INTRODUCTION. ITALY’S SEVERAL AGES OF GREATNESS
1 Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines, 5th ed., I, p. 2.
2 Cf. Armando SAPORI, Studi di storia economica (sec. XIII-XIV-XV), 3rd ed., vol. II, p. 933, note 2.
3 Franco SIMONE, Il Rinascimento francese. Studi e ricerche, 1965, p. 7; Louis COURAJOD, Leçons professées à l’École du Louvre; II, Origines de la Renaissance, Paris, 1901, pp. 25–28. Louis HAUTECŒUR, Histoire de l’architecture classique en France; I, La Renaissance, Paris, 1943, pp. 77 ff.
4 Emilio LAVAGNINO, Gli artisti italiani in Germania, in L’Opera del genio italiano all’estero, III, Rome, 1943, pp. 13 ff.
5 Giuliano PROCACCI, Studi sulla fortuna del Machiavelli, Rome, 1965.
6 Quoted by José A. MARAVALL, ‘Fragmento sobre Maquiavelo y el estado moderno,’ in Boletin informativo de Ciencia Politica, 2, 1969, p. 5.
7 Giovanni DELLA CASA, Oratione a Carlo Quinto imperatore intorno alla restitutione della città di Piacenza, Florence, 1561, fo. 60 v. Cf. F. MEINECKE, Die Idee der Staatsräson in der neueren Geschichte, Munich, 1924.
8 Jean-Baptiste L’HERMITE DE SOLIERS, known as Tristan L’HERMITE, La Toscane françoise, Paris, 1661.
9 Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, Italian Collection, 1714, for François I; and for Henri III, Armand BASCHET, Les Comédiens italiens à la Cour de France sous Charles IX, Henri III, Henri IV et Louis XIII, Paris, 1882, pp. 66 and 67, note 1.
10 Gustave ATTINGER, L’Esprit de la commedia dell’arte dans le théâtre français, 1969, p. 184.
11 Henri BAUDIN, ‘L’italianisme dans les lettres de Madame de Sévigné,’ in L’Italianisme en France au XVIIe siècle, suppl. to no. 35 of Studi francesi, May/August 1968, p. 113.
12 ‘The foreign merchants and bankers who have long acquaintance with the practices of exchange have amassed . . . large sums of money . . . without having brought to those countries when they arrived anything other than their persons, with a small amount of credit, a pen and paper, and the faculty of knowing . . . how to mix and stir the said exchanges between one country and another, [with] many twists and turns.’ Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, French Collection, 2086, f. 60 v. and 61 r.
13 Cracow archives, Ital., 382. Cf. F. BRAUDEL, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, English ed., 1972, I, p. 201, note 141.
WHAT THE WORLD LOOKED LIKE TO AN ITALIAN IN 1450
14 The expression is Lujo BRENTANO’S.
15 D. A ZAKYTINOS, Crise monétaire et crise économique à Byzance, du XIIIe au XIVe siècle, Athens, 1948, p. 40.
16 Elena C. SKRžINSKAJA, ‘Storia della Tana,’ in Studi veneziani, X, 1968, p. 2.
17 Archivio di Stato, Venice, Senato Mar, 4.
18 ZAKYTINOS, op. cit., p. 37.
19 Ibid., p. 38.
20 Ibid., p. 44.
21 Archivio di Stato, Venice, Senato Mar, 4.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid.
24 BRAUDEL, The Mediterranean, op. cit., I, pp. 467–468.
25 Ibid., I. p. 471, note 56.
26 R. HENNIG, Terrae incognitae, IV, p. 112.
27 Ibid., pp. 33 ff. and Niccolò DE’ CONTI, Girolamo ADORNO and Girolamo DA SANTO STEFANO, Viaggi in Persia, India e Giava.
28 Diario da Viagem de Vasco da Gama, Oporto, I, 1945, pp. 58–59.
29 F. BRAUDEL, ‘Les Espagnols et l’Afrique du Nord,’ in Revue africaine, 1928.
30 André CHASTEL’s expression.
31 André CHASTEL, La Crise de la Renaissance (1520-1600), 1968, p. 67. The quotation is from the account by the Portuguese Francesco da Hollanda.
