1. “Transportation in Science Fiction,” Technovelgy.com, www.technovelgy.com.
2. Laura Bliss, “The Attainable Wonders of Wakandan Transit,” CityLand, February 21, 2018, www.citylab.com; Andrew J. Hawkins, “Black Panther’s Wakanda Is a Transportation Utopia with a Dash of Reality,” Verge, February 23, 2018, www.theverge.com; Gersh Kuntzman, “‘Black Panther’ Succeeds as Urban Utopia: There Are No Cars in Wakanda,” Newsweek, February 22, 2018, www.newsweek.com.
3. The film even featured a BART-specific inside joke in the dialogue. (Katie Dowd, “There’s Apparently a Deep-Cut BART joke in ‘Black Panther,’” SFGate, February 28, 2018, www.sfgate.com.)
4. J. Robert Subrick, “The Political Economy of Black Panther’s Wakanda,” in Superheroes and Economics, ed. Brian O’Roark and Rob Salkowitz (New York City: Routledge, 2019), 68.
5. Janette Sadik-Khan, Twitter post, February 21, 2018, 3:23 p.m., https://twitter.com/jsadikkhan/.
6. Kriston Capps, “The ‘Namewashing’ of Public Transit,” CityLab, November 25, 2019, www.citylab.com.
7. Hawkins, ““Black Panther’s Wakanda Is a Transportation Utopia”; Bliss, “The Attainable Wonders of Wakandan Transit.”
8. William J. Mallett, Trends in Public Transportation Ridership: Implications for Federal Policy (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2018), www.fas.org; Eric Jaffe, “2 Notes of Caution on America’s ‘Record’ Mass Transit Year,” CityLab, March 10, 2015, www.citylab.com.
9. Yonah Freemark, “U.S. Transit Systems Are Shedding Riders: Are They under Threat?,” Transport Politic, May 18, 2018, www.thetransportpolitic.com.
10. Skip Descant, “2018 Was the Year of the Car, and Transit Ridership Felt It,” Government Technology, April 30, 2019, www.govtech.com. The downward trend across all transit modes accelerated especially between 2016 and 2017 in cities including Milwaukee (13.6 percent decrease), Charlotte (11.6 percent), Cleveland (10.8 percent) and Miami (8.7 percent). (Christopher Yuen, “Why Does Ridership Rise or Fall?: Lessons from Canada?,” Human Transit, April 19, 2018, www.humantransit.org.)
11. Faiz Siddiqui, “Falling Transit Ridership Poses an ‘Emergency’ for Cities, Experts Fear,” Washington Post, March 24, 2018.
12. “Annual Subway Ridership,” Metropolitan Transportation Authority, http://web.mta.info; “Annual Bus Ridership by Route,” Metropolitan Transportation Authority, http://web.mta.info.
13. Chicago’s system dropped by 3.2 percent, Washington, DC’s by 3.4 percent, and the Philadelphia area’s by 7.3 percent. (Yuen, “Why Does Ridership Rise or Fall?”)
14. Siddiqui, “Falling Transit Ridership Poses an ‘Emergency.’”
15. Matthew Dickens, Public Transportation Ridership Report: First Quarter 2019 (Washington, DC: American Public Transportation Association, 2019), www.apta.com.
16. Justin McElroy, “‘So Much Appetite’: TransLink Ridership Soars to Record 437 Million Boardings,” CBC News, April 25, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
17. Freemark, “U.S. Transit Systems Are Shedding Riders.”
18. Katherine Savage, “Results from the 2016 Census: Commuting within Canada’s Largest Cities,” Statistics Canada, May 29, 2019, www.statcan.gc.ca.
19. Feargus O’Sullivan, “Breaking Down the Many Ways Europe’s City-Dwellers Get to Work,” CityLab, October 18, 2017, www.citylab.com.
20. Renate van der Zee, “How Amsterdam Became the Bicycle Capital of the World,” Guardian, May 5, 2015, www.theguardian.com; Adele Peters, “These Historical Photos Show How Amsterdam Turned Itself into a Bike Rider’s Paradise,” Fast Company, November 3, 2015, www.fastcompany.com.
21. Every year of the operation of ride-hailing services in a market results in a 1.3 percent loss of heavy rail ridership and a 1.7 percent loss of bus ridership; after eight years, that means a massive 12.7 percent loss in bus riders. (Michael Graehler, Jr., Richard Alexander Mucci, and Gregory D. Erhardt, “Understanding the Recent Transit Ridership Decline in Major US Cities: Service Cuts or 2 Emerging Modes?,” 98th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, November 14, 2018, www.usa.streetsblog.org.)
22. Yonah Freemark, “Too Little, Too Late?: A Decade of Transit Investment in the U.S.,” Transport Politic, January 7, 2020,
www.thetransportpolitic.com.
23. Skip Descant, “2018 Was the Year of the Car, and Transit Ridership Felt It,” Government Technology, April 30, 2019, www.govtech.com.
24. Leon Drolet, “Leon Drolet: Transit Is Fading as Transportation Options Shift,” Crain’s Detroit Business, September 22, 2019, www.crainsdetroit.com.
25. “4 Things for Transit Agencies to Remember in a World of Driverless Car Hype,” TransitCenter, May 3, 2018, http://transitcenter.org. Similarly, London mayoral candidate Zac Goldsmith once said in a radio interview that “within two or three years there will be no point having bus lanes” because everyone would be driving electric vehicles. (Jon Stone, “Mayor of London Tory Candidate Zac Goldsmith Says There’ll Be ‘No Point’ in Having Bus Lanes in Two to Three Years Because We’ll All Be Driving Electric Cars,” Independent, November 20, 2015, www.independent.co.uk.)
26. Samantha Craggs and Dan Taekema, “Ontario Cancels Hamilton LRT in Chaotic Announcement: Mayor Calls It a ‘Betrayal,’” CBC News, December 16, 2019, www.cbc.ca; “Doug Ford Announces $40M for Ontario Auto Sector Plan,” Canadian Press, February 14, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
27. Jarrett Walker, Human Transit: How Clearer Thinking about Public Transit Can Enrich Our Communities and Our Lives (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2012), 23.
28. Christof Spieler, Trains, Buses, People: An Opinionated Atlas of US Transit (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2018), 2–3.
29. “Failure to Restore and Modernize U.S. Public Transit Results in a Loss of $340 Billion in Business Revenue, According to APTA Study,” American Public Transportation Association, May 17, 2018, www.apta.com; Dana Rubinstein, “Sources: MTA Tells Task Force That System-Wide Repairs Could Run $60B,” Politico, October 25, 2018, www.politico.com; Adam Vaccaro, “MBTA Puts Price Tag for Fixing the System at $10 Billion,” Boston Globe, May 13, 2019.
30. Leah Libresco, “How Often D.C.’s Metro Catches on Fire,” FiveThirtyEight, May 16, 2016, https://fivethirtyeight.com; Katie Wells, Kafui Attoh, and Declan Cullen, “Uber, the ‘Metropocalypse,’ and Economic Inequality in DC,” Working-Class Perspectives, February 5, 2018, www.workingclassstudies.wordpress.com; “The Economic Cost of Failing to Modernize Public Transportation,” American Public Transportation Association, May 2018, www.apta.com.
31. Paul Mees, Transport for Suburbia: Beyond the Automobile Age (London: Earthscan, 2010).
32. Freemark, “U.S. Transit Systems Are Shedding Riders.”
33. Laura Bliss, “Behind the Gains in U.S. Public Transit Ridership,” CityLab, January 13, 2020, www.citylab.com.
34. Steven Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities: How to Plan, Run, and Win the Fight for Effective Transit (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2019), 2.
35. Gains can be won, like California’s AB-5 and New York’s vehicle cap and minimum wage. But the likes of Uber, Tesla, and Waymo are constantly lobbying and undermining the rules. Any victory must be considered temporary—and a mere stopgap that doesn’t advance the much bigger project of building excellent transit.
36. Jon Porter, “The Uber for Helicopters Is Now Uber,” Verge, June 6, 2019, www.theverge.com.
37. Rob Pegoraro, “An Elegy for Car2Go, the Smarter Zipcar Rival That Lost Its Way,” Fast Company, December 21, 2019, www.fastcompany.com.
38. Yonah Freemark, “Is Transit Ridership Loss Inevitable?: A U.S.-France comparison,” Transport Politic, September 9, 2019, www.thetransportpolitic.com.
39. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, xi.
40. Mengphin Ge, Johannes Friedrich, and Thomas Damassa, “6 Graphs Explain the World’s Top 10 Emitters,” World Resources Institute, November 25, 2014, www.wri.org.
41. It’s worth noting at the outset that the U.S. and Canada have different legislative and funding contexts—and that the focus of this book is not on interrogating those nuances; other more technical texts are a better source for that. (Simply put, Canada’s transit agencies tend to rely much more heavily on passenger fares than their U.S. counterparts, which use a combination of sales taxes and subsidies.)
42. Hubert Horan, “Uber’s Path of Destruction,” American Affairs 3, no. 2 (2019): 108–33.
43. “The right to the city is, therefore, far more than a right of individual access to the resources that the city embodies: it is a right to change ourselves by changing the city more after our heart’s desire,” Harvey wrote. “It is, moreover, a common rather than an individual right since this transformation inevitably depends upon the exercise of a collective power to reshape the processes of urbanization.” (David Harvey, “The Right to the City,” New Left Review 53 (2008).)
44. Mimi Sheller, Mobility Justice: The Politics of Movement in an Age of Extremes (New York City: Verso Books, 2018).
45. Spieler, Trains, Buses, People, 6.
46. Jonathan Watts, “We Have 12 Years to Limit Climate Change Catastrophe, Warns UN,” Guardian, October 8, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
47. Jane McAlevey, No Shortcuts: Organizing for Power in the New Gilded Age (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
48. James Wilt, “Free Transit Is Just the Beginning,” Briarpatch, November 29, 2019, www.briarpatchmagazine.com.
1. Aarian Marshall, “Elon Musk Reveals His Awkward Dislike of Mass Transit,” Wired, December 14, 2017, www.wired.com.
2. Rich Sampson, “What Elon Musk Doesn’t Understand about Public Transit Hurts Everyone,” Quartz, December 26, 2017, www.qz.com.
3. David Z. Morris, “Elon Musk Calls Transit Expert ‘an Idiot’ and Says Public Transport ‘Sucks,’” Fortune, December 16, 2017, www.fortune.com.
4. Jeff Sparrow, “The Great Acceleration,” Overland 236 (Spring 2019), www.overland.org.au.
5. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, 10; Richard F. Weingroff, “Federal Aid Road Act of 1916: Building the Foundation,” Public Roads 60, no. 1 (1996), www.fhwa.dot.gov.
6. Sparrow, “The Great Acceleration.”
7. Joseph Stromberg, “Highways Gutted American Cities: So Why Did They Build Them?,” Vox, May 11, 2016, www.vox.com.
8. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, 16.
9. Erin Blakemore, “How the GI Bill’s Promise Was Denied to a Million Black WWII Veterans,” History, June 21, 2019, www.history.com. Between 1940 and 1970, the percentage of the U.S. population living in a suburban area increased from 13.4 percent to 37.1 percent; that increased to 51 percent by 2010. (Becky Nicolaides and Andrew Wiese, “Suburbanization in the United States after 1945,” Oxford Research Encyclopedias (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).)
10. Stromberg, “Highways Gutted American Cities.”
11. “Interstate Frequently Asked Questions,” U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration, www.fhwa.dot.gov; Stromberg, “Highways Gutted American Cities.”
12. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, 19.
13. Doug Monroe, “Where It All Went Wrong,” Atlanta, August 1, 2012; Johnny Miller, “Roads to Nowhere: How Infrastructure Built on American Inequality,” Guardian, February 21, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
14. Nicolaides and Wiese, “Suburbanization in the United States.”
15. Spieler, Trains, Buses, People, 8.
16. Kevin O’Leary, “The Legacy of Proposition 13,” Time, June 27, 2009.
17. Doron Levin, “Here Are Some of Worst Car Scandals in History,” Fortune, September 26, 2015, https://fortune.com.
18. Gaming of fuel economy standards resulted in European drivers paying an extra 150 billion euros in fuel since 2000 (equivalent to about US$175 billion). (Damian Carrington, “Carmakers’ Gaming of Emissions Tests ‘Costing Drivers Billions,’” Guardian, August 29, 2018, www.theguardian.com.)
19. Mark Stevenson, “Automakers Spent $49 Million in 2017 Lobbying Washington to Make Cars Dirty Again,” CarBuzz, February 7, 2018, https://carbuzz.com; Joseph White and David Shepardson, “Donald Trump Proposes Rollback of Vehicle Emission Rules, Fewer Electric Vehicle Sales,” Reuters, August 2, 2018, https://globalnews.ca.
20. Gregory H. Shill, “Should Law Subsidize Driving?,” New York University Law Review (forthcoming).
21. Catherine Lutz, “The U.S. Car Colossus and the Production of Inequality,” American Ethnologist 41, no. 2 (2014).
22. English, “How America Killed Transit.”
23. William S. Morrow, Jr., “Urban Mass Transportation Acts,” Encyclopedia.com, 2004, www.encyclopedia.com; English, “How America Killed Transit.”
24. English, “How America Killed Transit”; Robert Cervero, The Transit Metropolis: A Global Inquiry (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1998), 37.
25. Mark Ellis, “Bus Services under Privatisation Have Been a Failure Say Campaigners,” Mirror, October 26, 2016, www.mirror.co.uk. The Railways Act of 1993 established the framework for the privatization of British Rail, which took place over the next several years. The infrastructure of British Rail was turned into a publicly traded company called Railtrack. By the end of the century, over forty people had been killed and hundreds more injured in three major crashes. (Stephen Smith, “Why Britain’s Railway Privatization Failed,” CityLab, September 27, 2012, www.citylab.com.) The U.K. rail system has been plagued by late, expensive, and overcrowded trains in which “private companies reap the benefits, while passengers bear the costs.” (“The Guardian View on Rail Privatisation: Going off the Tracks,” Guardian, December 5, 2017, www.theguardian.com.) U.K. commuters pay six times as much of their salaries on rail fares compared to other European countries with publicly owned railways. (“UK Commuters Spend up to Six Times as Much of Their Salary on Rail Fares as Other European Passengers,” Trades Union Congress, 2019, www.tuc.org.uk.) Connor Beaton, a journalist and former national secretary for the Scottish Socialist Party, told me that the privatization of Scotland’s railways—bought in 2015 by Abellio, owned by the Dutch rail operator Nederlandse Spoorwegen—have resulted in constant crew and carriage shortages, train cancellations, and worsening quality of service. The London Underground also underwent a similarly catastrophic privatization in the early 2000s, with New Labour contracting out the upgrading and maintenance of the historic system to Metronet and Tube Lines. By 2010, Metronet had gone into insolvency and Tube Lines was bought out by the Transport for London. (Yonah Freemark, “London Underground’s Privatization Experiment Dead as Remaining PPP Is Bought Out,” Transport Politic, May 11, 2019, www.thetransportpolitic.com.) A report by the National Audit Office found that the failure of Metronet cost the public between £170 million and £410 million. (Dan Milmo, “Collapse of Tube Contractor Metronet Could Cost Taxpayer £410m,” Guardian, June 5, 2009, www.theguardian.com.)
