Index

Acheson, Dean, 118–119

act of state doctrine, 289–290

advisors, responsibility of, 292–293, 295–296

Afghanistan, xix

aggression, 31–32, 131, 136

as act of state, 291–292

crime of, 51–53, 292

definition of, 51–52

domestic analogy and, 58–59, 89

neutrality and, 237–238, 246–247

nonviolent defense against, 329–334

responsibility for, 56–58

theory of, 59–61, 66, 71–72

threats and, 57–58, 62, 65, 78

Agincourt, battle of, 16–19

Alcibiades, 9–10

Alexander the Great, 164

Algiers, battle of, 204–205

Alsace-Lorraine, 55–56

ambush, 42, 144, 188

in guerrilla war, 176–177, 182–183, 187

Anjou, Duke of, 78–79

annexation, 56, 67, 70, 121

Anscombe, G. E. M., 146, 278

appeasement, 67–73, 272–273

Aquinas, St. Thomas, xxvi, 336

aristocratic soldiers, 25–28, 225–227

Aristotle, 198

Arnim, Hans-Jürgen von, 37–38

Aron, Raymond, 276–277

assassination, 183–186, 198–203

asymmetric warfare, xiii–xiv

noncombatant casualties in, xviii–xxii

proportionality rule in, xv

risk taking in, xix–xxii

Athens, 4–13

Atlanta, burning of, 32–33

atomic bomb

See Hiroshima, nuclear deterrence

Austin, Warren, 118

Austrian Empire, 92–94

 

Bacon, Francis, 6, 76–79

balance of power, 75–80, 83, 88, 92

balance of terror, 269–270, 273–274

Baldwin, Stanley, 251

Bangladesh. See India’s intervention in East Pakistan

barbarians, 57, 89, 270

Beatty, Admiral David, 244–245

Beaufre, André, 276, 280

Beirut raid, 218–219

Belgium

German “rape of,” 234, 239–242

neutrality of, 234

belligerent rights, 91, 96, 186

benevolent quarantine, 46–47, 177, 185–186, 340

Bennett, John, 269

Bernard, Montague, 96, 98

Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von, 239–241

Bishop, Joseph W., Jr., 288

Bismarck, Otto von, 63–65, 289

Bloch, Marc, 145

blockades, 170, 191

of Germany by Great Britain, 172–174, 207

moral responsibility in, 173–174

in Spanish American War, 103

Boer War, 25, 183

Bomber Command (R.A.F.), 254–258, 323–325

bombing

terror, 197–198, 251, 254–262

See also specific locations

boundaries, 57–58, 89–90, 99–100, 118

Bradley, General Omar, 318–319, 322

Brecht, Bertolt, 311

Britain. See Great Britain

Brodie, Bernard, 280

Brooke, Rupert, 25

Burke, Edmund, 76, 79–80, 268

Byrnes, James, 264, 266

 