32 Alexander ROSTOW, Weg der Freiheit. Ortsbestimmung der Gegenwart, 1952, II, pp. 248–249.
33 Renée DOEHAERD, ‘Les galères génoises dans la Manche et la mer du Nord à la fin du XIIIe siècle et au début du XIVe,’ in Bulletin de l’Institut historique belge de Rome, 1938.
34 Federigo MELIS, ‘Firenze,’ in Saggi in memoria di Gino Luzzatto raccolti da A. Fanfani, pp. 139 ff.
35 Ibid., p. 143, and Jean-François BERGIER, Les Foires de Genève et l’économie internationale de la Renaissance, Paris, 1963, pp. 279 ff.
36 Alberto TENENTI and Corrado VIVANTI, ‘Le film d’un grand système de navigation: les galères marchandes vénitiennes, XIVe–XVIe siècles,’ in Annales, E.S.C., 1961, no. 1, pp. 83–86 and map. 37.
37 Ibid., p. 85.
38 Frederic C. LANE, Andrea Barbarigo, Merchant of Venice, 1418–1449, Baltimore, 1944.
39 Gino DI NERI CAPPONI, Commentari dell’acquisto di Pisa e tumulto dei Ciompi, in Cronachette antiche di vari autori . . . ed. D. M. Manni, Milan, 1844.
40 André CHASTEL, Le Mythe de la Renaissance, 1420-1520, Geneva, 1969, p. 30.
41 R. ZANGHERI, ‘Agricoltura e sviluppo del capitalismo, Problemi storiografici,’ in Studi storici, IX, 1968, pp. 531–563.
42 Carlo M. CIPOLLA, ‘L’economia milanese alla metà del secolo XIV. I movimenti generali (1350-1500),’ in Storia di Milano, vol. VIII, p. 347.
43 Federigo MELIS, Aspetti della vita economica medievale. Studi nell’Archivio Datini, Siena, 1962.
44 Federigo MELIS, ‘Werner Sombart e i problemi della navigazione nel Medio Evo,’ in L’Opera di Werner Sombart nel centenario della nascita, Milan, 1964.
45 Mémoires de Messire Philippe de Commines, edited by M. l’Abbé Lenglet de Fresnay, 1747, IV, p. 103.
46 Henri VAST, Le Cardinal Bessarion (1403-1472). Étude sur la Chrétienté et la Renaissance vers le milieu du XVe siècle, Paris, 1878, p. viii.
47 MELIS, Aspetti, op. cit.
48 SIMONE, Il Rinascimento francese, op. cit., p. 10.
49 HAUTECŒUR, op. cit., p. 77.
50 Léon CAHEN, unpublished debate on the word ‘Humanism,’ Centre International de Synthèse, 13 January 1935.
51 Ruggiero ROMANO and Alberto TENENTI, ‘L’intellectuel dans la société italienne des XVe et XVIe siècles,’ in Niveaux de culture et groupes sociaux, Paris, 1967, p. 56.
52 André CHASTEL and Robert KLEIN, L’Europe de la Renaissance. L’Age de l’humanisme, Paris, 1963, p. 17.
53 G. OUY, ‘Paris, l’un des principaux foyers de l’humanisme en Europe au début du XVe siècle,’ in Bulletin de la société de l’histoire de Paris et de l’Ile de France, 1967–1968, pp. 71–98.
54 Roberto WEISS, ‘Italian Humanism in Western Europe, 1460–1520,’ in Italian Renaissance Studies, ed. E. F. Jacob, 1960, p. 77.
55 Ibid., p. 78.
56 Ezio ORNATO, Jean Muret et ses amis, Nicolas de Clamanges et Jean de Montreuil, Geneva, 1969, p. 192.
57 Ruggiero ROMANO and Alberto TENENTI, Alle origini del mondo moderno, 1350-1550, Milan, 1967, pp. 144–145.
1450–1650: TWO CENTURIES, THREE ITALIES
58 Corrado BARBAGALLO, Storia universale, IV, 1938, p. 232.
59 Autobiografia de Miguel de Castro, in Biblioteca de autores espanoles, vol. XC, 1956, pp. 489 ff.
60 In The Economic History Review, second series, vol. XIV, no. 3, 1962.
61 Gino LUZZATTO, Storia economica di Venezia dall’XI al XVI secolo, Venice, 1961, p. 189.
62 Heinrich KRETSCHMAYR, Geschichte von Venedig, Gotha, 1920, II, p. 385.
63 LUZZATTO, op. cit., p. 230.
64 Frederick ANTAL, Florentine Painting and Its Social Background. The Bourgeois Republic before Cosimo de’ Medici’s Advent to Power, XIVth and Early XVth Centuries, London, 1947.