26. Oliver Moore, “Metrolinx Settles Lawsuit with Builders of $5.4-Billion Crosstown Light-Rail Project,” Globe and Mail, September 6, 2018, www.theglobeandmail.com.
27. Moore, “Metrolinx Settles Lawsuit.”
28. David Kennedy, “Metrolinx Doled Out Extra $237M to Keep Eglinton Crosstown on Schedule,” On-Site, December 10, 2018, www.on-sitemag.com.
29. Tracey Lindeman, “Will Ottawa Ever Get Its Light Rail?,” CityLab, April 19, 2019, www.citylab.com.
30. Josh Pringle, “LRT Will Be ‘Stabilized’ in New Year: Hubley,” CTV News, December 5, 2019, www.ottawa.ctvnews.ca.
31. Michael Sainato, “Public Transit System in Washington DC Struggles with Privatization,” Guardian, December 15, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
32. Bill Bradley, “The Streetcar Boondoggle Continues, This Time in Detroit,” CityLab, May 16, 2017, www.citylab.com.
33. Kelly Weill, “Elon Musk Hyperloop Dreams Slam into Cold Hard Reality,” Daily Beast, March 29, 2019, www.thedailybeast.com.
34. John Greenfield, “Cheer up Clevelanders, the O’Hare Express Is Dead, and You Can Kill the Hyperloop,” StreetsBlog Chicago, December 16, 2019, www.chi.streetsblog.org.
35. Adrian Morrow, “Government-Managed Projects Could Save Ontario Money: Auditor-General,” Globe and Mail, December 9, 2014; Keith Reynolds, Public-Private Partnerships in BC: Update 2018 (Vancouver: Columbia Institute, 2018), www.columbiainstitute.ca; John Loxley, Wrong Turn: Is a P3 the Best Way to Expand Edmonton’s LRT? (Edmonton: Parkland Institute, 2013), www.parklandinstitute.ca.
36. “Canada Line Foreign Workers Treated Unfairly, Tribunal Rules,” CBC News, December 3, 2008, www.cbc.ca; Keven Drews, “Canada Line Workers Get Money Five Years after Human Rights Tribunal Decision,” Vancouver Sun, April 2, 2013; Krystle Alarcon, “Imported Workers Fight Back,” Tyee, January 8, 2013, https://thetyee.ca.
37. “Canada Infrastructure Bank Loaning $1.28-Billion to Montreal Electric Rail Project,” Canadian Press, August 22, 2018; Taylor C. Noakes, “How a New Transit System Could Hobble Montreal,” Next City, March 12, 2018, https://nextcity.org.
38. Erika Stark and Erin Sylvester, “Updated: Calgary Transit Cancels Connect Card, Vows Legal Action to Recover Money,” Calgary Herald, July 1, 2015, www.calgaryherald.com.
39. Spieler, Trains, Buses, People, 14.
40. Douglas Hanks, “Miami’s Big Transit Showdown: Modernized Bus or Metrorail for South Dade?,” Miami Herald, July 18, 2018. In 2017, a poll of Miami-Dade residents about the idea of increasing the sales tax to 1 percent from 0.5 percent for transit funding was supported by 48 percent, with 50 percent opposing it. (Douglas Hanks, “Pursuing a Rail Expansion, Miami-Dade Mayor Polls Voters on Increasing Transit Tax,” Miami Herald, March 23, 2017.) In August 2018, a lawsuit was launched against Miami-Dade and Mayor Carlos Gimenez over the sales tax. (Douglas Hanks, “Lawsuit: County Squandered $1.5 Billion of Transit Tax Promised for Metrorail Growth,” Miami Herald, August 13, 2018.) A few weeks later, the Citizens’ Independent Transportation Trust board passed a resolution that forces commissioners to stop using the tax revenue to balance the budget. (K. Barrett Bilali, “Citizen’s Group Moves to Hold County Accountable on Transit,” Miami Times, August 30, 2018.) The same has happened in other cities, with Phoenix’s city council taking the first step in August 2018 to divert billions of dollars toward roads that was previously allocated for transit in a referendum. (Angie Schmitt, “Phoenix City Council Moves to Hijack Transit Money for Roads,” Streetsblog USA, August 31, 2018, https://usa.streetsblog.org.)
41. Jesse Scheckner, “New Mobility World Coming to South Dade Transitway,” Miami Today, October 1, 2019, www.miamitodaynews.com.
42. The tax amounted to $250 million per year or $2.5 billion over ten years. (Lisa Johnson and Tamara Baluja, “Transit Referendum: Voters Say No to New Metro Vancouver Tax, Transit Improvements,” CBC News, July 2, 2015, www.cbc.ca; Seth Klein, Marc Lee, and Iglika Ivanova, “Why We’re Voting YES to New Transit and Transportation Funding,” Policy Note, March 2, 2015, www.policynote.ca.)
43. Hiroko Tabuchi, “How the Koch Brothers Are Killing Public Transit Projects around the Country,” New York Times, June 19, 2018, www.nytimes.com.
44. “Your Bus Is on Time: What Does That Even Mean?,” TransitCenter, August 27, 2018, https://transitcenter.org.
45. Aparita Bhandari, “Better Bus Service Could Help Solve Scarborough’s Transit Troubles,” Discourse, June 4, 2019, www.thediscourse.ca.
46. Until recently, the province provided a $1.50 subsidy for discounted fares for people using both services in the same trip, but that was cancelled by Ontario’s Conservative government that was elected in 2018. “Ford Government Cuts Subsidy for Discounted GO Transit, TTC Fares,” Canadian Press, July 9, 2019, www.toronto.citynews.ca.
47. Leah Binkovitz, “New Study Examines How Historic Racism Shaped Atlanta’s Transportation Network,” Kinder Institute for Urban Research, February 8, 2017, https://kinder.rice.edu.
48. Thomas W. Sanchez, “The Connection between Public Transit and Employment,” Journal of the American Planning Association 65, no. 3 (1999).
49. Yonah Freemark, “Housing Arguments over SB 50 Distort My Upzoning Study: Here’s How to Get Zoning Changes Right,” Frisc, May 22, 2019, https://thefrisc.com.
50. Stefan Kipfer, “Free Transit and Beyond,” Bullet, December 3, 2012, https://socialistproject.ca.
51. Abdallah Fayyad, “The Criminalization of Gentrifying Neighborhoods,” Atlantic, December 20, 2017, www.theatlantic.com.
52. Kayla McLean, “‘There Will Be No Little Jamaica’: Toronto Neighbourhood Threatened by LRT Construction,” Global News, December 23, 2019, www.globalnews.ca. In response to criticism from business owners in Toronto’s Little Jamaica, Metrolinx said that it’s not responsible for building affordable housing to protect communities.
53. Daniel C. Vock, “Buses, Yes Buses, Are ‘the Hottest Trend in Transit,’” Governing, September 2017, www.governing.com; Meagan Flynn, “No Easy Ride: What Using METRO’s New Bus Network Is Like in a Low-Income Community [updated],” Houston Press, September 3, 2015, www.houstonpress.com; Olivia Kelly, “‘False Information’ about Dublin Bus Redesign Slated by Planner,” Irish Times, July 23, 2018, www.theirishtimes.com.
54. Danielle Sweeney, “Hard Lessons from Baltimore’s Bus Redesign,” CityLab, January 14, 2019, www.citylab.com.
55. Sweeney, “Hard Lessons from Baltimore’s Bus Redesign.”
56. Eric Goldwyn and Alon Levy, “A Fantasy Map for Brooklyn’s Buses That’s Grounded in Reality,” CityLab, November 19, 2018, www.citylab.com.
1. Tom Krishner, “US New-Vehicle Sales in 2018 Rise Slightly to 17.27 Million,” Associated Press, January 3, 2019, www.foxnews.com.
2. William J. Mallett, Trends in Public Transportation Ridership: Implications for Federal Policy (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2018), https://fas.org; Daniel C. Vock, “More Poorer Residents Are Driving Cars, Presenting New Issues for Transit Agencies,” Governing, April 9, 2018, www.governing.com.
3. Aaron Short, “Trump Shifts Obama Transit Funding to Roads,” Streetsblog USA, November 13, 2019, www.usa.streetsblog.org.
4. “Where the Energy Goes: Gasoline Vehicles,” U.S. Department of Energy, www.fueleconomy.gov.
5. Fred Lambert, “Even Electric Cars Powered by the Dirtiest Electricity Emit Fewer Emissions Than Diesel Cars, Says New Study,” Electrek, November 1, 2017, https://electrek.co.
6. Julianne Beck and Amanda Morris, “Electric Vehicle Adoption Improves Air Quality and Climate Outlook,” Phys.org, April 12, 2019, https://phys.org; Jamie Doward, “New Law to Tackle Electric Cars’ Silent Menace to Pedestrians,” Guardian, May 6, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
7. Zachary Shahan, “Tesla Model 3 = 60% of US Electric Vehicle Market,” CleanTechnica, April 7, 2019, https://cleantechnica.com.
8. “Why Zipcar Became an Acquisition Instead of an Acquirer,” Boston Business Journal, January 2, 2013, www.bizjournals.com; Mansoon Iqbal, “Uber Revenue and Usage Statistics (2019),” Business of Apps, May 10, 2019, www.businessofapps.com; “Uber’s $82 Billion Valuation Underwhelms in Most-Anticipated IPO since Facebook,” VentureBeat, May 10, 2019, https://venturebeat.com.
9. Robin Chase, “Will a World of Driverless Cars Be Heaven or Hell?,” CityLab, April 3, 2014, www.citylab.com.
10. “SAE International Releases Updated Visual Chart for Its ‘Levels of Driving Automation’ Standard for Self-Driving Vehicles,” Society of Automotive Engineers International, December 11, 2018, www.sae.org.
11. David Beard, “This Is the Tech Fully Autonomous (Level 5) Cars Will Need to Have,” Car and Driver, October 3, 2017, www.caranddriver.com; Sandeep Sovani, “Top 3 Challenges to Produce Level 5 Autonomous Vehicles,” ANSYS, December 13, 2018, www.ansys.com.
12. “40+ Corporations Working on Autonomous Vehicles,” CB Information Services, August 28, 2019, www.cbinsights.com.
13. Anthony Mirhaydari, “Uber vs. Waymo in $2.8T Battle for ‘Robotaxis,’” PitchBook, May 18, 2018, https://pitchbook.com. In 2018, Morgan Stanley analysts estimated that Waymo may already be worth $175 billion in value. (Alan Ohnsman, “Why Waymo Is Worth a Staggering $175 Billion Even before Launching Its Self-Driving Cars,” Forbes, August 7, 2018, www.forbes.com.)
14. David Z. Morris, “Driverless Cars Will Be Part of a $7 Trillion Market by 2050,” Fortune, June 3, 2017, https://fortune.com.
15. Adrienne Lafrance, “The High-Stakes Race to Rid the World of Human Drivers,” Atlantic, December 1, 2015.
16. “Uber’s $82 Billion Valuation,” VentureBeat; Rebecca Ungarino, “Lyft Went Public at a $24 Billion Valuation: Here’s How That Compares to Other High-Profile Tech Companies Dating Back to the Dotcom Bubble,” Business Insider, April 7, 2019, https://markets.businessinsider.com.
17. Paayal Zaveri and Deirdre Bosa, “Uber’s Growth Slowed Dramatically in 2018,” CNBC, February 15, 2019, www.cnbc.com. The year prior, in 2017, Uber lost $2.2 billion. In the second quarter of 2019 alone, Uber lost $5.2 billion, its largest-ever quarterly loss. (Dominic Rushe, “Uber Sees Biggest-Ever Quarterly Loss: $5bn in Three Months,” Guardian, August 8, 2019, www.theguardian.com.)
18. “Lyft Reveals It Doubled Revenue to $2.2B in 2018 as It Files to Go Public,” CBC News, March 1, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
19. Lauren Feiner, “Uber CEO Says He’s Building the Next Amazon, Even Though Growth Is Slowing,” CNBC, May 10, 2019, www.cnbc.com.
20. Melanie Zanona, “Uber Tripled Its Lobbying Efforts in 2016,” Hill, January 23, 2017, https://thehill.com. That year, Uber had 370 active lobbyists in 44 states, more than Amazon, Microsoft and Walmart combined. (Avi Asher-Schapiro, “Trump Administration Fights Effort to Unionize Uber Drivers,” Intercept, March 26, 2018, https://theintercept.com.) Between 2013 and 2016, the company spent $3.3 million on lobbyists in New York at both the state and city level. (Olivia Solon, “How Uber Conquers a City in Seven Steps,” Guardian, April 12, 2017, www.theguardian.com.)
21. Anna Sanders, “Ride-Sharing Companies Spent Over $1M Lobbying in NYC,” New York Post, August 4, 2018, https://nypost.com.
22. Sanders, “Ride-Sharing Companies.”
23. Horan, “Uber’s Path of Destruction.”
24. Johana Bhuiyan, “Valerie Jarrett, One of President Obama’s Longest-Serving Aides, Is Joining Lyft’s Board,” Vox, July 31, 2017, www.vox.com.
25. Bill Ruthhar and Hal Dardick, “Former Obama Aide Fined $90,000 for Illegally Lobbying Emanuel on Uber’s Behalf,” Chicago Tribune, February 16, 2017. Emanuel himself had served as White House chief of staff between 2008 and 2010.
26. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Meet the Self-Driving Car Industry’s Most Important Lobbyist,” Verge, April 27, 2016, www.theverge.com.
27. Alex Samuels, “Uber, Lyft Return to Austin as Texas Gov. Abbott Signs Ride-Hailing Measure into Law,” Texas Tribune, May 29, 2017, www.texastribune.org. Similarly, in September 2017, London, England, banned Uber for failing to comply with regulations including reporting criminal offences, ensuring background checks on drivers, and its use of “Greyball” to secretly deny service to government regulators. (“What Does London’s Uber Ban Mean?,” BBC, September 22, 2017, www.bbc.com.) But the company successfully regained a probationary licence via a court challenge. (Tom McKay, “Uber Regains Temporary License to Operate in London after Promising to Stop Being Terrible,” Gizmodo, June 26, 2018, https://gizmodo.com.)