Calder, Angus, 324

Calley, Lieutenant William, 310–311, 313, 322

Campbell-Bannerman, Henry, 25

Camus, Albert, 198–199

Castro, Raul, 181

Chadwick, Admiral F. E., 103

Chapman, Guy, 306–307

Cherwell, Lord (F. A. Lindemann), 254–257

China, 181, 225–228

“Chindits,” 182

chivalry, 34–36

Chomsky, Noam, 302

Churchill, Winston, 115

atomic bomb and, 265–266

on bombing German cities, 255, 258, 260, 324–325

on German victory, 252–253

Norway’s neutrality and, 243–249

reprisal warning, 215

on supreme emergency, 254–256, 258, 260

unconditional surrender and, 112

citizens, 137, 299

See also democratic citizens; noncombatants

civil war, 90, 95, 98–100

nonintervention in, 94, 96–97

self-help in, 96, 101

Spanish, 96–97

of U.S., 32–33, 60, 315

civilians, 168, 334

See also noncombatant immunity; rights

Clausewitz, Karl von, xvi, 22–25, 53, 110

Cleon, 9, 11

COBRA, 318–319

code of honor, 198–199

coercion, 53

of conscripts, 28–29, 145, 306, 342

responsibility and, 159, 161–165

in sieges, 168–169, 174

of war, 339–340, 342

collateral damage, 279–280

See also double effect, noncombatant casualties; noncombatant immunity

collective freedom, 87–88, 237–238, 246–247

collective punishment, 296–297

collective rights, 54, 87, 135

collective security, 71, 237

collectivism, of war, 340–344

colonization, 57, 94, 107, 123–124

combatant/noncombatant distinction, 145–146, 186–193, 259, 342–343

See also innocence; noncombatant immunity; rights

command responsibility, 308–309, 316–323

“Commando Order,” 38

commandos, 158, 218–219

community

political, 53–58

of soldiers, 315–316

Compton, Arthur, 264

conquest, 5–6, 60, 66, 88, 113

conscientious objection, 299–300, 316, 345

conscripts, 149, 168, 314

coercion of, 28–29, 145, 306, 342

consent

in sieges, 163–164, 169

in social contract, 54–55

in surrender, 47

in war generally, 25–29

contraband, 172

contract, 54

counter-city warfare, 278, 280–282

counter-force warfare, 279–280

counter-intervention

in Hungarian Revolution, 93–95

self-help and, 99

in Vietnam War, 100

crime, 326

of aggression, 51–53, 292

See also war crimes

Cromwell, Oliver, 345

crusade, 110–111, 114

Cuba

insurrection against Spain, 102–104

revolution in, 181

Czechoslovakia

“Munich principle” and, 68–69

Russian invasion of, 291–292, 333

in World War II, 52, 68–69, 291–292

 

David and Goliath, 43

Declaration of St. Petersburg, 47

Deladier, Edouard, 243

democracy, 28, 84, 98, 114, 118–119

chivalry and, 34–36

moral responsibility and, 296–303

unconditional surrender and, 111

democratic citizens

conscientious objection among, 299–300

moral responsibility of, 296–303

soldiers compared to, 299

deterrence, 116, 121, 207–215, 270–272

See also nuclear deterrence

Deuteronomy, 134–135, 170

Diodotus, 9

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 6–7

diplomacy, 113, 218

before Six Day War, 84

Doenitz, Admiral Karl, 148–151

domestic analogy, 61–63, 66–67

aggression and, 58–59, 89

appeasement and, 72–73

armed robbery, 127–128

of deterrence, 269-272

of due care, 156–157

family feuds, 132–133

law enforcement and, 106, 118–119

on neutrality, 235–236

self-defense and, 127–128

double effect, doctrine of, xix, 322

intention in, 154, 156–157

limited nuclear war and, 278–279

noncombatant immunity and, 155–158, 170–175

proportionality rule in, 154, 156–157

revision of, 155

risk in, 152–153, 155–158

sieges and, 162–163

Dresden, firebombing of, 260

Dryden, John, 18

due care, 156–157, 217, 318–319

duels, 24–25

duress, 46–47, 204, 312–315, 340

 

East Pakistan. See India’s intervention in East Pakistan

Eban, Abba, 52

Ecclesiastes, xiii

Egypt, Six Day War and, 81–84

Einstein, Albert, 262

Eisenhower, General Dwight D., 37–38, 114, 318

ends of war, 110, 119–120, 123, 153, 156, 239

enemies, 155, 310

identification of, 123–124, 138–143

See also insurgents

equality

See soldiers, moral equality of

escalation, 23–25, 99, 256

in limited nuclear war, 276–277

espionage, 184

Ethiopia War (1936), 237, 291–292

Euripides, 7

extremity

utilitarianism of, 229–231, 326–327

 

Falk, Richard, 220

Falkenhurst, General Nikolaus von, 248

Fall, Bernard, 194

Fanon, Franz, 204

Feliciano, Florentino P., 211

feuds, 116, 132–133

Finland, 244

independence of, 71–72

“Munich principle” and, 69–72

Russo-Finnish War, 69–72, 243

Flanders, Ralph, 117–118

FLN (Algeria), 204–205

forced resettlement, 102, 104

in Vietnam War, 191–192

France, 64–66, 243

Alsace-Lorraine and, 55–56

bombing of St. Lô, 318–319

German occupation of, 176–177, 208–209, 211–213, 215

reprisals in, 208–209, 211–213, 215

Spanish Civil War and, 96–97

War of Spanish Succession and, 78–79

World War II Allied bombing in, 157–158, 259

Franco-Prussian War, 64–66, 167, 270

Frank, Anne, 302

Frankland, Noble, 323–324

freedom, 35–36, 76–77, 241

collective, 87–88, 237–238, 246–247

moral responsibility and, 93–94, 206, 238, 245

rules of war and, 311

See also coercion; consent; duress; tyranny

French Forces of the Interior, 208–209, 212–213, 215

Friedlander, Saul, 295

Fromm, Erich, 270

Fuller, Major General J. F. C., 14

 