65 Viviana PAQUES, Les Sciences occultes d’après les documents littéraires italiens du XVIe siècle, Paris, 1971.
66 CHASTEL and KLEIN, L’Europe de la Renaissance, op. cit., p. 92.
67 Yves RENOUARD, Études d’histoire médiévale, Paris, 1968, p. 118.
68 BRAUDEL, The Mediterranean, op. cit., I, pp. 615 ff.
69 Eduard FUETER, Geschichte des europaischen Staatensystems, Munich, 1919.
70 BRAUDEL, The Mediterranean, op. cit., I, p. 621.
71 Federigo MELIS, ‘Il commercio transatlantico di una compagnia fiorentina stabilita a Siviglia a pochi anni dalle imprese di Cortes e Pizarro,’ in V Congresso de historia de la Corona de Aragón, 1954, Zaragoza, pp. 131–206.
72 Ibid., pp.185–186.
73 Richard GASCON, Grand commerce et vie urbaine au XVIe siècle; Lyon et ses marchands, Paris, SEVPEN, 1971.
74 The expression is Georges GUSDORF’s in La Révolution galiléenne, Paris, 1969, I, p. 22.
75 M. BANDELLO, Novelle, London, 1791–1793, II, p 208.
76 For instance in a little book for the non-specialist by Gonzalo DE REPARAZ (hijo), La Época de los grandes descubrimientos, Editorial Labor, 1930, p. 90.
77 Ibid., p. 90. Cf. the classic study by P. PERAGALLO, Cenni intorno alla colonia italiana in Portogallo nei secoli XIV, XV e XVI, 1907, and Charles VERLINDEN, ‘La colonie italienne de Lisbonne et le développement de l’économie métropolitaine et coloniale portugaise,’ in Studi in onore di Armando Sapori, Milan, 1957, I, pp. 615 ff.
78 Jacques HEERS, ‘Les hommes d’affaires italiens en Espagne au Moyen Age, le marché monétaire,’ in Fremde Kaufleute auf der Iberischen Halbinsel, ed. H. Kellenbenz, 1970, pp. 74–83.
79 Henry L. MISBACH, ‘Genoese Commerce and the Alleged Flow of Gold to the East,’ in Revue internationale de la banque, 3, 1970, pp. 67–87.
80 Archivio di Stato, Venice, Lettere commerciali, XV, 9; and BRAUDEL, The Mediterranean, op. cit., I, p. 470.
81 André SAYOUS, ‘Le rôle des Génois lors des premiers mouvements réguliers d’affaires entre l’Espagne et le Nouveau Monde, 1505-1521,’ in Publicaciones de la Sociedad Geográfica Nacional, 1932.
82 J. A GORIS, Étude sur les colonies marchandes méridionales à Anvers de 1488 à 1567, Louvain, 1925.
83 GASCON, Grand commerce, op. cit., p. 49.
84 COURAJOD, Leçons professées, op. cit., pp. 26 and 647–655.
85 HAUTECŒUR, op. cit., I, p. 77.
86 Ibid., p. 83.
87 Ibid., pp. 84–91.
88 Ibid., p. 115.
89 G. ENTZ, ‘Nouveaux résultats des recherches poursuivies en Hongrie sur le gothique tardif et la Renaissance,’ in Studia historica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 53, 1963, pp. 467–491.