28. Joy Borkholder, Mariah Montgomery, Miya Saika Chen, and Rebecca Smith, Uber State Interference: How Transportation Network Companies Buy, Bully, and Bamboozle Their Way to Deregulation (Oakland: Partnership for Working Families, 2018), 6.
29. Solon, “How Uber Conquers a City.”
30. Horan, “Can Uber Ever Deliver? Part One: Understanding Uber’s Bleak Operating Economics,” Naked Capitalism, November 30, 2016, www.nakedcapitalism.com.
31. Brian O’Keefe and Marty Jones, “How Uber Plays the Tax Shell Game,” Fortune, October 22, 2015, https://fortune.com.
32. Noam Scheiber, “How Uber’s Tax Calculation May Have Cost Drivers Hundreds of Millions,” New York Times, June 5, 2017, www.nytimes.com.
33. Laura Bliss, “To Measure the ‘Uber Effect,’ Cities Get Creative,” CityLab, January 12, 2018, www.citylab.com.
34. Regina R. Clewlow and Gouri Shankar Mishra, Disruptive Transportation: The Adoption, Utilization, and Impacts of Ride-Hailing in the United States (Davis: University of California, October 2017), 30.
35. “Global Survey of Autonomous Vehicle Regulations,” Synced, March 15, 2018, https://medium.com.
36. “Autonomous Vehicles: Self-Driving Vehicles Enacted Legislation,” National Conference of State Legislatures, September 18, 2019, www.ncsl.org.
37. Andrew J. Hawkins, “California Green Lights Fully Driverless Cars for Testing on Public Roads,” Verge, February 26, 2018, www.theverge.com.
38. Andrew J. Hawkins, “The Self-Driving Car War between Arizona and California Is Heating Up,” Verge, March 2, 2018, www.theverge.com.
39. Angie Schmitt, “Self-Driving Cars Are Coming: Will They Serve Profit or the Public?,” In These Times, July 6, 2018; Jack Stilgoe and Alan Winfield, “Self-Driving Car Companies Should Not Be Allowed to Investigate Their Own Crashes,” Guardian, April 13, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
40. Casey Tolan, “Feinstein Slams Brakes on AV Deregulation Bill,” East Bay Times, March 15, 2018, www.govtech.com.
41. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Congress Takes Another Stab at Passing Self-Driving Car Legislation,” Verge, July 28, 2019, www.theverge.com.
42. Ryan Johnston, “Autonomous Vehicle Rules Fought ‘My Way or the Highway’ by Lobbyists, says Indiana Lawmaker,” StateScoop, April 10, 2018, https://statescoop.com.
43. Johnston, “Autonomous Vehicle Rules Fought.”
44. Chris Brooks, “How New York Taxi Workers Took On Uber and Won,” LaborNotes, August 23, 2018, www.labornotes.org.
45. Tom Warren, “Uber Loses Its London License as Regulator Cites a ‘Pattern of Failures,’” Verge, November 25, 2019, www.theverge.com; Gwyn Topham, “Uber Loses London Licence after TfL Finds Drivers Faked Identity,” Guardian, November 25, 2019, www.theguardian.com.
46. See chapter 9 for more on AB-5.
47. Paris Marx, “Uber Finally Admits It’s Taking on Buses,” Radical Urbanist, February 15, 2018, https://medium.com.
48. James Thorne, “Uber Sees Rapid Adoption for New Bus Service as It Recruits for ‘High Capacity Vehicles Team’ in Seattle,” GeekWire, April 3, 2019, www.geekwire.com.
49. Leslie Hook, “Uber’s New CEO Plans Expansion into Buses, Bikes,” Financial Times, February 14, 2018, www.ft.com.
50. Tim Redmond, “Uber’s Plans Include Attacking Public Transit,” 48hills, May 6, 2019, www.48hills.org.
51. Redmond, “Uber’s Plans Include Attacking Public Transit.”
52. Bruce Schaller, The New Automobility: Lyft, Uber and the Future of American Cities (New York City: Schaller Consulting, 2018), www.schallerconsult.com.
53. Alison Griswold and Dan Kopf, “After Uber, Americans Spent More on Taxis and Less on Public Transit,” Quartz, September 25, 2019, https://qz.com.
54. Clewlow and Mishra, Disruptive Transportation, 2. The study showed that between 49 to 61 percent of ride-hailing trips replaced walking, biking, transit, or not making the trip at all.
55. Steven R. Gehrke, Alison Felix, and Timothy Reardon, A Survey of Ride-Hailing Passengers in Metro Boston, (Boston: Metropolitan Area Planning Council, 2018), 12, www.mapc.org.
56. Martin E. Comas, “Need a Ride?: Altamonte Springs Will Help Pay Your Uber trip within Its City,” Orlando Sentinel, March 4, 2016, www.orlandosentinel.com.
57. Spencer Woodman, “Welcome to Uberville: Uber Wants to Take Over Public Transit, One Small Town at a Time,” Verge, September 1, 2016, www.theverge.com.
58. Ben Spurr, “Small Ontario Town’s Uber Partnership Could Signal Shift for Canadian Public Transit,” Toronto Star, April 15, 2018.
59. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Texas Town Ditches Its Bus Service for Ride-Sharing App Via,” Verge, March 12, 2018, www.theverge.com.
60. Spencer Woodman, “Welcome to Uberville,” Verge, September 1, 2016, www.theverge.com.
61. Woodman, “Welcome to Uberville.”
62. Woodman, “Welcome to Uberville.”
63. Colin Horgan, “Uber Wants in to Public Transit: Cities Should Proceed with Caution,” Maclean’s, May 19, 2017, www.macleans.ca.
64. Spurr, “Small Ontario Town’s Uber Partnership.” Transit subsidies range from $0.78 per ride in Toronto, to $1.62 per ride in Vancouver, to $4.49 per ride in the York Region. (Jennifer Palisoc, “How Does the TTC’s Funding Compare to Other Transit Agencies?,” Global News, November 13, 2014, https://globalnews.ca.)
65. Laura Bliss, “‘Uber Was Supposed to Be Our Public Transit,’” CityLab, April 29, 2019, www.citylab.com.
66. Jeff Sparrow, “The Great Acceleration,” Overland 236 (Spring 2019), www.overland.org.au.
1. “Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Transportation Sector Emissions,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov; “Use of Oil,” U.S. Energy Information Administration, September 28, 2018, www.eia.gov; Christopher Mims, “More Americans Die from Car Pollution Than Car Accidents,” Quartz, October 15, 2013, https://qz.com.
2. “5-Year Anniversary Remarks from Uber CEO Travis Kalanick,” Uber, June 4, 2015, www.uber.com.
3. “Cars, Trucks, Buses and Air Pollution,” Union of Concerned Scientists, July 19, 2018, www.ucsusa.org; Annette Dubreuil, “Air Pollution Is Costing Us Dearly,” Ecofiscal Commission, November 29, 2017, https://ecofiscal.ca.
4. David Reichmuth, “New Data Show Electric Vehicles Continue to Get Cleaner,” Union of Concerned Scientists, March 8, 2018, https://blog.ucsusa.org.
5. David Shepardson and Nick Carey, “U.S. Vehicle Fuel Economy Rises to Record 24.7 mpg: EPA,” Reuters, January 11, 2018, www.reuters.com.
6. Irvin Dawid, “Gov. Jerry Brown Signs 16 Bills to Spur Sales of New and Used Electric Vehicles,” Planetizen, September 20, 2018, www.planetizen.com.
7. “Lyft Climate Impact Goals,” Lyft, June 15, 2017, https://blog.lyft.com.
8. Lewis Fulton, Jacob Mason, and Dominique Meroux, Three Revolutions in Urban Transportation (Davis: University of California, 2017), 2, https://ncst.ucdavis.edu.
9. Paris Marx, “The Electric Vehicle Revolution Will Be Dirty and Unequal,” Radical Urbanist, June 14, 2019, https://medium.com.
10. Jeff Desjardins, “Here Are the Raw Materials We Need to Fuel the Electric Car Boom,” Business Insider, October 27, 2016, www.businessinsider.com. The projected demand for lithium-ion batteries shows a growth rate of 21.7 percent annually.
11. Desjardins, “Here Are the Raw Materials.”
12. “Leading Scientists Set Out Resource Challenge of Meeting Net Zero Emissions in the UK by 2050,” Natural History Museum, June 5, 2019, www.nhm.ac.uk.
13. Mark Burton and Eddie Van Der Walt, “Electric Vehicles Shake Up the Biggest Metals Markets,” Globe and Mail, August 3, 2017.
14. Todd C. Frankel, “The Cobalt Pipeline,” Washington Post, September 30, 2016; “CBS News Finds Children Mining Cobalt for Batteries in the Congo,” CBS News, March 5, 2018, www.cbsnews.com.
15. Peter Whoriskey, “In Your Phone, in Their Air,” Washington Post, October 2, 2016.
16. Elsa Dominish, Sven Teske, and Nick Florin, Responsible Minerals Sourcing for Renewable Energy (Sydney: University of Technology Sydney’s Institute for Sustainable Futures, 2019), https://earthworks.org.
17. Glenn Greenwald, “Watch: Glenn Greenwald’s Exclusive Interview with Bolivia’s Evo Morales, Who Was Deposed in a Coup,” Intercept, December 16, 2019, www.theintercept.com.
18. Joey Gardiner, “The Rise of Electric Cars Could Leave Us with a Big Battery Waste Problem,” Guardian, August 10, 2017, www.theguardian.com.
19. Mitch Jacoby, “It’s Time to Get Serious about Recycling Lithium-Ion Batteries,” Chemical & Engineering News, July 14, 2019, https://cen.acs.org.
20. Dominish, Teske, and Florin, Responsible Minerals Sourcing, ii.
21. Jacoby, “It’s Time to Get Serious.”
22. Steph Willems, “As Pedestrian Deaths Spike, Safety Group Puts the Spotlight on SUVs,” Truth about Cars, February 28, 2019, www.thetruthaboutcars.com.
23. Kelly Waldron, “How Many Miles Do You Drive Each Day?,” New Jersey 101.5, April 18, 2015, https://nj1015.com; “Range of Electric Vehicles,” EnergySage, January 2, 2019, www.energysage.com.
24. Patrick McGee, “Electric Cars’ Green Image Blackens Beneath the Bonnet,” Financial Times, November 7, 2017, www.ft.com.
25. David Roberts, “Electric Buses Are Coming, and They’re Going to Help Fix 4 Big Urban Problems,” Vox, April 28, 2018, www.vox.com.
26. Frank Kelly, “Electric Cars Are Not the Answer to Air Pollution, Says Top UK Adviser,” Guardian, August 4, 2017, www.theguardian.com; Roy Harrison, “Viewpoint: Why EVs Aren’t a Silver Bullet for the Particulate Problem,” Engineer, November 22, 2017, www.theengineer.co.uk..
27. Rosanna Xia, “The Biggest Likely Source of Microplastics in California Coastal Waters?: Our Car Tires,” Los Angeles Times, October 2, 2019, www.latimes.com.
28. James H. Gawron et al., “Life Cycle Assessment of Connected and Automated Vehicles: Sensing and Computing Subsystem and Vehicle Level Effects,” Environ. Sci. Technol 52, no. 5 (2018): 3249–56.
29. Gabrielle Coppola and Esha Dey, “Driverless Cars Are Giving Engineers a Fuel Economy Headache,” Bloomberg, October 11, 2017, www.bloomberg.com.
30. Zeke Hausfather, “Factcheck: How Electric Vehicles Help to Tackle Climate Change,” CarbonBrief, May 13, 2019, www.carbonbrief.org.
31. F. Todd Davidson, Dave Tuttle, Joshua D. Rhodes, and Kazunoria Nagasawa, “Is America’s Power Grid Ready for Electric Cars?,” CityLab, December 7, 2018, www.citylab.com.
32. “What Is U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source?,” U.S. Energy Information Administration, March 1, 2019, www.eia.gov; Kristi Anderson et al., A Costly Diagnosis: Subsidizing Coal Power with Albertans’ Health (Calgary: Pembina Foundation for Environmental Research and Education, 2013), https://ab.lung.ca; Ed Osann and Becky Hayat, Protecting Our Waters from Toxic Power Plant Discharges and Reducing Water Use in the Process (New York City: Natural Resources Defense Council, 2014), www.nrdc.org; Anthony J. Marchese and Dan Zimmerle, “The US Natural Gas Industry Is Leaking Way More Methane Than Previously Thought: Here’s Why That Matters,” Conversation, July 2, 2018, https://theconversation.com; “We Must Stop New York’s ‘Peaker Plants’ Choking Marginalized Communities,” New York Lawyers for the Public Interest, February 11, 2019, https://nylpi.org.
33. Zeke Hausfather, “Factcheck: How Electric Vehicles Help to Tackle Climate Change,” CarbonBrief, May 13, 2019, www.carbonbrief.org.
34. James Temple, “At This Rate, It’s Going to Take Nearly 400 Years to Transform the Energy System,” MIT Technology Review, March 14, 2018, www.technologyreview.com.
35. Sladjana Djunisic, “IEA Flags ‘Deeply Worrying’ Stagnation in Renewable Energy Growth,” Energy Mix, May 9, 2019, https://theenergymix.com.
36. Tom Krishner, “US New-Vehicle Sales in 2018 Rise Slightly to 17.27 Million,” Associated Press, January 3, 2019, www.foxnews.com; Julia Pyper, “US Electric Vehicle Sales Increased by 81% in 2018,” Greentech Media, January 7, 2019, www.greentechmedia.com. The Tesla Model 3 represented almost 40 percent of electric sales.
37. Aaron Gordon, “EV Credits Mostly Go towards Rich People Who Would Buy EVs Anyway: Study,” Jalopnik, June 4, 2019, https://jalopnik.com.
38. “U.S. New-Vehicle Sales in 2018 Rise Slightly to 17.27 Million, with Trucks and SUVs Leading the Way,” Los Angeles Times, January 4, 2019; Shill, “Should Law Subsidize Driving?,” 68.
39. Joseph White, “GM, Doubling Down on Big Suvs, Unveils Longer Chevy Tahoe, Suburban,” Reuters, December 10, 2019, www.reuters.com.
40. Alessandro Innocenti, Patrizia Lattarulo, and Maria Grazia Pazienza, “Car Stickiness: Heuristics and Biases in Travel Choice,” Transport Policy 25 (2013): 158–68.