Gandhi, Mohandas, 331–332

Gaza war, xvii–xix

Geneva Agreement (1954), 98

Geneva Conventions (1929 and 1949), 209, 213–214

Genghis Khan, 16

Germany, 37–39, 52, 159

Alsace-Lorraine and, 55–56

Belgium neutrality and, 234, 239–242

France occupation by, 176–177, 208–209, 211–213, 215

Franco-Prussian War and, 64–65, 270

Great Britain blockade of, 172–174, 207

Great Britain bombing of cities in, xv, 254–261, 324–325

Norway’s neutrality and, 242–249

Spanish Civil War and, 96–97

unconditional surrender for, 112

Gerstein, Kurt, 295

Graves, Robert, 140

Gray, J. Glenn, 297–298, 300–301, 303, 314

Great Britain, 211–212

German city bombing by, xv, 254–261, 324–325

Germany blockade by, 172–174, 207

Hungarian Revolution and, 92–95

London Naval Protocol of, 69, 113, 115–117, 148

Norway’s neutrality and, 242–249

R.A.F. of, 254–258, 323–325

Russo-Finnish War and, 70–71

Spanish Civil War and, 96–97

War of Spanish Succession and, 78–79

Greece, 6–12, 170–171, 183

Green, T. H., 28

Grotius, Hugo, xxvi, 168, 246

guerrilla war, 216

ambush in, 176–177, 182–183, 187

anti-guerrilla warfare, 186–187, 194–195

fighters’ rights in, 182–186

ideology in, 187, 194–195

international law and, 176–177, 191

noncombatant immunity in, 186–195

nonviolent defense and, 333–334

as “people’s war,” 184–186, 195

prisoners of war in, 179, 181–182, 185–186, 227

sabotage in, 184–186, 193

winning in, 195–196

Guevara, Che, 195

guilt, 67

reparations and, 296–297

shame and, 297–298

 

Haakon, VII (king of Norway), 242

Haldeman, Joe, 275

Harris, Air Marshal Arthur, 257, 260, 323–325

Henry V, of England, 16–19, 39, 52

Herodotus, 6

Hiroshima, 19, 160, 204, 254, 262–267

historical relativism, 16–19

Hitler, Adolf, 68, 113, 115

advisors of, 292–293, 295

atomic bomb and, 262

Commando Order from, 38

Norway and, 242–243

Hobbes, Thomas, 4, 10–13, 26, 57, 341

Hochhuth, Rolf, 324

Holinshed, Raphael, 17

honor, 198–199, 225–226

Hood, General John, 32

Hoopes, Townsend, 290

hostages, 174, 213–214, 314

Hsiang, Duke of Sung, 225–227

humanitarian intervention, 90, 100

in Cuba’s insurrection against Spain, 102–104

India in East Pakistan, 104–107

judgment in, 106–107

legalist paradigm revision for, 107–108

motives in, 101, 106–107

Hume, David, 18, 76, 122

Hungarian Revolution (1848–1849)

Great Britain and, 92–95

John Stuart Mill on, 92–93

prudence related to, 94–95

Russia and, 92–93

Hussein, King of Jordan, 83

Hyde, Charles Chaney, 166

hypocrisy, xxvii, 19–20, 296

 

imperialism, 60, 89, 91, 94–95, 103–104

India’s intervention in East Pakistan, 104–107

individual rights, 53–56, 63–64, 72, 113

innocence

defined, 30, 146

terrorism and, 248, 251, 253–261, 263

insurgents, 99–100

in asymmetrical warfare, xiv

neutrality related to, 96

noncombatant casualties and, xvii–xviii

politics of, xvi

proportionality rule and, xv–xvi

self-help for, 96, 98

intelligence, xxi–xxii

intention, 117–119

in double effect, 153–157

in nuclear deterrence, 271, 280–281

preventive war and, 79–81

international law, 318

guerrilla war and, 176–177, 191

killing and, 38–39

neutrality and, 233–235, 240

preventive war and, 75

reprisal and, 213–214

war convention and, 44

International on the Franco-Prussian War, 65–66

international society

aggression and, 58–59, 61–63

collective character of, 116

independent states as, 61

punishment from, 62–63

rights of members, 53–58

stability in, 116–117

intervention, 86

counter-intervention, 93–95, 99–100

humanitarian, 90, 100–108

See also nonintervention; self-determination

Iraq, 83

Irish Republican Army, 199, 201

Ironside, General Edmund, 243–245

Irving, David, 149–150

Israel

Beirut raid by, 218–219

Entebbe airport raid by, 101

Gaza war and, xvii–xix

Khibye raid by, 217–218

Palestinian raids on, 216–218

Six Day War of, 81–85, 304, 311

Italian-Ethiopian War, 237, 291–292

Italy, 237, 291–292

Renaissance, 26–27

women’s rape in, 133–134

 

Jaeger, Werner, 7

Japan

in Russo-Japanese War, 167

Tokyo firebombing, 254, 265–266, 268

unconditional surrender and, 265–267

in World War II, 19, 160, 204, 254, 262–267

Jarrell, Randall, 109

Jerusalem, siege of, 160–162, 165

Jews

in Jerusalem siege, 160–162, 165

Nazism and, 293–294, 332

See also Israel

Jones, James, 308

Jordan, 83

Josephus, 160–161, 165

justice, 114

legalist paradigm of, 59–63

Marx on, 65–66

meaning of, 10–11

prudence and, 94–95

realists’ critique of, 8–12

responsibility and, 287–303

in settlements, 120–121, 123

tensions in the theory of, 123–124, 228

vigilante, 202–203

of war and in war (jus ad bellum and jus in bello) distinguished, 21–22, 38–39, 228, 338