90 CHASTEL and KLEIN , op. cit., pp. 25–26 .
91 Ibid., p. 30.
92 Ibid., p. 30.
93 For the next paragraph see Zdenek WIRTH, ‘Die böhmische Renaissance,’ in Historica, III, Prague, 1961.
94 According to Jean GEORGELIN, Venise au XVIIIe siècle, Paris, 1978.
95 On the following pages, see Felipe Ruiz MARTÍN’s book, El Siglo de los Genoveses, and the same author’s ‘Les hombres de negocios genoveses,’ in Fremde Kaufleute, ed. H. Kellenbenz, op. cit., pp. 84–99.
96 Archivio di Stato, Venice, Cinque Savii, risposte 1602–1606
97 Richard EHRENBERG, Das Zeitalter der Fugger, Geldkapital und Credit-Verkehr im 16. Jahr., Frankfurt, 3rd ed., 1922, I, p. 350.
98 Museo Correr, Venice, Donà delle Rose, 26.
99 Carlo M. CIPOLLA, ‘Note sulla storia del saggio d’interesse. Corso, dividendi a sconto dei dividendi del banco di San Giorgio nel sec. XVI,’ in Economia internazionale, vol. V, no. 2, 1962.
100 R. ROMANO, ‘Una crisi economica, 1619-1622,’ in Rivista storica italiana, 1962, pp. 480–532.
101 Archives Nationales, Paris, A.E., B.I., 511, Correspondence of the French consul Compans, from 1670.
102 Jean Nicot, ambassadeur de France au Portugal au XVIe siècle. Sa correspondance inédite, ed. E. Falgairolle. Paris, 1897, p. 127.
103 BRAUDEL, The Mediterranean, op. cit., I, pp. 558 ff.
104 Archivo Ruiz, Valladolid, 1591.
105 KRETSCHMAYR, op. cit., III, p. 179. And Ugo TUCCI, ‘Mercanti veneziani in India alla fine del sec. XVI,’ in Studi in onore di Armando Sapori, 1957, II, p. 1091–1111.
106 João Carvaho Mascarenhas, who was a prisoner in Algiers in 1627. Cf. Bernard GOMES DE BRITO, Historia tragico-maritima, Lisbon, VIII, 1905, p. 74.
107 Fernando LIUZZI, I Musicisti in Francia, vol. I of L’Opera del genio italiano all’estero, Rome, 1946, p. 94.
108 M. SEIDLMAYER, Geschichte Italiens, Leipzig, 1942, p. 342.
109 Armand BASCHET, Les Comédiens italiens à la Cour de France, 1882, pp. 105 ff. 110.
110 Ibid., pp. 232–233.
111 Germain BAZIN, Destins du Baroque, Paris, 1968, p. 8.
112 Dates from Franco SIMONE, Umanesimo, Rinascimento, Barocco in Francia, Milan, 1968.
113 Quoted by Pierre CHARPENTRAT, in the preface to his book Baroque. Italie et Europe centrale, Fribourg, 1964.
114 Yves BONNEFOY, Rome, 1630, Paris, 1970, p. 8.
115 Eugenio D’ORS, Du Baroque, 1935.
116 BAZIN, Destins du Baroque, op. cit., p. 15.
117 BONNEFOY, Rome, op. cit., p. 8.
118 Lucien FEBVRE, Le Problème de l’incroyance au XVIe siècle. La religion de Rabelais, 1942, pp. 461 ff.
119 CHASTEL, La Crise de la Renaissance, op. cit., pp. 34 ff.
120 D’ORS, Du Baroque, op. cit., p. 8.
121 Leonardo OLSCHKI, L’Italia e il suo genio, 1953, II , p. 211.
122 Ibid., pp. 203 and 207.
123 Nino PIROTTA, ‘L’ars nova italienne,’ in Histoire de la musique, Encyclopédie de la Pléiade, pp. 799-800, and Nanie BRIDGMAN, ‘La frottola et le madrigal en Italie,’ ibid., pp. 1087–1088.
124 On Marino, cf. F. LIUZZI, I Musicisti, op. cit., pp. 104 ff.
125 Gustave ATTINGER, L’Esprit de la commedia dell’arte dans le théâtre français, 1969, pp. 14–15.
126 Vito PANDOLFI, La commedia dell’arte, Florence, 1957, I, p. 16.
127 Giuseppe GALAZZO, in Storia di Napoli, VI, p. 320.
128 LIUZZI, op. cit., p. 111.
129 BASCHET, op. cit., pp. 243–244.
130 ATTINGER, op. cit., pp. 432–436.
131 Archivio di Stato, Genoa, Lettere Consoli, 1/2628, London, October 1675, letter from Carlo Ottone, Genoese consul in London.