41. “U.S. Households Are Holding On to Their Vehicles Longer,” U.S. Energy Administration, August 21, 2018, www.eia.gov.
42. Chris Nelder, interview with Costa Samaras, Energy Transition Show, podcast audio, August 8, 2018, https://xenetwork.org.
43. David Keith and Christopher R. Knittel, “Why Reducing Carbon Emissions from Cars and Trucks Will Be So Hard,” Conversation, May 6, 2019, https://theconversation.com.
44. Peter Slowik, Lina Fedirko, and Nic Lutsey, “Assessing Ride-Hailing Company Commitments to Electrification,” International Council on Clean Transportation, February 20, 2019, www.theicct.org.
45. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber Will Start Paying Some Drivers to Switch to Electric Cars,” Verge, June 19, 2018, www.theverge.com.
46. Johana Bhuiyan, “Uber Powered Four Billion Rides in 2017: It Wants to Do More—and Cheaper—in 2018,” Vox, January 5, 2018, www.vox.com. Uber has pledged to help almost half its drivers in London transition to electric vehicles by 2021 with grants—but that was a decision forced by the city after it chose not to renew the company’s licence to operate, and the grants only represent a small portion of the costs that a driver is required to incur for a new vehicle. (Gwyn Topham, “Uber to Introduce Clean Air Fee to All London Rides,” Guardian, October 23, 2018, www.theguardian.com.)
47. Peter Slowik, “Why Aren’t Uber and Lyft All-Electric Already?,” International Council on Clean Transportation, March 22, 2019, www.theicct.org.
48. Slowik, Fedirko, and Lutsey, “Assessing Ride-Hailing Company Commitments.”
49. “Lyft Offers Electric Vehicle Options for Riders, Drivers,” Associated Press, February 6, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
50. Robinson Meyer, “Your Lyft Ride Is Now Carbon-Neutral: Your Uber Isn’t,” Atlantic, April 19, 2018, www.theatlantic.com.
51. Kevin Anderson, “The Inconvenient Truth of Carbon Offsets,” Nature, April 4, 2012, www.nature.com.
52. Laura Bliss, “Uber and Lyft Could Do a Lot More for the Planet,” CityLab, April 30, 2018, www.citylab.com.
53. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Not All of Our Self-Driving Cars Will Be Electrically Powered—Here’s Why,” Verge, December 12, 2017, www.theverge.com; Ryan Felton, “Google’s Mass-Purchase of Chrysler Pacifica Hybrids Could Mean $465 Million in Federal Tax Credits,” Jalopnik, June 4, 2018, https://jalopnik.com.
54. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Waymo’s Fleet of Self-Driving Minivans Is About to Get 100 Times Bigger,” Verge, May 31, 2018, www.theverge.com.
55. Joseph Wildey, “Waymo’s Vans Rack Up Test Miles, but Charging and Emissions Remain Opaque,” Medium, September 1, 2018, https://medium.com; Alexis C. Madrigal, “Finally, the Self-Driving Car,” Atlantic, December 5, 2018, www.theatlantic.com.
56. Tim Higgins and Chester Dawson, “Waymo Orders Up to 20,000 Jaguar SUVs for Driverless Fleet,” Wall Street Journal, March 27, 2018.
57. Michael Martinez, “Hybrids Are Better for Autonomy, Ford says,” Automotive News, December 11, 2017, www.autonews.com.
58. Jim Farley, “Optimizing Our Self-Driving Vehicle to Better Serve You,” Medium, December 6, 2017, https://medium.com.
59. Hawkins, “Not All of Our Self-Driving Cars.”
60. Lewis Fulton, Jacob Mason, and Dominique Meroux, Three Revolutions in Urban Transportation (Davis: University of California, 2017), 2, https://ncst.ucdavis.edu.
61. Fulton, Mason, and Meroux, Three Revolutions in Urban Transportation, 2.
62. Brian McKenzie, Who Drives to Work?: Commuting by Automobile in the United States, 2013 (Suitland: United States Census Bureau, August 2015), 2, www.census.gov. Some cities are doing better than others—there is a 13.5 percent carpool rate in Phoenix and 11.6 percent in San Antonio—but others are far worse than average, such as the 5.1 percent rate in Washington, DC. (Laura Bliss, “Carpooling Is Totally Coming Back This Time, We Swear,” CityLab, September 15, 2017, www.citylab.com.)
63. Jacques Leslie, “Will Self-Driving Cars Usher in a Transportation Utopia or Dystopia?,” Yale Environment 360, January 8, 2018, https://e360.yale.edu.
64. Brooke Crothers, “Tesla’s Elon Musk: Car Can Drive Itself Across Country in Two Years,” Forbes, January 10, 2016, www.forbes.com.
65. Matthew Rocco, “Chrysler, Waymo Explore Selling Self-Driving Cars to Consumers,” Fox Business, May 31, 2018, www.foxbusiness.com.
66. Schaller, The New Automobility, 2.
67. Sidney Fussell, “I Tried Uber’s New ‘Pool Express’ Service and Honestly, Just Take a Bus,” Gizmodo, February 21, 2018, https://gizmodo.com.
68. Mark Southerland, Evaluation of Ecological Impacts from Highway Development (Rockville: Dynamac Corporation, April 1994), 14.
69. Greg Breining, “We’re Pouring Millions of Tons of Salt on Roads Each Winter: Here’s Why That’s a Problem,” Ensia, November 6, 2017, https://ensia.com.
70. Michael Linse and Zach Barasz, “Urban Transportation Will Go All-Electric Sooner Than You Think,” TechCrunch, May 29, 2015, https://techcrunch.com.
71. Linse and Barasz, “Urban Transportation Will Go All-Electric”; Daniel Gross, “Compared to Cars, Electric Buses Could Accelerate Pollution Reduction, Fuel Savings,” Chicago Tribune, September 8, 2014.
72. Gross, “Compared to Cars.”
73. 2019 Public Transportation Fact Book (Washington, DC: American Public Transportation Association, 2019), 16, www.apta.com.
74. “Global Warming Potentials,” Government of Canada, February 18, 2019, www.canada.ca.
75. Ben Spurr, “TTC Subway System 10 Times More Polluted Than Outside, Study Shows,” Toronto Star, April 25, 2017, www.thestar.com; Lauren Pelley, “Ride the GO Train?: You Could Be Breathing in Diesel Fumes, Researchers Say,” CBC News, February 7, 2017, www.cbc.ca. London Underground riders experience eight times the exposure to fine particulate matter compared to levels outside. (Patrick Grafton-Green, “People Who Use Tube ‘Exposed to Eight Times More Air Pollution Than Those Who Drive to Work,’” Evening Standard, February 14, 2017, www.standard.co.uk.)
76. Brad Aaron, “Bus Depots a Symptom of Environmental Injustice,” Streetsblog NYC, April 17, 2007, https://nyc.streetsblog.org.
77. Don Mitchell, “Noise from Toronto’s Public Transit Could Lead to Long-Term Hearing Loss: Study,” Global News, November 23, 2017, https://globalnews.ca. Low-income communities of colour suffer the worst impacts of this kind of noise pollution, which the World Health Organization has identified as second only to air pollution as the most harmful environmental problem to human health, contributing to hearing loss, heart disease, strokes, and sleep disturbance. (“Traffic Noise Health Impacts Second Only to Air Pollution, New WHO Report Says,” Transport & Environment, March 30, 2011, www.transportenvironment.org; Joan A. Casey, Peter James, and Rachel Morello-Frosch, “Urban Noise Pollution Is Worst in Poor and Minority Neighborhoods and Segregated Cities,” Conversation, October 5, 2017, https://theconversation.com.)
78. An Analysis of Transit Bus Axle Weight Issues (Winnipeg: MORR Transportation Consulting, November 2014), iii, www.trb.org.
79. Marcy Lowe, Bengu Aytekin, and Gary Gereffi, Public Transit Buses: A Green Choice Gets Greener (Durham: Duke University Global Value Chains Center, 2009), 4, www.gvcc.duke.edu.
80. J. Riley Edwards, “Train Energy, Power and Traffic Control,” University of Illinois Board of Trustees, 2010, www.engr.uky.edu.
81. Todd Litman, Evaluating Public Transit Benefits and Costs: Best Practices Guidebook (Victoria: Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2019), 56, www.vtpi.org.
82. Spurr, “TTC Subway System 10 Times More Poluted”; Raneem Alozzi, “Let TTC Subway Workers Use Face Masks Over Air Quality Concerns, Transit Unions Say,” Toronto Star, August 1, 2019, www.thestar.com; Adam Carter, “Rare Private Prosecution Charges Levied against TTC over Subway Air Quality,” CBC News, November 29, 2019, www.cbc.ca. Similarly, the researchers who tested the air quality of the London Underground noted that new airtight trains with closed windows offer major improvements for the amount of particulate matter that riders are exposed to, with better ventilation offering even more improvements. (Grafton-Green, “People Who Use Tube ‘Exposed to Eight Times More Air Pollution.’”)
83. Pelley, “Ride the GO Train?”; Bryan Passifiume, “On the Move: Metrolinx Pushes GTA Transit Plan Forward,” Toronto Sun, January 6, 2019, https://torontosun.com. Transport for London announced an £86.1 million ($110 million USD) program in 2017 to retrofit some 5,000 of the city’s buses with exhaust systems to cut down air pollution like nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter by up to 95 percent. (Will Date, “£86.1 Million London Bus Retrofit Programme Announced,” Air Quality News, June 28, 2017, https://airqualitynews.com.)
84. Michael Glotz-Richter and Hendrick Koch, “Electrification of Public Transport in Cities (Horizon 2020 ELIPTIC Project),” Transportation Research Procedia 14 (2016): 2614–19.
85. Alaric Nightingale, “Forget Tesla, It’s China’s E-Buses That Are Denting Oil Demand,” Bloomberg, March 19, 2019, www.bloomberg.com.
86. Linse and Barasz, “Urban Transportation Will Go All-Electric.”
87. “Proterra Catalyst Electric Vehicles Achieve Up to 25 MPGe,” Proterra, www.proterra.com.
88. This comparison especially holds true if autonomous vehicles continue to use extremely high levels of energy, requiring even larger batteries to operate on a regular basis.
89. Skip Descant, “Electric Buses Are Not Only Clean but Less Costly to Run,” Government Technology, December 4, 2018, www.govtech.com.
90. Aarian Marshall, “Why Electric Buses Haven’t Taken Over the World—Yet,” Wired, June 7, 2019, www.wired.com.
91. Kyle Field, “Could Buses Be the Perfect Vehicle-to-Grid Mobile Battery for Cities?,” CleanTechnica, May 24, 2018, www.cleantechnica.com.
92. Paige St. John, “Stalls, Stops and Breakdowns: Problems Plague Push for Electric Buses,” Los Angeles Times, May 20, 2018; Joshua Panas, “City of Albuquerque, BYD Reach Settlement after Fallout Over ART Project,” KOB-TV, May 31, 2019, www.kob.com.
93. Alon Levy, Josh Fairchild, and James Aloisi, “Kicking the Tires on Battery-Electric Buses,” CommonWealth, May 25, 2019, https://commonwealthmagazine.org.
94. Andy Darrell, “New Electric Buses Are a Holiday Gift for New York City,” Environmental Defense Fund, December 23, 2019, www.blogs.edf.org.
95. China, in comparison, has added approximately 80,000 new electric buses to its fleets. In late 2017, Shenzhen became the first city in the world to electrify its entire fleet with 16,359 buses, which required the construction of 510 charging stations and 8,000 charging poles across the city. Of the 385,000 electric buses in the world, 99 percent are now in China. (Linda Poon, “How China Took Charge of the Electric Bus Revolution,” CityLab, May 8, 2018, www.citylab.com; Han Ximin, “All Shenzhen Public Buses Now Electric,” EyeShenzhen, December 28, 2017, https://mp.weixin.qq.com.)
96. Levy, Fairchild, and Aloisi, “Kicking the Tires on Battery-Electric Buses.”
97. Eric Doherty, “Battery Trolleybuses Ready for Heavy Duty Climate Action,” National Observer, December 19, 2018, www.nationalobserver.com.
98. “Everett Bus Lane: The Little Pop-Up That Could,” TransitCenter, January 2, 2018, http://transitcenter.org.
99. “Buses, Trains, and Hurricanes: Transit and Natural Disasters,” Canadian Urban Transit Association, October 24, 2017, http://cutaactu.ca.
100. Jennifer Temmer and Henry David Venema, Building a Climate-Resilient City: Transportation infrastructure (Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development, April 2017); “Smart Growth and Climate Change,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov.
1. Nathan Bomey, “Why Buying a New Car Is More Expensive Than Ever,” USA Today, September 12, 2019, www.usatoday.com. The range is from $7,110 for a small sedan to $10,840 for a pickup truck. The average new vehicle depreciated by $3,330 in 2019.
2. Ryan Felton, “Americans Owe a Record $1.1 Trillion in Car Loans,” Jalopnik, September 18, 2017, https://jalopnik.com; Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities, 6. This debt load increased by 75 percent between 2009 and 2018. In addition to the 17.2 million vehicles bought in 2018, another 40 million used vehicles were exchanged.
3. Adie Tomer, Transit Access and Zero-Vehicle Households (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2011), www.brookings.edu; “Household, Individual, and Vehicle Characteristics,” Bureau of Transportation Statistics, May 20, 2017, www.bts.gov.
4. “Car Access United States,” National Equity Atlas, https://nationalequityatlas.org. Only 6.5 percent of white households don’t have a vehicle.
5. “Household Expenditures and Income,” Pew Charitable Trusts, March 30, 2016, www.pewtrusts.org.
6. Alana Semuels, “No Driver’s License, No Job,” Atlantic, June 15, 2016, www.theatlantic.com.
7. David C. Phillips, Do Low-Wage Employers Discriminate against Applicants with Long Commutes?: Evidence from a Correspondence Experiment (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 2018), 3, https://poverty.ucdavis.edu.
8. Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities, 5.
9. Paula Dutko, Michele Ver Ploeg, and Tracey Farrigan, Characteristics and Influential Factors of Food Deserts (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, 2012), 13, www.ers.usda.gov.
10. Imran Cronk, “The Transportation Barrier,” Atlantic, August 9, 2015, www.theatlantic.com.
11. Emily Badger, “The Suburbanization of Poverty,” CityLab, May 20, 2013, www.citylab.com.
12. “Drive Clean in the San Joaquin,” San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution Control District, www.valleyair.org; “Replace Your Ride,” South Coast Air Quality Management District, https://xappprod.aqmd.gov/RYR.