See also aggression; rights; war convention

 

Katangan secession, 93

Kecskemeti, Paul, 111–112, 114–116

Kelsen, Hans, 221

Kennan, George, 113, 274

Kennedy, John, 100

Khibye raid, 217–218

killing, 17–19, 306, 308–309

domestic analogy on, 127–128

international law and, 38–39

murder compared to, 41–42, 51–52, 128, 142–144, 152–153, 213, 307, 313–314, 323

standards for, 145–146

See also massacres; noncombatant immunity

Kissinger, Henry, 275

Kitchener, General H. H., 183

Korean War, 99–100

bombardment in, 154–156

law enforcement in, 118–119

negotiations in, 123

proportionality rule in, 119–120

punishment in, 121–122

rights in, 120–121

U.S. ends in, 117–121

Kossuth, Lajos, 91

 

Laconia Affair, 148–151

language

of morality, xxiii–xxvii, 20

of positive laws, xxv–xxvi

of strategy, 13–15

about war, xxiii–xxiv

last resort, xiv, xvi, 84, 109, 212–213, 218, 330

law enforcement, 59, 97

domestic analogy and, 106, 118–119

reprisals as, 211–212, 220–221

Lawrence, T. E., 187

League of Nations, 237, 245

Lebanon, xiii, xx, 218

Leeb, Field Marshal R. von, 166–167

legal positivism, xxiv–xxvi, 44, 135, 191, 199, 209, 233

UN and, 219–220

legalist paradigm, 86

revision of, 84–85, 90, 107–108, 121–122

stated, 61–63

legitimacy, 8–9, 22, 35, 81–82

in acts of war, 121–122, 132, 153–154, 172, 174, 176

of Vietnam government, 97–98

Lenin, V. I., 60, 241–242

Leningrad, siege of, 160, 165–168, 170

Levinson, Sanford, 292

Lex talionis, 210

Liddell Hart, B. H., 118, 172, 244, 249, 332–333

Lieber, Francis, 143, 183, 305

limited nuclear war

collateral damage in, 279–280

counter-force warfare and, 279–280

double effect and, 278–279

escalation in, 276–277

flexible response and, 277, 282

massive retaliation in, 274–276

naval warfare compared to, 275

nuclear deterrence and, 274–283

Paul Ramsey on, 278–283

limited war, 24–25, 52, 112, 122, 132, 276

Locke, John, 209

London Naval Protocol (1936), 69, 113, 115–117, 148

Louis XIV, of France, 78–79

Lucas, Scott, 118

Lussu, Emilio, 141–143

 

MacArthur, General Douglas, 118

Macdonald, Dwight, 262

Machiavelli, Nicolo, 27, 164, 325

Maimonides, Moses, 168

Malaya, 192

Mannerheim, Marshal K. G., 70

Mao Tse-tung, “Eight Points for Attention,” 181, 226–228

Marshall, S. L. A., 139

Marx, Karl, 64–66, 121

Marxism, 36, 60, 87–89

massacres, 105–106

See also India’s intervention in East Pakistan; My Lai massacre

massive retaliation, 271, 274–276, 281

McDougal, Myres, S., 211

McKinley, William, 103

Medina, Captain Ernest, 310–311, 322

Melos, 4–11, 71

Melzer, Yehuda, 120

Mendes-France, Pierre, 157

mercenaries, 26–27, 37, 133

merchant seamen, 147–151

“Merrill’s Marauders,” 182

Metternich, K. von, 29, 91

Mill, John Stuart, 87–96

“Ministries Case,” 292–295

Mo Tzu, 226

Moltke, General H. J. von, 47–48, 131

Montesquieu, Baron de, 113

moral absolutism, 230–231

moral reality of war, defined, 15

moral relativism, 14–15

moral responsibility. See responsibility, moral

morality, 130, 133

hypocrisy and, xxvii, 19–20

language of, xxiii–xxvii, 20

politics and, 290–291

practical, xxvii, 15–16

strategy and, 13–16

Moroccan soldiers, 133–134

Moyne, Lord (W. E. Guinness), 199, 201

“Munich principle,” 68–72

murder, 46, 59, 101

killing compared to, 41–42, 51–52, 128, 142–144, 152–153, 213, 307, 313–314, 323

Murphy, Frank, 320–321

My Lai massacre, 309–313, 322–323

Mytilene, 9–11

 

