “Evaluating the Benefits of Equine Massage Therapy: A Review of the Evidence and Current Practices,” Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 29, no. 9 (2009): 687–97; C. M. McGowan, N. C. Stubbs, and G. A. Jull, “Equine Physiotherapy: A Comparative View of the Science Underlying the Profession,” Equine Veterinary Journal 39, no. 1 (2007): 90–94.
photos of men and women in barn jackets: “Benefits of Equine Sports Massage,” Equine Sports Massage Association, http://www.equinemassageassociation.co.uk/benefits_of_equine_sports_massage.html (accessed December 24, 2012).
Frediani believes that TTouch relaxes muscle tension: Mardi Richmond, “The Tellington TTouch for Dogs,” Whole Dog Journal, August 2010; Jodi Frediani, personal communication, January 18, 2011, and May 9, 2012.
Mosha triggered a land mine: A much smaller number of mines are planted by nonstate groups. See “Burma (Myanmar),” Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor, available at http://www.the-monitor.org/.
The most recognized bonobo researcher: Books by Frans B. M. de Waal include Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996); The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections by a Primatologist (New York: Basic Books, 2001); Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), with Frans Lanting; The Age of Empathy: Nature’s Lessons for a Kinder Society (New York: Crown, 2009).
De Waal believes that we owe them: Frans de Waal, “The Bonobo in All of Us,” PBS, January 1, 2007, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature/bonobo-all-us.html; Frans B. M. de Waal, “Bonobo Sex and Society,” Scientific American 272, no. 3 (1995); de Waal and Lanting, Bonobo: The Forgot-ten Ape.
Brian “would vomit thirty, forty, fifty times a day”: Primate Week, interview with Barbara Bell and Harry Prosen, “Lake Effect with Bonnie North,” WUWM Public Radio, February 20, 2012; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_SW0re1LGOs.
On Prosen’s first visit to the zoo: Steve Farrar, “A Party Animal with a Social Phobia,” Times for Higher Education, July 28, 2000, http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=152816§ioncode=26 (accessed June 1, 2010); personal communication, Dr. Harry Prosen, October 1, 2010.
“I have had some difficult interview situations”: Harry Prosen and Barbara Bell, “A Psychiatrist Consulting at the Zoo (the Therapy of Brian Bonobo),” in The Apes: Challenges for the 21st Century. Conference Proceedings, Brookfield Zoo, 2001, 161–64.
Brian’s fisting habit developed: Prosen and Bell, “A Psychiatrist Consulting at the Zoo.”
a reputation for healing distressed bonobos: Jo Sandin, Bonobos: Encounters in Empathy (Milwaukee: Zoological Society of Milwaukee, 2007), 25–27.
Once, when a younger male stole a mailing tube: Ibid., 49–50.
He was also very attached to his OCD rituals: Primate Week, interview with Barbara Bell and Harry Prosen; http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_SW0re1LGOs
“But the beauty of the drug therapy”: Ibid.
He was impressed by their ability: Kelly Servick, “Psychiatry Tries to Aid Traumatized Chimps in Captivity,” Scientific American, April 2, 2013, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=psychiatry-comes-to-the-aid-of-captive-chimps-with-abnormal-behavior.
“That’s why we populated the globe, not chimps”: Ibid.; personal communication, Dr. Harry Prosen, October 1, 2010.
Bell and Prosen share a slightly different belief about bonobos: Prosen and Bell, “A Psychiatrist Consulting at the Zoo.”
By 2001, four years after Brian arrived: Sandin, Bonobos, 59–68.
“They still get along fine,” says Bell: Jo Sandin, “Bonobos: Passage of Power,” Alive, Milwaukee County Zoological Society (Winter 2006), http://www.zoosociety.org/pdf/conserveprojects/WinterAlive06_BonobosPassageofPower.pdf (accessed June 10, 2010).
After Lody died: Paula Brookmire, “Lody the Bonobo: A Big Heart,” Alive Magazine, Milwaukee Zoological Society, April 2012, 25.
Over the last fifteen years both Prosen and Bell: Ibid.; personal communication, Dr. Harry Prosen, October 1, 2010.
He believes that Bell’s: “Interview with Harry Prosen, M.D., Psychiatric Consultant Bonobo Species Survival Plan,” Milwaukee Renaissance, March 17, 2008; http://www.milwaukeerenaissance.com/Bonobos/HomePage#toc14 (accessed October 19, 2010); personal communication, Dr. Harry Prosen, October 1, 2010.
that Lody and Kitty: Sandin, Bonobos, 53.