13. Dani Burlison, “Making EVs Possible for Low-Income Drivers,” Sustainable America, November 30, 2018, https://sustainableamerica.org.
14. BlueLA, https://www.bluela.com.
15. Alissa Walker, “When Electric Isn’t Good Enough: Sacramento Is the Staging Ground for a Fight to Make Drivers Spend Less Time on the Road,” Curbed, October 24, 2018, www.curbed.com.
16. Laura Bliss, “Rural California Awaits Its ‘Uber,’” CityLab, September 21, 2017, www.citylab.com.
17. Patricia Leigh Brown, “The Anti-Uber,” New York Times, June 17, 2017, www.nytimes.com.
18. Malak Abas, “The Winnipeg Women Ridesharing to Keep Each Other Safe,” Vice, February 1, 2019, www.vice.com.
19. Edu Bayer, “Inside the Dollar Van Wars,” New York Times, June 8, 2018, www.nytimes.com.
20. Brown, “The Anti-Uber.”
21. Laura Bliss, “Lyft Is Reaching L.A. Neighborhoods Where Taxis Wouldn’t,” CityLab, June 29, 2018, www.citylab.com.
22. Bliss, “Lyft Is Reaching L.A. Neighborhoods”; Will Livesley-O’Neill, “Ridehail Revolution: Groundbreaking ITS Dissertation Examines Discrimination and Travel Patterns for Lyft, Uber, and Taxis,” UCLA Institute of Transportation Studies, June 27, 2018, www.its.ucla.edu.
23. Dara Kerr, “Lyft Pledges $1.5M to Give Free Rides to Low-Income People,” CNET, May 2, 2018, www.cnet.com; “Expanding ‘Wheels for All’ to Help Those in Need,” Lyft Blog, May 2, 2018, https://blog.lyft.com.
24. Elise Herron, “Portlanders in Food Deserts Can Soon Take a Lyft to the Grocery Store for the Same Price as a Bus Ticket,” Willamette Week, May 30, 2019, www.wweek.com; Travis Robinson, “Health Leaders, Lyft Team Up to Help Indianapolis Food Desert,” WISH, June 4, 2019, www.wishtv.com.
25. Ashley Nunes, “If Driverless Cars Are Going to Change the World, They Have to Be Affordable,” Guardian, March 12, 2019, www.theguardian.com.
26. “Saving on Fuel and Vehicle Costs,” Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, www.energy.gov.
27. “How Much Do Electric Cars Cost?,” EnergySage, January 2, 2019, www.energysage.com.
28. Jack Stewart, “Tesla’s $7,500 Tax Credit Goes Poof, But Buyers May Benefit,” Wired, January 2, 2019, www.wired.com.
29. Molly F. Sherlock, The Plug-In Electric Vehicle Tax Credit (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2019), 2, https://fas.org.
30. Joe Cortright, “Electric Vehicle Subsidies: Inefficient & Inequitable,” City Observatory, June 5, 2019, http://cityobservatory.org.
31. Sean O’Kane, “GM Will Be the Second Automaker to Lose the EV Tax Credit, While Bolt Sales Stumble,” Verge, January 3, 2019, www.theverge.com; Sean Szymkowski, “Trump’s Proposed 2020 Budget Would End Electric-Car Tax Credits,” Car Connection, March 12, 2019, www.thecarconnection.com. Congressional Research Service calculated that maintaining the tax credit will cost a total of $7.5 billion between 2018 and 2022 in forgone revenue. (Sherlock, The Plug-In Electric Vehicle Tax Credit, 2.)
32. Ellen Edmonds, “AAA: Ride-Hailing Twice the Cost of Car Ownership,” AAA, August 21, 2018, https://newsroom.aaa.com.
33. Tim Dunne, “Ride-Hailing Services: The Price Better Be Right,” J.D. Power, February 21, 2018, www.jdpower.com; Megan Leonhardt, “Uber and Lyft Are Costing 20-Somethings an Insane Amount of Money in the Long Term,” Business Insider, February 9, 2018, www.businessinsider.com.
34. People with a household income over $200,000 per year account for close to 45 trips per person annually, compared to under 15 per year for households that earn between $50,000 and $100,000, and closer to 5 for households that earn under $50,000. (Schaller, The New Automobility, 12.)
35. Hubert Horan, “Can Uber Ever Deliver? Part Three: Understanding False Claims about Uber’s Innovation and Competitive Advantages,” Naked Capitalism, December 2, 2016, www.nakedcapitalism.com.
36. Matthew Daus, The Expanding Transportation Network Company “Equity Gap”: Adverse Impacts on Passengers with Disabilities, Underserved Communities, the Environment & the On-Demand Workforce (New York City: University Transportation Research Center, 2018), 20.
37. Todd Litman, Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predictions: Implications for Transport Planning (Victoria: Victoria Transportation Policy Institute, 2019), 9, www.vtpi.org.
38. Daus, The Expanding Transportation Network, 32.
39. Hana Creger, “Public Transit: Uber’s Next Casualty?,” Greenlining Institute, August 3, 2017, http://greenlining.org.
40. Anne E. Brown, “Op-Ed: L.A.’s Taxi Industry Discriminates against Black Riders: If We Don’t Force Them to Change, They Won’t,” Los Angeles Times, August 12, 2018, www.latimes.com.
41. Compared to passengers with white-sounding names, passengers with African American–sounding names experience 35 percent longer waiting times and twice as frequent cancellation rates. (Yanbo Ge, Christopher R. Knittel, Don MacKenzie, and Stephen Zoepf, Racial and Gender Discrimination in Transportation Network Companies (Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research, October 2016), 2, www.nber.org.)
42. Rebekah Sanders, “Uber and Lyft Are Making It Harder for Arizona Seniors to Get Around,” Arizona Republic, June 12, 2018.
43. Daus, The Expanding Transportation Network, 40.
44. “Mobile Fact Sheet,” Pew Research Center, February 5, 2018, www.pewresearch.org.
45. David Roberts, “Here’s the Real Nightmare Scenario for Self-Driving Cars,” Vox, April 20, 2018, www.vox.com.
46. Adrienne Lafrance, “How Self-Driving Cars Will Threaten Privacy,” Atlantic, March 21, 2016, www.theatlantic.com.
47. “The Most and Least Affordable Cities for Public Transit,” ValuePenguin, March 2017, www.valuepenguin.com. This average is based on a survey of 73 cities.
48. Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities, 15.
49. “Transit Deserts & Hulchanski’s Three Cities,” Martin Prosperity Institute, 2010, www.martinprosperity.org; “Stranded without Transit?: U of T Researchers Say One Million Urban Canadians Suffer from ‘Transport Poverty,’” U of T News, January 9, 2019, www.utoronto.ca/news.
50. Deepa Chandran, “Transportation Inclusion and Community Wellbeing: Exploring Public Transit Accessibility of Winnipeg’s North End Neighbourhoods,” master’s thesis (University of Manitoba, 2017), 80.
51. White members made up 88 percent of MPO boards in 2006, while representing only 61 percent of the population. Only 3 percent of board members were Hispanic, despite making up 17 percent of the population; and Black people made up 7 percent of boards though they represented 15 percent of the population. (Angie Schmitt, “How Structural Racism at Regional Planning Agencies Hurts Cities,” Streetsblog USA, January 5, 2018, https://usa.streetsblog.org.)
52. “Deliberations are primarily technocratic, with the majority of substantive discussion occurring among specialists within technical committees who arrive at a consensus to serve to the elected officials on MPO boards.” (Thomas W. Sanchez, An Inherent Bias?: Geographic and Racial-Ethnic Patterns of Metropolitan Planning Organization Boards (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2006), 6, www.brookings.edu.)
53. Cameron MacLeod, Patricia Wood, Matthew Whittier, and Benjamin Wert, Mixed Signals: Toronto Transit in a North American Context (Toronto: CodeRedTO, 2018), www.coderedto.com.
54. Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities, 11, 19.
55. Josh Cohen, “Seattle Raises the Equity Bar on Transit-Oriented Development,” Next City, May 8, 2018, https://nextcity.org.
56. “Community Benefits Agreements,” Toronto and York Region Labour Council, January 2013, www.labourcouncil.ca/community_benefits.
57. Carlito Pablo, “Vancouver Plan to Mass Rezone 67,000 Single-Family Lots for Duplexes up for Public Hearing,” Georgia Straight, August 23, 2018, www.straight.com; Sarah Mervosh, “Minneapolis, Tackling Housing Crisis and Inequity, Votes to End Single-Family Zoning,” New York Times, December 13, 2018.
58. Adam Brinklow, “Poll: Two-Thirds of California Voters Back SB 50 Housing Bill,” Curbed, May 17, 2019, https://sf.curbed.com; Matthew Yglesias, “Gavin Newsom Promised to Fix California’s Housing Crisis: Here’s a Bill That Would Do It,” Vox, December 7, 2018, www.vox.com. The bill has popular support, but it was delayed for voting until 2020.
59. Samuel Stein, “The Zone Defense,” Jacobin, June 4, 2019, www.jacobinmag.com.
60. Kipfer, “Free Transit and Beyond.”
61. Zach Dubinsky and Valerie Ouellet, “Who’s behind the Smiling Faces of Some Airbnb Hosts?: Multimillion-Dollar Corporations,” CBC News, April 30, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
62. Samuel Stein, “Tenants Won This Round,” June 18, 2019, www.jacobinmag.com.
63. Ryan Reft, “From Bus Riders Union to Bus Rapid Transit: Race, Class, and Transit Infrastructure in Los Angeles,” KCET, May 14, 2015, www.kcet.org.
64. Scott Miller, “The Los Angeles Bus Riders Union,” Against the Current 69 (1997), www.solidarity-us.org; Daniel B. Wood, “No-Seat, No-Fare Campaign Moves L.A. Buses into Gear,” Christian Science Monitor, September 14, 1998, www.csmonitor.com.
65. Matthew Roth, “FTA Won’t Fund BART Airport Connector, $70 Million to Go to Transit Ops,” Streetsblog SF, February 12, 2010, https://sf.streetsblog.org.
66. Minerva Perez, “Stockton Is Building an All-Electric Bus Rapid Transit Route,” StreetsBlog CAL, August 10, 2017, https://cal.streetsblog.org.
67. “Our Accomplishments,” TTCriders, www.ttcriders.ca.
68. “Transit Users Launch Petition Calling for Affordable Fares on New Union Pearson Line,” Our Union Pearson Coalition, November 24, 2014, www.ttcriders.ca.
69. Aurelio Perri, “City of Calgary Sells 70K Sliding-Scale Low-Income Transit Passes in First 3 Months,” Global News, September 6, 2017, https://globalnews.ca.
70. Roberta Altstadt, “TriMet Moves Forward on Launch of Low-Income Fare Program Aimed for July 1, 2018,” TriMet, January 24, 2018, http://news.trimet.org.
71. J. David Goodman, “Of 800,000 Poor New Yorkers, Only 30,000 Can Get the New Half-Priced MetroCards,” New York Times, January 4, 2019, www.nytimes.com.
72. Dellheim, Judith, and Jason Prince, eds., Free Public Transit: And Why We Don’t Pay to Ride Elevators (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 2018), 4. In mid-2018, Estonia announced that it was expanding free public transit from its capital Tallinn to the entire country for bus travel to rural municipalities and other regions. (Feargus O’Sullivan, “Estonia Will Roll Out Free Public Transit Nationwide,” CityLab, May 17, 2018, www.citylab.com.) The French city of Dunkirk introduced free transit in late 2018, making it the largest municipality in Europe to do so; a month after its launch, the city’s mayor reported up to an 85 percent increase on some routes. (Kim Willsher, “‘I Leave the Car at Home’: How Free Buses Are Revolutionising One French City,” Guardian, October 15, 2018, www.theguardian.com.)
73. Eric Jaffe, “How Free Transit Works in the United States,” CityLab, March 6, 2013, www.citylab.com; David Erickson, “Mountain Line Bus Rides to Remain ‘Zero Fare’ through at Least 2020,” Missoulian, October 13, 2017, https://missoulian.com; Angie Schmitt, “How Tampa Tripled Ridership on Its Streetcar,” Streetsblog USA, April 8, 2019, https://usa.streetsblog.org.
74. Richard Zussman, “City of Victoria Proposes Free Public Transit, Province Not Willing to Foot the Bill,” Global News, April 26, 2019, www.globalnews.ca; Laura Bliss, “Why Kansas City’s Free Transit Experiment Matters,” CityLab, December 13, 2019, www.citylab.com.
75. Blair Stenvick, “TriMet Board Members Say They’re Considering a Fareless System,” Portland Mercury, December 11, 2019, www.portlandmercury.com.
76. Wojciech Kębłowski, “Public Transport Can Be Free,” Jacobin, August 24, 2018, www.jacobinmag.com.
77. Dellheim and Prince, Free Public Transit, xix–xx.
78. “French City of Dunkirk Tests Out Free Transport—and It Works,” France24, August 31, 2019, www.france24.com.
79. “2019 Preliminary Operating Budget: Transit Department,” City of Winnipeg, March 7, 2019, www.winnipeg.ca.
80. Brooks, “How New York Taxi Workers Took On Uber.”
81. Jose Martinez, “MTA Looks to Lure Dollar Van Passengers Back,” Spectrum News, August 28, 2018, www.ny1.com.
1. Daniel Golson, Joey Capparella, and Laura Sky Brown, “Check Out Every Car Commercial from Super Bowl LIII 2019,” Car and Driver, February 4, 2019, www.caranddriver.com.
2. Lee Morgan, “The Effects of Traffic Congestion,” USA Today, https://traveltips.usatoday.com.
3. Phil LeBeau, “Traffic Jams Cost US $87 Billion in Lost Productivity in 2018, and Boston and DC Have the Nation’s Worst,” CNBC, February 12, 2019, www.cnbc.com.
4. Benjamin Schneider, “CityLab University: Induced Demand,” CityLab, September 6, 2018, www.citylab.com.
5. Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities, 5.
6. Paul Barter, “‘Cars Are Parked 95% of the Time’: Let’s Check!” Reinventing Parking, February 22, 2013, www.reinventingparking.org.
7. Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities, 3.
8. Mikhail Chester et al., “Parking Infrastructure: A Constraint on or Opportunity for Urban Redevelopment?: A Study of Los Angeles County Parking Supply and Growth,” Journal of the American Planning Association 81, no. 4 (2015): 268–86; Joe Linton, “18.6 Million Spaces and Still Rising: Study Puts L.A. Parking in Perspective,” Streetsblog LA, December 1, 2015, https://la.streetsblog.org; Laura Bliss, “Mapping L.A. County’s ‘Parking Crater,’” CityLab, January 11, 2016, www.citylab.com.