Nagel, Thomas, 326

Napoleon Bonaparte, 29, 136

Napoleon III, of France, 65

Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 82–84

National Liberation Front (Vietnam), 180, 201

national minorities, 54–55

naval warfare

limited nuclear war compared to, 275

merchant seamen in, 147–151

necessity in, 148–150

noncombatant immunity in, 150–152

Norway’s neutrality and, 244–245, 248–249

risk in, 149–150

sink on sight in, 148–149

See also London Naval Protocol

Nazism

Jews and, 293–294, 332

supreme emergency of, 247–248, 258–259

as ultimate threat, 252–253

unconditional surrender and, 114–115

necessity, 83

claim of, criticized, 240–242

as defense of terrorism, 203–204, 254, 257–258

military, defined, 128–129

moral, in India’s intervention in East Pakistan, 105–106

nature of, 144–152, 238–242, 323–325

in naval warfare, 148–150

responsibility and, 305, 323–325

rules of war and, 231–232

supreme emergency and, 323–327

in Thucydides, 5–10

war convention and, 250–251, 257–258

neutrality, 5, 24, 96, 232

aggression and, 237–238, 246–247

domestic analogy on, 235–236

international law and, 233–235, 240

of Norway, 242–249

property and, 236–237

right of, 233–238

sliding scale of, 246–247

supreme emergency and, 247–248

violations of, 238–249

Ngo Dinh Diem, 98

Nicholas I, of Russia, 92–93

Nimitz, Admiral Chester, 150

noncombatant immunity, 237, 334

double effect and, 155–158, 170–175

in guerrilla war, 186–195

in naval warfare, 150–152

in nonviolent defense, 334

in nuclear deterrence, 214

reprisal and, 213–214

self-defense and, 253

terrorism and, 254–256, 258–261

in war convention, xiv–xxi, 43, 135–137, 150–152, 213–214

who qualifies for, 43, 193, 199–200, 202, 213–214

noncombatants, 42–43, 159, 189–193

nonintervention, 62

in civil war, 94, 96–97

Mill’s defense of, 87–96

nonviolent defense, 329

communal values in, 333–334

guerrilla war and, 333–334

noncombatant immunity in, 334

politics of, 330–331, 333

war convention in, 334

Norway

neutrality of, 242–249

Vemork raid and, 158–159

Nozick, Robert, 40

nuclear deterrence

immoral threats and, 268–273

intention in, 271, 280–281

limited nuclear war and, 274–283

noncombatant immunity in, 214

proportionality rule in, 276

reprisal in, 268–269, 272–273

supreme emergency and, 282–283

war convention and, 273

See also limited nuclear war

Nuremberg Trials, 38, 52, 249, 339

Doenitz in, 148–151

“Ministries Case,” 292–295

von Leeb, 166–167

 

obedience, 39, 310–315

occupation, 157–158

French resistance to German, 178–179

nonviolent resistance to, 330–334

officers, 290

command responsibility of, 308–309, 316–323

due care by, 318–319

strict liability of, 319–322

superior orders, 309–316

officials

advisors to, 295–296

heads of state, 291, 295–296

moral responsibility of, 289–296

resignation by, 293–295

sabotage by, 294–295

silence of, 294

Okinawa, battle of, 265

Oman, C. W. C., 16–17

Ophuls, Marcel, 176–177

Oppenheim, L., 63

Orwell, George, 140–141, 261

Owen, Wilfred, 25, 28, 139

 

Paardeberg, battle of, 130

Pakistan. See India’s intervention in East Pakistan

Palestinians, xvii–xix, 216–218

Palmerston, Henry John Temple, 92, 94–96

Panama canal, 102–103

Paris, siege of, 174

peace

as end of war, 122, 132, 334

as normative condition, 111

peacetime reprisals, 216–221

Pearl Harbor, 263

Peloponnesian War, 170–171

“people’s war,” 180, 184–186, 195

Peters, Colonel William, 315

Phillipines, The, 102–103, 319–323

Plato, 308

Platt Amendment, 103–104

Plevna, siege of, 167

Plutarch, 9

poison gas, 215, 275

Poland, in World War II, 52, 243, 291–292

political assassination, 198–202

political community, rights of, 53–58

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, 218

Port Arthur, 167

positive laws, xxv–xxvi, 135, 209, 219–220, 318

pre-emptive strikes, 74–75, 81–85

preventive war

balance of power and, 75–80

criteria for, 78–79

self-preservation in, 76–77

suspicion and, 78–79

prisoners of war, 305

in guerrilla war, 179, 181–182, 227

killing of, at Agincourt, 17–19

killing of, in heat of battle, 306–309

in reprisals, 208–209, 211–213, 215

rights of, 182, 213–214, 340

professional soldiers, 27–28, 45

proportionality rule, xvi, xxi–xxii, 192, 319

in doctrine of double effect, 154, 156–157

in Korean War, 119–120

in nuclear deterrence, 276

in reprisals, 211–213, 217–219

in war convention, xv, 129–133

prudence, 94–95

punishment

collective, 296–297

by international society, 62–63

just war as, 62–63

in Korean War, 121–122

reprisal and, 209–210, 220

unconditional surrender as, 115–116

 

quarter, in surrender, 14, 20, 305, 307–309

 