Frohoff, the same researcher who: T. G. Frohoff, “Conducing Research on Human-Dolphin Interactions: Captive Dolphins, Free-Ranging Dolphins, Solitary Dolphins, and Dolphin Groups,” in Wild Dolphin Swim Program Workshop, ed. K. M. Dudzinski, T. G. Frohoff, and T. R. Spradlin (Maui, 1999); T. G. Frohoff and J. Packard, “Human Interactions with Free-Ranging and Captive Bottlenose Dolphins,” Anthrozoos 8 (1995): 44–53.
California gray whales summer in the Arctic: “Gray Whale,” American Cetacean Society, http://acsonline.org/fact-sheets/gray-whale/; “Gray Whale,” Alaska Department of Fish and Game, http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/static/education/wns/gray_whale.pdf (accessed March 1, 2011); “Gray Whale,” NOAA Fisheries, http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/graywhale.htm; “California Gray Whale,” Ocean Institute, http://www.ocean-institute.org/visitor/gray_whale.html.
this seasonal congregation of whales was a target: “California Gray Whale”; “Gray Whale,” American Cetacean Society.
Whaling captains like Charles Melville Scammon: Charles Melville Scammon, Marine Mammals of the Northwestern Coast of North America: Together with an Account of the American Whale-Fishery (Berkeley: Heyday, 2007); Charles Siebert, “Watching Whales Watching Us,” New York Times Magazine, July 8, 2009.
The grays fought back so intensely: Dick Russell, Eye of the Whale: Epic Passage from Baja to Siberia (Island Press, 2004), 20; Joan Druett and Ron Druett, Petticoat Whalers: Whaling Wives at Sea, 1820–1920 (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2001), 139.
By the early 1900s there were fewer than two thousand: Marine Mammal Commission, Annual Report for 2002, http://www.mmc.gov/species/pdf/ar2002graywhale.pdf (accessed April 1, 2009).
Protections were put in place in the 1930s and 1940s: Ibid.
Pachico’s son Ranulfo: Siebert, “Watching Whales Watching Us.”
roughly 10 to 15 percent of the whales in the lagoon: Personal communication, Jonas Leonardo Meza Otero, March 17–18, 2010; personal communication with Ranulfo Mayoral, March 9, 2010; personal communication with Marcos Sedano, March 18, 2010.
What’s particularly startling about all of this: “Gray Whale,” NOAA Fisheries.
As research on whale sociality, communication, and cognition: Felicity Muth, “Animal Culture: Insights from Whales,” Scientific American, April 27, 2013, http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/not-bad-science/2013/04/27/animal-culture-insights-from-whales/; Jenny Allen et al., “Network-Based Diffusion Analysis Reveals Cultural Transmission of Lobtail Feeding in Humpback Whales,” Science 340, no. 6131 (2013): 485–88; John K. B. Ford, “Vocal Traditions among Resident Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) in Coastal Waters of British Columbia,” Canadian Journal of Zoology 69, no. 6 (1991): 1454–83; Luke Rendell et al., “Can Genetic Differences Explain Vocal Dialect Variation in Sperm Whales, Physeter Macrocephalus?,” Behavior Genetics 42, no. 2 (2011): 332–43.
Mass killings at the hands of humans: The near extinction of the population affected not only their behavior (how far they had to travel to find mates, for example, and narrowing their choices) but also their biology (constraining the genetic diversity of the population). How it affected them culturally is a mystery.
Adolf Hitler loved his German Shepherd: One of his last acts before killing himself was poisoning her. Gertraud Junge, Until the Final Hour (Arcade, 2003), 38, 181; James Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-Animal Relationships (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 26.
And Kim Jong-Il reportedly spent: “Nothing’s Too Good for Kim Jong-il’s Pet Dogs,” Chosunilbo, April 14, 2011; Peter Foster, “Kim Jong-il Reveals Fondness for Dolphins and Fancy Dogs,” Telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/8869192/kim-jong-il-reveals-fondness-for-dolphins-and-fancy-dogs.html, November 4, 2011; Nadia Gilani, “Kim Jong-Il Spends £120,000 on Food for His Dogs, as Six Million North Koreans Starve,” Daily Mail Online, September 30, 2011, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2043868/Kim-Jong-II-spends-120–000-food-dogs-million-North-Koreans-starve.html (accessed January 10, 2012).