9. Tony Dutzik, Elizabeth Berg, Alana Miller, and Rachel Cross, Who Pays for Parking?: How Federal Tax Subsidies Jam More Cars into Congested Cities, and How Cities Can Reclaim Their Streets (Santa Barbara: Frontier Group, September 2017), 21, www.frontiergroup.org.
10. “Abolish Parking Minimums,” TransitCenter, March 13, 2019, http://transitcenter.org.
11. “Vehicle Deaths Estimated at 40,000 for Third Straight Year,” National Safety Council, 2019, www.nsc.org.
12. “Road Traffic Injuries,” World Health Organization, December 7, 2018, www.who.int.
13. Richard Florida, “The Geography of Car Deaths in America,” CityLab, October 15, 2015, www.citylab.com; “Maximum Posted Speed Limits by State,” Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2019, www.iihs.org.
14. “Distracted Driving 2015,” U.S. Department of Transportation, March 2017, https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov.
15. “Vehicle Deaths Estimated at 40,000,” National Safety Council.
16. This is the highest percentage since 1985. (“Fatality Facts 2017: State by State,” Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, www.iihs.org; Angie Schmitt, “The Unequal Toll of Pedestrian Deaths,” StreetsBlog USA, January 10, 2017, https://usa.streetsblog.org.)
17. Dangerous by Design 2019 (Washington, DC: Smart Growth America, 2019), smartgrowthamerica.org, 2.
18. Angela Laguipo, “Pedestrian Wheelchair Users 36 Percent More Likely to Die in Car Crashes,” Tech Times, November 27, 2015, www.techtimes.com; Susan Perry, “Pedestrian Wheelchair Users Are at Increased Risk of Dying in Road Collisions, Study Finds,” MinnPost, November 20, 2015, www.minnpost.com.
19. Schmitt, “The Unequal Toll of Pedestrian Deaths.”
20. Anna Lusk, “You Can’t Design Bike-Friendly Cities without Considering Race and Class,” CityLab, February 8, 2019, www.citylab.com.
21. “Building Equity: Race, Ethnicity, Class, and Protected Bike Lanes: An Idea Book for Fairer Cities,” PeopleForBikes and Alliance for Biking & Walking, 2014, https://peopleforbikes.org; Dangerous by Design, 21.
22. Shill, “Should Law Subsidize Driving?”
23. Ryan Briggs, “City Streets Safer Than Suburban Roads, Study Finds,” Plan Philly, May 21, 2019, http://planphilly.com; “Road Safety–Speed,” World Health Organization, www.who.int.
24. Also, between 2009 and 2016, pedestrian deaths caused by a crash involving an SUV increased by 81 percent. (Erin D. Lawrence, Nathan Bomey, and Kristi Tanner, “Death on Foot: America’s Love of SUVs Is Killing Pedestrians,” Detroit Free Press, July 1, 2018, www.freep.com.)
25. Toby Hagon, “New Tesla Cybertruck Could Put Other Road Users at Risk,” News.com.au, November 26, 2019, www.news.com.au.
26. Michael Gushulak, “Tesla’s Cybertruck: A Rolling Tank against Cyclists & Pedestrians?,” BikeRumor, November 25, 2019, www.bikerumor.com.
27. “Shared Mobility Principles for Livable Cities,” www.sharedmobilityprinciples.org.
28. Corey D. Harper, Chris T. Henderickson, and Constantine Samaras, “Cost and Benefit Estimates of Partially Automated Vehicle Collision Avoidance Technologies,” Accident Analysis & Prevention 95 (October 2016): 104–15.
29. Raluca Budiu, “Tesla’s Touchscreen UI: A Case Study of Car-Dashboard User Interface,” Nielsen Norman Group, May 19, 2019, www.nngroup.com.
30. Tamra Johnson, “New Vehicle Infotainment Systems Create Increased Distractions behind the Wheel,” AAA, October 5, 2017, www.newsroom.aaa.com.
31. Topham, “Uber to Introduce Clean Air Fee.”
32. Danny King, “Zipcar Says Its 1 Million Members Have Taken 400,000 Vehicles off the Road,” Autoblog, September 9, 2016, www.autoblog.com.
33. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Lyft Will Pay You $550 to Ditch Your Car for a Month,” Verge, July 31, 2018, www.theverge.com; Jonathon Ramsey, “Lyft Asks for Volunteers to Ditch Their Cars for a Month, 150,000 Sign Up,” Autoblog, October 8, 2018, www.autoblog.com. Lyft reported that 52 percent of applicants said they found driving stressful, while 57 percent of the 2,000 participants used their personal vehicles less after ditching their car for the month. Next to the reason of going out and drinking (46.1 percent) and time pressures (39.9 percent), the difficulty and expense of parking represented the main reason for why people choose a ride-hailing option (33.1 percent). (“Why 130,000 Lyft Passengers Were Ready to Ditch Their Personal Cars in Less Than 24 Hours,” Lyft, December 13, 2018, https://blog.lyft.com.)
34. Mike Ramsey, “Self-Driving Cars Could Cut Down on Accidents, Study Says,” Wall Street Journal, March 5, 2015.
35. “2018 Self-Driving Safety Report,” General Motors, www.gm.com.
36. Steven Higashide, “4 Things for Transit Agencies to Remember in a World of Driverless Car Hype,” TransitCenter, May 3, 2018, http://transitcenter.org.
37. Alejandro Henao, “Impacts of Ridesourcing—Lyft and Uber—on Transportation Including VMT, Mode Replacement, Parking, and Travel Behavior” (PhD diss., University of Colorado, 2017).
38. Gehrke, Felix, and Reardon, A Survey of Ride-Hailing Passengers, 12.
39. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber and Lyft Are the ‘Biggest Contributors’ to San Francisco’s Traffic Congestion, Study Says,” Verge, May 8, 2019, www.theverge.com.
40. Roger Rudick, “Supervisor Shocked to Hear Uber and Lyft Violate Bike and Transit Lanes,” Streetsblog SF, September 26, 2017, https://sf.streetsblog.org.
41. Eric Scott, “Column: The Increasing Number of Uber, Lyft Drivers Need to Stay in Their Lane,” Pioneer Press, November 7, 2018, www.twincities.com.
42. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Cars with High-Tech Safety Systems Are Still Really Bad at Not Running People Over,” Verge, October 4, 2019, www.theverge.com.
43. Andrew Weber, “Ride-Hailing Hasn’t Reduced Drunk Driving-Related Traffic Fatalities, Study Says,” KUT News, July 28, 2016, www.kut.org.
44. Charlotte Jee, “Uber and Lyft Are behind a Sharp Rise in US Traffic Deaths,” MIT Technology Review, October 25, 2018, www.technologyreview.com.
45. Laura Bliss, “Uber and Lyft’s Link to Traffic Fatalities,” CityLab, October 26, 2018, www.citylab.com.
46. “Consumer Reports: 1000s of Uber, Lyft Drivers’ Vehicles Have Outstanding Recalls for Deadly Defects,” Associated Press, May 21, 2019, https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com.
47. Litman, Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predictions, 10.
48. Litman, Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predictions, 14.
49. David R. Baker, “How Self-Driving Cars Could Become Weapons of Terror,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 10, 2016, www.sfchronicle.com.
50. Connie Loizos, “Uber Has Settled with the Family of the Homeless Victim Killed Last Week,” TechCrunch, March 29, 2018, www.techcrunch.com.
51. Fred Lambert, “Understanding the Fatal Tesla Accident on Autopilot and the NHTSA Probe,” Electrek, July 1, 2016, https://electrek.co; Andrew J. Hawkins, “Tesla Didn’t Fix an Autopilot Problem for Three Years, and Now Another Person Is Dead,” Verge, May 17, 2019, www.theverge.com; Michael Grothaus, “Report: Apple Engineer Who Died in Tesla Crash Had Warned about Autopilot Errors,” Fast Company, March 29, 2018, www.fastcompany.com; Fred Lambert, “Tesla Driver Arrested for Drunk Driving after Blaming Autopilot for Crashing into a Fire Truck,” Electrek, August 25, 2018, https://electrek.co; Paris Marx, “Tesla on Autopilot Slammed into (Another) Truck,” Radical Urbanist, May 22, 2019, https://medium.com.
52. Hawkins, “Tesla Didn’t Fix an Autopilot Problem.”
53. Matt Drange, “Studies Don’t Support Elon Musk’s Autopilot Safety Claims,” Information, May 29, 2019, www.theinformation.com.
54. Nidhi Kalra and Susan M. Paddock, Driving to Safety: How Many Miles of Driving Would It Take to Demonstrate Autonomous Vehicle Reliability? (Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 2016), 10, www.rand.org.
55. Kirsten Korosec, “Waymo’s Self-Driving Cars Hit 10 Million Miles,” TechCrunch, October 10, 2018, https://techcrunch.com.
56. Kalra and Paddock, Driving to Safety, 10.
57. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Self-Driving Car Crashes Put a Dent in Consumer Trust, Poll Says,” Verge, May 22, 2018, www.theverge.com.
58. Stephen Edelstein, “Consumers Have Become More Apprehensive about Self-Driving Cars, Study Says,” Drive, August 16, 2018, www.thedrive.com.
59. Simon Romero, “Wielding Rocks and Knives, Arizonans Attack Self-Driving Cars,” New York Times, December 31, 2018; Julia Carrie Wong, “Rage against the Machine: Self-Driving Cars Attacked by Angry Californians,” Guardian, March 6, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
60. Faiz Siddiqui, “Silicon Valley Pioneered Self-Driving Cars: But Some of Its Tech-Savvy Residents Don’t Want Them Tested in Their Neighborhoods,” Washington Post, October 3, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com.
61. Jeremy Kahn, “To Get Ready for Robot Driving, Some Want to Reprogram Pedestrians,” Bloomberg, August 16, 2018, www.bloomberg.com.
62. Angie Schmitt, “Self-Driving Car Makes Prepare to Blame ‘Jaywalkers,’” Streetsblog USA, August 17, 2018, https://usa.streetsblog.org.
63. Amir Efrati, “Waymo’s Big Ambitions Slowed by Tech Trouble,” Information, August 28, 2017, www.theinformation.com.
64. Russell Brandon, “Self-Driving Cars Are Headed toward an AI Roadblock,” Verge, July 3, 2018, www.theverge.com.
65. Rodney Brooks, “Bothersome Bystanders and Self Driving Cars,” Rodney Brooks, July 4, 2018, https://rodneybrooks.com.
66. Charlie Sorrel, “Self-Driving Mercedes Will Be Programmed to Sacrifice Pedestrians to Save the Driver,” Fast Company, October 13, 2016, www.fastcompany.com.
67. Johannes Himmelreich, “The Everyday Ethical Challenges of Self-Driving Cars,” Conversation, March 27, 2018, https://theconversation.com.
68. Sigal Samuel, “A New Study Finds a Potential Risk with Self-Driving Cars: Failure to Detect Dark-Skinned Pedestrians,” Vox, March 6, 2019, www.vox.com.
69. Angie Schmitt, “Self-Driving Cars Are Coming: Will They Serve Profit or the Public?,” In These Times, July 6, 2018, http://inthesetimes.com.
70. Angie Schmitt, “Uber Got Off the Hook for Killing a Pedestrian with its Self-Driving Car,” Streetsblog USA, March 8, 2019, https://usa.streetsblog.org.
71. Timothy B. Lee, “How Terrible Software Design Decisions Led to Uber’s Deadly 2018 Crash,” Ars Technica, November 6, 2019, www.arstechnica.com.
72. Ashley Nunes and Kristen Hernandez, “The Cost of Self-Driving Cars Will Be the Biggest Barrier to Their Adoption,” Harvard Business Review, January 31, 2019, https://hbr.org.
73. Andrew J. Hawkins, “A Day in the Life of a Waymo Self-Driving Taxi,” Verge, August 21, 2018, www.theverge.com; Steve LeVine, “What It Really Costs to Turn a Car into a Self-Driving Vehicle,” Quartz, March 5, 2017, https://qz.com.
74. Adam Millard-Ball, “The Autonomous Vehicle Parking Problem,” Transport Policy 75 (March 2019): 99–108.
75. Brent Skorup, “Driverless Cars Need Just One Thing: Futuristic Roads,” Wired, October 10, 2016, www.wired.com.
76. Jeff Davis, “Is the Federal-Aid Highway Program Compatible with the ‘Green New Deal?,’” Eno Center for Transportation, January 25, 2019, www.enotrans.org.
77. The gas tax has stagnated at 18.4 cents per gallon since 1993. If the rate had been indexed for inflation, the current tax on gasoline would be about 31 cents per gallon and on diesel fuel about 42 cents. (Aarian Marshall, “How the Humble Gas Tax Became an American Bogeyman,” Wired, May 9, 2017, www.wired.com; Tony Dutzik, Gideon Weissman, and Phineas Baxandall, Who Pays for Roads?: How the “Users Pay” Myth Gets in the Way of Solving America’s Transportation Problems (Boston: Frontier Group, 2015), 10, https://frontiergroup.org.)
78. “What Is the Highway Trust Fund, and How Is It Financed?,” Tax Policy Center, www.taxpolicycenter.org.
79. Dutzik, Weissman, and Baxandall, Who Pays for Roads?, 2.
80. Shill, “Should Law Subsidize Driving?”; Joe Cortright, “There’s No Such Thing as a Free-Way,” City Observatory, May 13, 2015, http://cityobservatory.org.
81. Lynn Anderson Davy and Morgan Kelly, “Houston’s Urban Sprawl Increased Rainfall, Flooding during Hurricane Harvey,” Princeton University, November 15, 2018, www.princeton.edu.
82. John Vidal, “As Flood Waters Rise, Is Urban Sprawl as Much to Blame as Climate Change?,” Guardian, September 3, 2017,
www.theguardian.com.
83. Sean Marshall, “Cars Take Up Too Much Space on King Street,” Torontoist, February 18, 2017, https://torontoist.com.
84. “King Street Transit Pilot,” City of Toronto, 2019, www.toronto.ca.
85. “King Street by the Numbers,” Ryerson City Building Institute, April 3, 2019, www.citybuildinginstitute.ca.
86. Sam Schwartz, 14th Street Transit & Truck Priority Pilot Project (New York City: Sam Schwartz Transportation Consultants, 2019).
87. Tamar Harris, “Some Businesses Give an Icy Middle Finger to King St. Pilot,” Toronto Star, January 17, 2018, www.thestar.com.