R.A.F. See Bomber Command

Ramsey, Paul, 269–271, 278–282, 336

randomness, of terrorism, 197–198, 200, 203

rape, 133–134

Ravenstein, General Johann von, 37

Rawls, John, 229, 340

realism, 4–13, 15, 72, 122

limited nuclear war and, 278–279, 282

moral argument in, 10–11

relativism and, 16–18

See also Melos

realists, 5–7, 20, 112–113, 117, 122

justice critique of, 8–12

on winning, 110–111

refugees, 168–170

Reitz, Deneys, 183

relativism

historical, 16–19

moral, 14–15

Renaissance Italy, 26–27

reparations, 80, 240, 296–297

reprisals, 255–256

belligerent, rationale of, 207

international law and, 213–214

as law enforcement, 211–212, 220–221

in nuclear deterrence, 268–269, 272–273

peacetime, 216–221

prisoners of war in, 208–209, 211–213, 215

proportionality rule in, 211–213, 217–219

punishment and, 209–210, 220

victims of, 208–209, 211–215

resignation, 293–295

resistance, See nonviolent defense

responsibility, legal, 159, 288

for aggression, 56–58

of officers (command responsibility), 308, 309, 316–323

of officials, 292–296

of soldiers, 305–306

See also international law

responsibility, moral, 287

in blockades, 173–174

collective, 296–298

of democratic citizens, 296–303

freedom and, 93–94, 206, 238, 245

guilt and, 297–298

resignation and, 293–295

in sieges, 164–165

of soldiers, xix–xxi, 39, 158–159, 306, 310–316

in supreme emergency, 323–327

for war crimes, 38, 52, 149–150, 249, 292–295, 339

retribution, 207–215

See also reprisals

revolution, 87–88

in Cuba, 181

Franco-Prussian War and, 64–65

See also Hungarian Revolution

Richards, Frank, 152–154, 319

rights, xxviii

aggression and, 51–53

belligerent, 91, 96, 186

of civilians, 168, 334

collective, 54, 87, 135

conquest, 113–114

of guerrilla fighters, 182–186

individual, 53–56, 63–64, 72, 113

in international society, 53–58

to life and liberty, 53–54

of merchant seamen, 147–151

of neutrality, 233–238

overriding of, 231–232, 241, 247–248, 252–253

political community, 53–58

of prisoners of war, 182, 213–214, 340

of self-defense, 82, 127–128, 340–341

of soldiers, 135–136

to territorial integrity, 56–57

of women, 133–135

See also noncombatant immunity; prisoners of war; sovereignty; state rights

risks, xx–xxii, 251, 277

in doctrine of double effect, 152–153, 157–158

in naval warfare, 149–150

of soldiers, 305–306

Roberts, General Frederick Sleigh, 130

Roman Empire, 57, 161–162, 170–171

Rommel, General Erwin, 38–39

Roosevelt, Franklin, 262

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 113

“rules of engagement”

in Afghanistan, xix

in Vietnam War, 188–195

rules of war, xxvi

extremity in, 230–232

moral absolutism in, 230–231

necessity and, 231–232

noncombatants in, 42–43

overriding of, 254–261

sieges and, 162

two sorts of, 41–44

violation of, 228–232

See also utilitarianism

Ruskin, John, 25, 27

Russia

Czechoslovakia’s invasion by, 291–292, 333

Finland and, 69–72, 243

Hungarian revolution and, 92–93

Leningrad, siege of, 160, 165–168, 170

Nicholas I of, 92–93

nuclear deterrence and, 272, 277

Russo-Finnish War, 69–72, 243

Russo-Japanese War, 167

Russo-Turkish War, 167

Rutledge, Wiley Blount, 320

 