132 Works consulted far the section on music, apart from Fernando LIUZZI’S book: Jacques CHAILLEY, Cours d’histoire de la musique, Paris, 1967, vol. I; Histoire de la musique des origines à Jean-Sebastien Bach, edited by Roland Manuel; Encyclopédie de la Pléiade; OLSCHKI, op. cit.; Maurice ROCHE, Monteverdi, Paris, 1960; M. T. JONES-DAVIES, Inigo Jones, Ben Jonson et le masque, Paris, 1967.
133 André VERCHALY, ‘Air de Cour, ballet de Cour,’ in Encyclopédie de la Pléiade, op. cit., pp. 1548–1549.
134 ROCHE, Monteverdi, op. cit., p. 42.
135 Federico GHISI, ‘La reforme mélodramatique,’ in Encyclopédie de la Pléiade, op. cit., pp. 1429 and 1434.
136 ROCHE, Monteverdi, op. cit., pp. 47 and 71.
137 Ibid., p. 8.
138 CHAILLEY, op. cit., pp. 88–89.
139 ROCHE, op. cit., pp. 40 and 52.
140 Federico MOMPELIO, ‘Monteverdi,’ in Encyclapédie de la Pléiade, op. cit., pp. 1446–1448.
141 CHAILLEY, op. cit., p. 109.
142 Philarète CHASLES, La France, l’Espagne et l’Italie au XVIe siècle, Paris, 1877, p. 247.
143 F. FERRARI, ‘Vita del Cavalier Marino,’ in G. B. MARINO, Lettere, ed. M. Guglielminetti, 1966, p. 631.
144 Ibid., p. 546.
145 F. SIMONE, Umanesimo, op. cit., pp. 298 ff. See also L’Italianisme en France au XVIIe siècle, conference proceedings of the Société française de littérature comparée, supplement to Studi francesi, 1968, and A. ADAM, Histoire de la littérature français e au XVIIe siècle, 5 vols., 1948.
146 VENARD, Les Débuts du monde moderne, op. cit., VI, 1967, p. 128.
147 MARINO, Lettere, op. cit., p. 607.
148 Ibid., pp. 553–557.
149 La befana was the fairy who brought children presents on Twelfth Night, rather like Santa Claus but also an old woman like a witch, whose effigy was paraded during feasts or hung up at windows. Balloria: was this the dance, or the ballroom?
150 BONNEFOY, Rome, op. cit., p. 6.
151 Ibid., p. 157.
152 Marc VENARD’s expression.
153 François-Georges PARISET, Georges de la Tour, 1948, p. 104.
154 Pierre LAVEDAN, Histoire de l’Art, II, 1944, pp. 375–377.
155 VENARD, op. cit., p. 137.
156 HAUTECŒUR, op. cit., I, p. 839.
157 LAVEDAN, op. cit., II, p. 412.
158 Louis MARIN, ‘Signe et représentation: Philippe de Champaigne et Port Royal,’ in Annales, E.S.C., 1, 1970, p. 28.
159 Andreina GRISERI, Le Metamorfosi del Barocco, Turin, 1967, pp. 122–123.
160 V. L. TAPIÉ, Baroque et classicisme, 1957, pp. 198-200.
161 Pierre CHARPENTRAT, Baroque, op. cit., 1964, p. 47.
162 R. LENOBLE, in La Science moderne, ed. R. TATON, II, p. 189 and 193.
163 Wilma FRITSCH, Galilée ou l’avenir de la science, Paris, 1971, p. 8.
164 Alexandre KOYRÉ, Études d’histoire de la pensée scientifique, 1966, p. 177.
165 Alfred North WHITEHEAD, quoted in Fritsch, op. cit., p. 9.
166 FRITSCH, op. cit., p. 6.
167 Umberto FORTI, Storia della scienza nei suoi rapporti con la filosofia, le religioni, la società, III, 1969, pp. 143–147.