88. “Transportation Fatalities by Mode,” Bureau of Transportation Statistics, www.bts.gov.
89. While drivers or passengers of private automobiles experienced 7.28 deaths per billion passenger-miles between 2000 and 2009, bus passengers—including transit, intercity, school and charter buses—only accounted for 0.11 deaths. Urban mass transit rail such as subways and light rail results in an average of 0.24 deaths per billion passenger-miles, while commuter rail and Amtrak average 0.43. (Ian Savage, “Comparing the Fatality Risks in United States Transportation Across Modes and Over Time,” Research in Transportation Economics: The Economics of Transportation Safety 43, no. 1 (2013): 29.)
90. John Metcalfe, “A Good Way to Avoid Injuries on the Road: Ride the Bus,” CityLab, January 27, 2017, www.citylab.com.
91. Angie Schmitt, “The Best Tool for Reducing Traffic Deaths?: More Transit!,” Streetsblog USA, August 29, 2018, https://usa.streetsblog.org; Sommer Mathis, “What If the Best Way to End Drunk Driving Is to End Driving?,” CityLab, June 4, 2014, www.citylab.com.
92. “Amtrak Train Derailment,” Seattle Times, May 22, 2019, www.seattletimes.com; Jeffrey Cook et al., “South Carolina Amtrak Crash Is the Latest in a String of Accidents over the Past Few Years,” ABC News, February 5, 2018, https://abcnews.go.com.
93. Trevor Pritchard, “What We Still Don’t Know about the fatal Ottawa Bus Crash,” CBC News, January 13, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
94. Paul Mackie, “Transit Is 10-Times Safer Than Driving—and Makes Communities Safer, Says New APTA Report,” Mobility Lab, September 8, 2016, https://mobilitylab.org; Schmitt, “The Best Tool for Reducing Traffic Deaths?”
95. Todd Litman, Safer Than You Think!: Revising the Transit Safety Narrative (Victoria: Victoria Transport Policy Institute, July 24, 2018).
96. Michael Mui, “1,235 People Have Died on Canadian Subway and Rail Tracks since 2007: Why Don’t We Have Safety Barriers?,” Toronto Star, August 19, 2018, www.thestar.com.
97. Mui, “1,235 People Have Died.”
98. Neil deMause, “Can New York Plug All Its Subway Holes Before the Next Storm Hits?,” Gizmodo, December 12, 2019, www.earther.gizmodo.com.
99. Athlyn Cathcart-Keays, “Why Copenhagen Is Building Parks That Can Turn into Ponds,” CityLab, January 22, 2016, www.citylab.com.
100. Christopher Robbins, “Gentrified Aquarium: De Blasio’s Streetcar and the Tale of Two Waterfronts,” Village Voice, September 13, 2016, www.villagevoice.com.
101. Joseph Stromberg, “The Real Reason American Public Transportation Is Such a Disaster,” Vox, August 10, 2015, www.vox.com.
102. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, 5.
103. Kim Parker, Juliana Menasce Horowitz, Anna Brown, Richard Fry, D’Vera Cohn and Ruth Igielnik, “1. Demographic and Economic Trends in Urban, Suburban and Rural Communities,” Pew Research Center, May 22, 2018, www.pewsocialtrends.org.
104. David L.A. Gordon, “Canadians Increasingly Live in the Auto-Dependent Suburbs,” Building, October 10, 2018, https://building.ca. Between 2006 and 2016, 83 percent of population growth in the Toronto census metropolitan area was in suburbs or exurban areas, with only 12 percent in “active cores.”
105. Dwyer Gunn, “Why Poverty Is Skyrocketing in the Suburbs,” Pacific Standard, June 26, 2017, https://psmag.com.
106. A 2018 study by the Brookings Institute reported that the fastest population growth in 2016 and 2017 is happening in exurbs and emerging suburbs, with the growth rate in urban cores cut in half since 2012. (William H. Frey, “US Population Disperses to Suburbs, Exurbs, Rural Areas, and ‘Middle of the Country’ Metros,” Brookings Institute, March 26, 2018, www.brookings.edu.)
107. Rachelle Younglai and Chen Wang, “How Canada’s Suburban Dream Became a Debt-Filled Nightmare,” Globe and Mail, September 13, 2016, www.theglobeandmail.com; Angie Schmitt, “Sprawl Costs the Public More Than Twice as Much as Compact Development,” Streetsblog USA, March 5, 2015, https://usa.streetsblog.org.
108. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, 65.
109. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, 8.
110. Sylvia Menezes Roberts, “A Suburban Model for Incremental Transit Improvement,” Strong Towns, November 28, 2018, www.strongtowns.org.
111. While ridership in Toronto only increased by 0.1 percent in 2016, Brampton’s spiked by 9.2 percent. (Sean Marshall, “The Secret behind Brampton’s Transit Success,” TVO, January 8, 2018, www.tvo.org.)
112. Yonah Freemark, “Calgary’s Soaring Transit Use Suggests High Ridership Is Possible Even in Sprawling Cities,” Transport Politic, December 10, 2014, www.thetransportpolitic.com; Andrew Jeffrey, “Reduced Hours and Longer Waits: How Budget Cuts Will Affect Calgary Transit,” Star Calgary, August 9, 2019, www.thestar.com.
113. Christina Hernandez Sherwood, “Q&A: Ellen Dunham-Jones on Retrofitting Suburbia,” ZDNet, March 11, 2013, www.zdnet.com.
114. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, 66.
1. 2017 Disability Statistics Annual Report (Durham: Institute on Disability, 2018), 2, https://disabilitycompendium.org.
2. Elizabeth A. Courtney-Long, Dianna D. Carroll, Qing C. Zhang, Alissa C. Stevens, Shannon Griffin-Blake, Brian S. Armour, and Vincent A. Campbell, “Prevalence of Disability and Disability Type Among Adults—United States, 2013,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64, no. 29 (2015): 777–83; Martha Ross and Nicole Bateman, “Disability Rates among Working-Age Adults Are Shaped by Race, Place, and Education,” Brookings Institute, May 15, 2018, www.brookings.edu.
3. Joseph Shapiro, “The Sexual Assault Epidemic No One Talks About,” National Public Radio, January 8, 2018, www.npr.org; Rachel Gilmore, “Women with Disabilities More at Risk of Sexual Assault: Statistics Canada,” iPolitics, March 15, 2018, https://ipolitics.ca.
4. Sandy E. James, Jody L. Herman, Susan Rankin, Mara Keisling, Lisa Mottet, and Ma’ayan Anafi, The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey (Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality, 2016), 5, https://transequality.org.
5. “Violence against Trans and Non-Binary People,” National Resource Center on Domestic Violence, https://vawnet.org.
6. “Accessibility at Uber,” Uber, May 20, 2019, https://accessibility.uber.com.
7. Rahul Bijor and Ann Bordetsky, “Driving Customers to Businesses with UberCENTRAL,” Uber Newsroom, July 28, 2016, www.uber.com.
8. Darrell Etherington, “Uber Launches Uber Health, a B2B Ride-Hailing Platform for Healthcare,” TechCrunch, March 1, 2018, https://techcrunch.com.
9. Dara Khosrowshahi, “An Improved Experience for Riders in Wheelchairs,” Uber Newsroom, November 20, 2018, www.uber.com.
10. Rina Raphael, “How Free Lyft Rides Can Dramatically Improve Life for Senior Citizens,” Fast Company, October 2, 2018, www.fastcompany.com.
11. Tanya Snyder, “Uber, but for Grandma,” Politico, September 27, 2017, www.politico.com.
12. Ida Mojadad, “Rideshare App for Women Emerges amid Chilling Oakland Ride,” SF Weekly, September 6, 2018.
13. “Protect Your Safety While Riding with Uber,” Uber, www.uber.com.
14. Ashley Halsey III and Michael Laris, “Blind Man Sets Out Alone in Google’s Driverless Car,” Washington Post, December 13, 2016.
15. Barbara Merrill, “Disabled Americans Deserve the Benefits of Self-Driving Cars,” Hill, September 19, 2018, https://thehill.com.
16. Ashley Halsey III, “Driverless Cars Promise Far Greater Mobility for the Elderly and People with Disabilities,” Washington Post, November 23, 2017.
17. Stamp Siripanich, “Travel with Trust: Designing for Women’s Safety in Autonomous Rideshares,” Teague Labs, March 28, 2018, https://medium.com.
18. Nina Strochlic, “Uber: Disability Laws Don’t Apply to Us,” Daily Beast, May 21, 2015, www.thedailybeast.com.
19. Jonathan Stempel, “Uber Is Sued over Lack of Wheelchair-Accessible Cars in NYC,” Reuters, July 18, 2017, www.reuters.com; Dara Kerr, “Uber Discriminates against People in Wheelchairs, Lawsuit Says,” CNET, February 28, 2018, www.cnet.com.
20. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber and Lyft Are Terrible at Providing Wheelchair-Accessible Service, and Here’s the Proof,” Verge, May 23, 2018, www.theverge.com.
21. Matthew Flamm, “Uber, Lyft and Via Sue to Block Wheelchair-Accessibility Mandate,” Crain’s New York Business, April 13, 2018, www.crainsnewyork.com.
22. Stephen Nessen, “Uber, Lyft, Via Sue City over Wheelchair Requirements,” WNYC News, April 13, 2018, www.wnyc.org.
23. Nessen, “Uber, Lyft, Via Sue City.”
24. Bérénice Magistretti, “As It Speeds toward IPO, Lyft Faces Federal Lawsuit for Disability Discrimination,” Forbes, March 20, 2019, www.forbes.com.
25. Molly Taft, “Why Can’t Uber and Lyft Be More Wheelchair-Friendly?” CityLab, December 11, 2018, www.citylab.com.
26. Daus, The Expanding Transportation Network, 27.
27. Sarah Emerson, “‘GoGoGrandparent’ Is Overcharging Seniors for Uber Rides, and Drivers Are Pissed,” Motherboard, April 13, 2017, www.vice.com.
28. Jamie L. LaReau, “Ford Program Offered Rides to Doctor’s Offices: Why They’re Ending It,” Detroit Free Press, December 6, 2019, www.freep.com.
29. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Ford’s On-Demand Bus Service Chariot Is Going Out of Business,” Verge, January 10, 2019, www.theverge.com.
30. Bret Hauff, “Self-Driving Cars Should Be Designed for People with Disabilities,” Motherboard, May 24, 2017, www.vice.com.
31. Bev Betkowski, “Race to Market Self-Driving Cars Leaving People with Disabilities Behind,” Folio, February 28, 2019, www.folio.ca.
32. Leila McNeill, “Before Cities Become Smart, They Must Become Accessible,” Mobility Management, March 1, 2019, https://mobilitymgmt.com.
33. Sara Ashley O’Brien et al., “CNN Investigation: 103 Uber Drivers Accused of Sexual Assault or Abuse,” CNN, April 30, 2018, https://money.cnn.com.
34. “Uber Received More Than 3,000 Reports of Sexual Assaults in U.S. in 2018,” CBC News, December 5, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
35. Dara Kerr, “More Than 120 Uber, Lyft Drivers Said to Have Sexually Assaulted Riders,” CNET, May 1, 2018, www.cnet.com.
36. Katie Roof, “Uber Dealt with Class Action Lawsuit Alleging Assault by Drivers,” TechCrunch, November 14, 2017, https://techcrunch.com.
37. Cara Kelly and Tricia L. Nadolny, “Rape, Assault Allegations Mount against Lyft in What New Suit Calls ‘Sexual Predator Crisis,’” USA Today, September 4, 2019, www.usatoday.com.
38. Johana Bhuiyan, “Uber Filed a Motion to Compel Alleged Sexual Assault Victims to Settle Some Claims under Arbitration,” Vox, May 15, 2018, www.vox.com.
39. Rebecca Joseph, “Uber Installs Panic Button for Riders to Curb Sexual Assault,” Global News, May 29, 2018, https://globalnews.ca.
40. Greg Bensinger, “When Rides Go Wrong: How Uber’s Investigations Unit Works to Limit the Company’s Liability,” Washington Post, September 26, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com.
41. “Nearly a Quarter of Women Have Turned In Uber Drivers for Uncomfortable Behavior,” National Council for Home Safety and Security, December 12, 2018, www.alarms.org.
42. Alice Yin, “‘Is This Going to Be My Last Ride?’: Female Ride-Share Users Share Concerns—and Safety Tips—after Student’s Slaying,” Chicago Tribune, April 15, 2019.
43. Alex Dalbey, “This Woman Perfectly Explains Why Lying to Male Uber Drivers Is OK,” Daily Dot, October 10, 2018, www.dailydot.com.
44. Amelia Tait, “‘I Got Out and Ran’: With One Attack a Week in London, Is Using Uber Safe for Women?,” New Statesman, March 11, 2018, www.newstatesman.com.
45. Robyn Kanner, “Here’s One Small Way Uber Could Finally Support Trans People Like Me,” Mic, March 14, 2017, www.mic.com.
46. Giles K. Bailey, “Improving Public Transit Safety for Women and the Impact of Ride-Hailing Services,” Metro, June 28, 2018, www.metro-magazine.com.
47. Nick Van Mead, Harvey Symons, and Aghnia Adzkia, “Access Denied: Wheelchair Metro Maps versus Everyone Else’s,” Guardian, September 21, 2017, www.theguardian.com
48. Jill L. Bezyak, Scott A. Sabella, and Robert H. Gattis, “Public Transportation: An Investigation of Barriers for People with Disabilities,” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 28, no. 1 (2017), 52–55. The median breakdown for an elevator in the New York subway is nearly four hours.
49. “Toward Universal Mobility: Charting a Path to Improve Transportation Accessibility,” Metropolitan Planning Council, December 2019, www.scribd.com.
50. Sasha Blair-Goldensohn, “New York Has a Great Subway, if You’re Not in a Wheelchair,” New York Times, March 29, 2017.
51. Blair-Goldensohn, “New York Has a Great Subway.”
52. James Barron, “For Disabled Subway Riders, the Biggest Challenge Can Be Getting to the Train,” New York Times, July 26, 2018.
53. Van Mead, Symons, and Adzkia, “Access Denied”; Barron, “For Disabled Subway Riders.”
54. Lauren O’Neil, “Someone Created a TTC Subway Map with Only Accessible Stations,” blogTO, November 2018, www.blogto.com.
55. Oliver Moore, “Transit Accessibility for All Remains a Dream Unfulfilled across Canada,” Globe and Mail, December 29, 2017, www.theglobeandmail.com.
56. “Wheelchair Charging Stations Need to Be Rolled Out Nationwide,” SpinalCord.com, February 28, 2019, www.spinalcord.com.