sabotage, 47

in guerrilla war, 184–186, 193

by officials, 294–295

sack, 133–134

Sackville, Thomas, 30

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 204–205

Schell, Jonathan, 189–190

Schwarzenberg, Count, 95

secession

boundaries and, 90

Hungarian Revolution as, 91–96

natural resources and, 93

self-determination in, 93–94

Sedan, battle of, 65–66

self-defense, 137, 311

domestic analogy and, 127–128

justification of, 59–62

noncombatant immunity and, 253

peacetime reprisals as, 216

permissible acts in, 229

right of, 82, 127–128, 340–341

supreme emergency and, 253

self-determination, 101

John Stuart Mill’s defense of, 87–91

political, 29

in secession, 93–94

self-help in, 87–91

virtues in, 87

self-help, 333

in civil war, 96, 101

counter-intervention and, 99

for insurgents, 96, 98

self-determination and, 87–91

self-preservation, 76–77, 82

self-respect, 205–206, 225–226

Sergei, Grand Duke, 198–199, 201

settlements, justice in, 117–124

status quo ante and, 119–121

See also Korean War

Shakespeare, William, 18–19, 39, 52, 120, 295–296

shame, 297–298

Sharp, Gene, 329–330

Sherman, General William Tecumseh, 171

“war is hell” doctrine, 32–33, 204, 230

Sidgwick, Henry, 56, 66

utilitarianism of, 128–132

sieges

coercion in, 168–169, 174

consent in, 163–164, 169

double effect and, 162–163

of Jerusalem, 160–162, 165

of Leningrad, 160, 165–168, 170

moral responsibility in, 164–165

of Plevna, 167

refugees from, 168–170

See also blockades

Simpson, Louis, 34–35

Six Day War, 304

diplomacy before, 84

Egypt and, 81–84

Israeli pre-emption in, 81–82, 84–85

self-defense and, 82, 311

sliding scale, 228–232, 242–249

snipers, 138–140, 142

Snow, C. P., 262

social contract, 54–55

socialism, 64–65, 241–242

Marxism, 36, 60, 87–89

soldiers

aristocratic, 25–28, 225–227

citizens compared to, 137

community of, 315–316

conscripts, 28–29, 145, 149, 168, 306, 314, 342

deaths of, 109–110

decision-making by, 304

legal responsibility of, 305–306

mercenaries, 26–27, 37, 133

moral equality of, 34–40

moral responsibility of, xix–xxi, 39, 158–159, 306, 310–316

Moroccan, 133–134

naked, 138–142

obedience of, 39, 310–315

professional, 27–28, 45

rights of, 135–136

uniforms and, 176–177, 182–183

Solinas, Franco, 204

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 19

sovereignty, 219–220

definition, 89

responsibility and, 289

right of neutrality and, 233

self-determination and, 89

territorial integrity and, 56–57

Soviet Union, 272, 277

See also Russia

Spaight, J. M., 171

Spain

Civil War, 96–97

Cuba’s insurrection against, 102–104

Spanish Civil War, 96–97

Spanish Succession, War of, 78–80

Spanish-American War, 103–104

Sparta, 5–6, 9–10

Spears, Edward, 243

St. Lô, bombing of, 318–319

Stalin, Joseph, 70

Stalinism, 272

Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle), 14

Stern Gang, 199, 201

Stimson, Henry, 263–264, 266, 268

Stone, Harlan Fiske, 321

Straits of Tiran, 82–83

Strasbourg, 167

strategic devastation, 170–174

strategy

incompetence in, 13

language of, 13–15

morality and, 13–16

strict liability, 319–322

Suarez, Francisco, xxvi

submarines, 147–151, 172

Suez War, 82–83

superior orders, 309–316

Supreme Court, U.S., 320–322

supreme emergency, 252

Churchill on, 254–256, 258, 260

defined, 250–251

moral responsibility in, 323–327

of Nazism, 247–248, 258–259

necessity and, 323–327

neutrality and, 247–248

nuclear deterrence and, 282–283

utilitarianism and, 261

See also Hiroshima

surrender, 340

of individual soldiers, 177, 208–209, 211, 215, 307–308

national, 177–178

quarter in, 14, 20, 305, 307–309

in sieges, 163–164

in war convention, 46–47

See also unconditional surrender

Sweden, 71, 242–244

Swift, Jonathan, 79

Swiss, 167

 

Talmud, law of sieges, 168

Tausend, Captain Helmut, 176–177

Taylor, Telford, 305, 315

territorial integrity, 56–57

terror bombing, 197–198, 251, 254–262

terrorism, xvii

assassination compared to, 198–203

in battle of Algiers, 204–205

code of honor and, 198–199

innocence and, 248, 251, 253–261, 263

military necessity, claim of, 203–204, 254, 257–258

noncombatant immunity and, 254–256, 258–261

randomness of, 197–198, 200, 203

unconditional surrender and, 203

Thirty Years War, 171, 264

threats

aggression and, 57–58, 62, 65, 78

immoral, 268–273

in preventive war, 77–81

before Six Day War, 83–85

ultimate, 252–253

Thucydides, 4–10

Tilset, battle of, 66

Titus, emperor of Rome, 162

Tokyo, firebombing of, 254, 265–266, 268

Tolstoy, Leo, 27, 39, 46, 334

traitors, 12–13, 208

trench warfare, 28, 30, 36, 130, 173

Trevelyan, Raleigh, 141

Trotsky, Leon, 29

Truman, Harry, 19

Hiroshima decision by, 254, 263–266

Korean War and, 117–118

Tucker, Robert W., 221

Turkey, 183

Russo-Turkish War, 167

tyranny of war, 29–33, 326–327

 