168 Maurice CLAVELIN, La Philosophie naturelle de Galilée, Paris, 1968, p. 462.
169 Raymond ZOUCKERMANN, Galilée, penseur libre, Paris, 1968, p. 1.
170 FORTI, op. cit., p. 145.
171 LENOBLE, in La Science moderne, op. cit., pp. 191 ff.
172 ‘Dell’oriuolo a pendolo,’ in Antologia della prosa scientifica italiana del Seicento, Enrico Falqui, ed., Florence, 1943, II, p. 589.
173 CLAVELIN, La Philosaphie naturelle, op. cit., p. 416 and note 72.
174 Louis ROUGIER, ‘La lettre de Galilée à la Grande Duchesse de Toscane,’ in La Nouvelle Revue Française, November 1957, p. 1000.
175 GUSDORF, La Révolution galiléenne, Paris, 1969, I, p. 92.
176 Pierre COSTABEL and Pierre PIVETEAU, ‘Un hommage de Mersenne à Galilée,’ in Galilée, aspects de sa vie et de son œuvre, Paris, 1968, pp. 360–365.
177 On 13 December 1650, Colbert, from the camp at Rethel, told Le Tellier about delli Ponti, an Italian famous for siege defences, P. CLÉMEN, Instructions et Mémoires de Colbert, Paris, 1861, I, p. 61.
178 Edizioni Ferro, 1968. See also the paper by U. FORTI at the 3rd Prato conference, in April 1971.
179 GUSDORF, op. cit., I, p. 18.
LOOKING BACK FROM 1633 OR 1650
180 Benedetto CROCE, Storia delle Età barocca in Italia, 2nd ed., 1946, pp. 41 and 43.
181 Ibid., p. 51.
182 GUSDORF, op. cit., I, p. 24.
183 Ibid., I, p. 23.
184 Carlo DE FREDE, ‘Roghi di libri ereticali nell’Italia del Cinquecento,’ in Ricerche storiche ed economiche in memoria di Corrado Barbagallo, ed. Luigi di Rosa, Naples, 1970, Il, pp. 317–328.
185 FORTI, Storia della scienza, op. cit., III, p. 158.
186 GUSDORF, op. cit., I, p. 30.
187 Alberico GENTILI (1552-1608), one of the founding fathers of international law, who became a professor at Oxford, was a refugee for religious reasons and in 1588 had already written ‘Silete theologi in munere alieno,’ which could be translated as ‘Theologians should mind their own business,’ GUSDORF, op. cit., I, p. 19.
188 Antonio DE MONTALVO to Simón RUIZ, Florence, 23 September 1572, Archivo Ruiz, 17, f. 235, ed. Ruiz Martín, Lettres marchandes échangées entre Florence et Medina del Campo, Paris, 1965, p. lxxv.
189 F. BRAUDEL, Le Monde actuel, Paris, 1963, and The Mediterranean, op. cit., pp. 312 and 613–624.
190 Maurice AYMARD, current research on Sicily between the fifteenth and eighteenth century, cf. his paper at the 3rd Prato Conference, 1971.
191 Emilio SERENI, Storia del paesaggio agrario italiano, 1961.
192 Vincenzo TANARA, L’Economia del cittadino in villa, Bologna, 1644.
193 Jean GEORGELIN, Venise, op. cit.
194 Martin GÖHRING, Die Ämterkäuflichkeit im Ancien Régime, 1938.
IS ITALIAN DECADENCE A DISCERNIBLE PROCESS?
195 ROMANO and TENENTI, ‘L’intellectuel dans la société italienne,’ art. cit., p. 52.
196 The Mediterranean, even in the eleventh century, was a Muslim lake on which, according to Ibn Khaldun, the Christians ‘could not even float a plank.’ But by the end of the century, the situation was reversed. A Muslim poet in Sicily refused to go to Seville, where he had been invited: ‘The sea belongs to the Rûm,’ he explained, and the risk was too great; cf. Henri PÉRÈS, La Poésie andalouse en arabe au XIe siècle, ses aspects généraux et sa valeur documentaire, Paris, 1937, p. 216.