UN. See United Nations

unconditional surrender

appropriateness of, 116–117

Churchill and, 112

Japan and, 266–267

Nazism and, 114–115

as punishment, 115–116

rights in, 112–113

terrorism and, 203

Wilson, Woodrow, and, 111–112

uniforms, 176–177, 182–183

United Nations (UN), xxiv–xxv, 41, 220–221

India’s intervention in East Pakistan and, 105–106

United States (U.S.)

Civil War of, 32–33, 60, 315

Cuban Insurrection and, 102–104

Korean War and, 117–121

Spanish Civil War and, 96–97

Spanish-American War, 103–104

Vietnam War and, 97–200

Yamashita and, 320–322

utilitarianism

atomic bomb and, 263, 265–266

of extremity, 229–231, 326–327

preventive war and, 77, 79

rape, utilitarian defense of, 133–134

reprisal and, 209–210

Sidgwick on, 128–133

sliding scale of, 228–232

in strict liability, 321

supreme emergency and, 261

terror bombing and, 261

in war convention, 128–133

 

Vann, Gerald, 68–69

Vattel, Emmerich de, 78–81

Vemork raid, 158–159

victory. See winning

Vietnam, 201–202

Vietnam War, xxiii–xxiv, 180, 201, 294

counter-intervention in, 100

forced resettlement in, 191–192

My Lai massacre, 309–313, 322–323

noncombatant warning in, 189–193

North Vietnam insurgents in, 99–100

responsibility for, 97–100

“rules of engagement” in, 188–195

U.S. intervention and, 97–100

vigilante justice, 202–203

Vitoria, Francisco de, 39, 62, 133, 336

 

war

civil, 32–33, 60, 90, 94–101, 315

coercion of, 339–340, 342

collectivism of, 340–344

definition of, 41

guerrilla, 176–196, 216, 227, 333–334

imperialist, 60, 91

limited nuclear, 274–283

logic of, 22–25

“people’s,” 180, 184–186, 195

preventive, 75–81

reasons for, 39, 61–63, 72, 113–114, 122

revolutionary, 64–65, 91–96, 181, 290

as state right, 63

uncertainties of, 344–346

uniqueness of, 339–346

values in, 341–342

war convention, 227–228, 250, 277

argument against, 47–48

atomic bomb and, 266–267

cynicism about, 45–46, 109–110

definition of, 44

double effect in, xix, 152–159

guerrilla war and, 180, 186–187, 191

insurgents in, xiv–xv, xviii

international law and, 44

justifications in, 130–131

limited nuclear war and, 274–275, 282

on naval warfare, 150–151

necessity and, 250–251, 257–258

noncombatant immunity in, xiv–xxi, 43, 135–137, 150–152, 213–214

in nonviolent defense, 334

nuclear deterrence and, 273

overriding of, 254–261

prohibitions in, 131–133

proportionality rule in, xv, 129–133

reprisals and, 132, 207, 211–212, 215, 221

surrender in, 46–47

tension with theory of aggression, 227–232

utilitarianism in, 128–133

See also rules of war

war crimes, 25, 287–288

Nuremberg Trials, 38, 52, 149–150, 249, 292–295, 339

“war is hell” doctrine, 263–265, 268

War of 1812, 211–212

war rebellion, 177

war treason, 177

warfare

asymmetric, xiii–xxii

counter-city, 278, 280–282

counter-force, 279–280

limited, 24–25, 52, 112, 122, 132, 276

siege, 160–170, 174

submarine, 147–151, 172

trench, 28, 30, 36, 130, 140–142, 173, 306–307

See also naval warfare

Waterloo, battle of, 14, 34–35

Webster, Daniel, 74–75

Weil, Simone, 134, 228

Weizsaecker, Ernst von, 292–295

Westlake, John, 236

Weston, John, 65

Weyler y Nicolau, General Valeriano, 102

Wilson, Edmund, 60

Wilson, Woodrow, 111–112, 238, 247

winning, xx, 31–32, 100

ethics against, 225–228

in guerrilla war, 195–196

of Korean War, 122–123

meaning of, 110

realists on, 110–111

sacrifices for, 109–110

See also settlements, justice in

women, 133–135

as noncombatants, 43

 

Xerxes, 6

 

Yamashita, General Tomoyuki, 317, 319–323

Yugoslav partisans, 182

 

Zagonara, battle of, 26