57. Andrew Bowen, “Disability Lawsuit Targets San Diego over Dockless Scooters,” KPBS, February 19, 2019, www.kpbs.org.
58. Elyse Wanshel and Lena Jackson, “New York City’s Public Transit Is a Nightmare for People with Disabilities,” HuffPost US, October 9, 2018, www.huffingtonpost.ca.
59. Joseph Stromberg, “Once Seniors Are Too Old to Drive, Our Transportation System Totally Fails Them,” Vox, June 12, 2015, www.vox.com.
60. John Rieti, “Toronto Wheel-Trans Riders Singing the Blues over Delays, Irregular Service,” CBC News, June 22, 2017, www.cbc.ca.
61. Bezyak, Sabella, and Gattis, “Public Transportation,” 56.
62. Chantal Braganza, “Why We Need to Treat Public Washrooms as a Human Right,” TVO, May 29, 2018, www.tvo.org.
63. Stromberg, “Once Seniors Are Too Old to Drive.”
64. “In 6 Short Years, Sexual Assault Prevention Now a Priority for Translink,” Battered Women’s Support Services, July 13, 2018, www.bwss.org.
65. Sexual assaults reported on the London Underground increased by 42 percent between 2015–16 and 2018–19. (“Reports of Sexual Assaults on London Underground Soar,” Guardian, September 23, 2019, www.theguardian.com.) In mid-2019, a lesbian couple were assaulted by four teens on a London bus after kissing, sparking global outrage; the attackers were later charged for committing an aggravated hate crime. (Linda Givetash, “Four Teens Charged in Attack on Lesbian Couple on London Bus,” NBC News, July 26, 2019, www.nbcnews.com.)
66. Amy Lubitow, JaDee Carathers, Maura Kelly, and Miriam Abelson, “Transmobilities: Mobility, Harassment, and Violence Experienced by Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Public Transit Riders in Portland, Oregon,” Gender, Place & Culture 24 (2017): 1398–418.
67. “Sexual Harassment on Public Transport Is a Problem We Must Solve,” Battered Women’s Support Services, November 9, 2015, www.bwss.org.
68. Danika Worthington, “Meet ADAPT, the Disabled Activists from Denver Who Changed a Nation,” Denver Post, July 5, 2017, www.denverpost.com.
69. Janine Jackson, “Disability Rights Activists Are Even Invisible Getting Arrested on Capitol Hill,” FAIR, May 6, 2011, https://fair.org; Amanda Michelle Gomez and Ryan Koronowski, “ADAPT Activists Put Their Bodies on the Line to Gain Support for Disability Integration Act,” ThinkProgress, May 24, 2018, https://thinkprogress.org.
70. Blair-Goldensohn, “New York Has a Great Subway.”
71. David Gutman, “Settlement: Seattle to Build Thousands of Sidewalk Curb Ramps over Next 18 Years,” Seattle Times, July 17, 2017.
72. Jonathan Stempel, “U.S. Sues New York City Subway Operator over Disabled Access,” Reuters, March 13, 2018, www.reuters.com.
73. Sarah Lu, “Class Action Lawsuit by People with Disabilities Authorized against Montreal Public Transit,” Rights Watch Blog, December 6, 2017, http://rightswatch.ca; “People with Disabilities Sue BART for Discrimination,” Disability Rights Advocates, April 5, 2017, https://dralegal.org.
74. Ben Yakas, “Disability Rights Activists Disrupt MTA Talk, Demanding Subway Accessibility,” Gothamist, April 27, 2018, http://gothamist.com.
75. Tyler Olsen, “Audits Find Abbotsford Bus Drivers Breaching Human Rights Agreement by Not Calling Out Stops,” Abbotsford News, May 4, 2019, www.abbynews.com.
76. “Toward Universal Mobility: Charting a Path to Improve Transportation Accessibility,” Metropolitan Planning Council, December 2019, www.scribd.com.
77. Aarian Marshall, “Want to Boost Transit Ridership?: Try Making Women Feel Safer,” Wired, January 23, 2019, www.wired.com.
78. Toula Drimonis, “Rethinking Public Transit to Meet Women’s Needs,” Ricochet, February 17, 2016, https://ricochet.media.
79. “Sexual Harassment on Public Transport,” Battered Women’s Support Services.
80. Eric Jaffe, “Public Transportation’s Hidden Gender Imbalance,” CityLab, February 1, 2012, www.citylab.com; Toula Drimonis, “Rethinking Public Transit to Meet Women’s Needs,” Ricochet, February 17, 2016, www.ricochet.media.
81. Anna Kramer, “Good Public Transit Is a Feminist Issue,” TTCriders, March 6, 2019, www.ttcriders.ca.
82. Kramer, “Good Public Transit Is a Feminist Issue.”
83. Roger Rudick, “Women Account for 15 Percent of Transportation Workforce,” Streetsblog SF, February 12, 2019, https://sf.streetsblog.org.
84. Oliver Moore, “Mind the Gender Gap: Transit Agencies Hiring More Women, but Front Lines Lag,” Globe and Mail, September 5, 2017, www.theglobeandmail.com.
85. A 2018 report said that the transit board in Washington, DC, for example, is made up of thirteen men and two women and Toronto’s TTC board is nine men and two women. These boards tend to be overwhelmingly white as well, with Montreal’s RTM made up of 17 white people and zero Black, Indigenous, and people of colour while Vancouver’s was 11 white people and zero Black, Indigenous, and people of colour. These statistics do not reflect class representation, such as income, wealth, and housing situation. (MacLeod, Wood, Whittier, and Wert, Mixed Signals, 53.)
1. Sharmila Nair, “Gartner: 1.5 Billion Smartphones Were Sold in 2017,” Star Online, February 25, 2018, www.thestar.com.
2. Ben Gilbert, “Elon Musk Just Revealed More Video Games Coming to Tesla Cars—Here’s the Full List So Far,” Business Insider, June 13, 2019, www.businessinsider.com; Shaunacy Ferro, “Tesla Drivers Now Have Access to a Library of Fart Sounds in Their Car,” Mental Floss, December 17, 2018, www.mentalfloss.com.
3. Joann Muller, “What Tesla Knows about You,” Axios, March 13, 2019, www.axios.com.
4. Cyrus Farivar, “Why Cops Won’t Need a Warrant to Pull the Data off Your Autonomous Car,” Ars Technica, February 3, 2018, www.arstechnica.com.
5. Jake Holmes, “Kia, MIT to Show a Car Interior That Adapts to Your Mood at CES,” Road Show, December 20, 2018, www.cnet.com.
6. “Audi to Exhibit New In-Car Entertainment Technologies at CES 2019,” Audi MediaCenter, December 12, 2018, www.audi-mediacenter.com.
7. Chris Nelson, “Inside the Cocoon: What to Expect from Automated-Vehicle Interiors,” Automobile, January 29, 2019, www.automobilemag.com.
8. Gary Silberg, Thomas Mayor, Todd Dubner, Jono Anderson, and Leila Shin, The Clockspeed Dilemma: What Does It Mean for Automotive Innovation? (Chicago: KPMG, 2015), 20.
9. Michele Bertoncello, Gianluca Camplone, Paul Gao, Hans-Werner Kaas, Detlev Mohr, Timo Moller, and Dominik Wee, Monetizing Car Data: New Service Business Opportunities to Create New Customer Benefits (Milan: McKinsey & Company, 2016), 7, www.mckinsey.com.
10. Peter Nowak, “With Cars Tracking Your Driving Habits, Insurance Industry Changes Lanes,” Globe and Mail, October 30, 2017, www.theglobeandmail.com.
11. Alex Bozikovic, “Google’s Sidewalk Labs Signs Deal for ‘Smart City’ Makeover of Toronto’s Waterfront,” Globe and Mail, October 17, 2017.
12. Brian Krzanich, “Data Is the New Oil in the Future of Automated Driving,” Intel Newsroom, November 15, 2016, https://newsroom.intel.com.
13. Krzanich, “Data Is the New Oil.”
14. John R. Quain, “Cars Suck Up Data About You: Where Does It All Go?,” New York Times, July 27, 2017, www.nytimes.com.
15. Bryson Bort, “How to Protect What Your Car Knows about You,” Parallax, April 3, 2018, https://the-parallax.com.
16. “Gartner Says by 2020, a Quarter Billion Connected Vehicles Will Enable New In-Vehicle Services and Automated Driving Capabilities,” Gartner, January 26, 2015, www.gartner.com.
17. Luis F. Alvarez León, “Eyes on the Road: Surveillance Logics in the Autonomous Vehicle Economy,” Surveillance & Society 17, no. 1/2 (2019): 198–204.
18. Sarah A. Seo, “How Cars Transformed Policing,” Boston Review, June 3, 2019, www.bostonreview.net.
19. Lucas Mearian, “Once Your Car’s Connected to the Internet, Who Guards Your Privacy?,” Computerworld, September 18, 2014, www.computerworld.com.
20. Jim Edwards, “Ford Exec: ‘We Know Everyone Who Breaks the Law’ Thanks to Our GPS in Your Car,” Business Insider, January 8, 2014, www.businessinsider.com.
21. Sam Frizell, “What Is Uber Really Doing With Your Data?,” Time, January 8, 2014, https://time.com.
22. Johana Bhuiyan and Charlie Warzel, “‘God View’: Uber Investigates Its Top New York Executive for Privacy Violations,” Buzzfeed News, November 18, 2014, www.buzzfeednews.com.
23. Richard Morgan, “Uber Settles Federal Probe over ‘God View’ Spy Software,” New York Post, August 15, 2017, https://nypost.com.
24. Dustin Volz, “Uber to End Post-Trip Tracking of Riders as Part of Privacy Push,” Reuters, August 29, 2017, www.reuters.com.
25. Johana Bhuiyan, “Here’s the Letter Alleging Uber Spied on Individuals for Competitive Intelligence,” Vox, December 15, 2017, www.vox.com.
26. Bhuiyan, “Here’s the Letter Alleging Uber Spied.”
27. Kif Leswing, “Uber Used Former CIA Officers Posing as Businessmen to Collect Trade Secrets and Other Intel, Explosive Letter Claims,” Business Insider, December 16, 2017, www.businessinsider.com.
28. Amir Efrati, “Uber’s Top Secret ‘Hell’ Program Exploited Lyft’s Vulnerability,” Information, April 12, 2017, www.theinformation.com.
29. Eric Newcomer, “Uber Paid Hackers to Delete Stolen Data on 57 Million People,” Bloomberg, November 21, 2017, www.bloomberg.com.
30. Amir Efrati, “Lyft Investigates Allegation That Employees Abused Customer Data,” Information, January 25, 2018, www.theinformation.com.
31. Erin Heffernan, “St. Louis Uber Driver Has Put Video of Hundreds of Passengers Online: Most Have No Idea,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 24, 2018, www.stltoday.com.
32. Erin Heffernan, “Uber Evaluating Policies in Response to Story on St. Louis Driver’s Secret Livestream,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 24, 2018, www.stltoday.com.
33. Jim Salter, “Uber Guideline Now Prohibits Broadcasting Passenger Images,” Associated Press, November 8, 2018, www.thestar.com; Scott Davis, “Ottawa Senators Players Caught Ripping Assistant Coach, Team Performance while Being Secretly Recorded in an Uber,” Business Insider, November 6, 2018, www.businessinsider.com.
34. Kelly Egan, “Egan: Posting Senators Video ‘Dumbest Decision’ of My Life, Says Fired Uber Driver,” Ottawa Citizen, November 9, 2018.
35. Paris Marx, “Don’t Be Fooled: Uber Doesn’t Care about Transit,” Radical Urbanist, February 14, 2019, https://medium.com/radical-urbanist.
36. Colin Lecher, “Amazon, Microsoft, and Uber Are Paying Big Money to Kill a California Privacy Initiative,” Verge, June 15, 2018, www.theverge.com.
37. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber Received Over 400 Data Requests from US Law Enforcement in Just Six Months,” Verge, April 12, 2016, www.theverge.com.
38. Cara Tabachnick, “Uber Wants to Get the Law on Its Side,” Bloomberg Businessweek, April 23, 2019, www.bloomberg.com; Beau Zimmer, “App Helps Law Enforcement Use Uber Data to Solve Crimes,” 10News WTSP, March 1, 2018, www.wtsp.com.
39. Erica Evans, “How Police Might Access Your Lyft, Tinder and Google Accounts in a Criminal Investigation,” Deseret News, July 28, 2019, www.deseret.com.
40. Larry Neumeister, “Judge: Ads Can Run in Uber, Lyft Vehicles in New York City,” Phys.org, February 23, 2018, https://phys.org.
41. Danielle Furfaro, “Your Ride Home from Uber, Lyft Is About to Get a Lot More Annoying,” New York Post, March 8, 2018, https://nypost.com.
42. Adrienne Lafrance, “How Self-Driving Cars Will Threaten Privacy,” Atlantic, March 21, 2016, www.theatlantic.com.
43. Sarah Holder, “Car-Mounted Ads Take a New Direction: Data Collection,” CityLab, November 20, 2019, www.citylab.com.
44. Josh O’Kane, “Sidewalk Labs’ Toronto Deal Sparks Data, Innovation Concerns,” Globe and Mail, August 1, 2018, www.theglobeandmail.com.
45. Paris Marx, “Uber’s Massive Data Play,” Medium Business, September 20, 2018, https://medium.com.
46. In 2017, Metrolinx received 64 requests from law enforcement and complied with 30; in 2018, Metrolinx granted 35 of 94 requests. (Ben Spurr, “Metrolinx Has Been Quietly Sharing Presto Users’ Information with Police,” Toronto Star, June 3, 2017, www.thestar.com; Ben Spurr, “Metrolinx Gave Presto Users’ Personal Info to Police 30 Times Last Year,” Toronto Star, March 1, 2018, www.thestar.com; Ben Spurr, “Metrolinx Continues to Share Presto Users’ Data without Requiring Warrants,” Toronto Star, February 4, 2019, www.thestar.com.)
47. Kieran Delamont, “Metrolinx and the Surveillance State,” Torontoist, June 17, 2017, https://torontoist.com.
48. “Mass Transit System or Tool for Mass Surveillance?,” Beauceron, February 15, 2019, www.beauceronsecurity.com.
49. Darwin BondGraham, “BART Is Planning a System-Wide Surveillance Network,” East Bay Express, August 6, 2018, www.eastbayexpress.com.
50. Tanvi Misra, “When Transit Agencies Spy on Riders,” CityLab, September 18, 2018, www.citylab.com.
51. “Board Approves Safe Transit Policy,” Bay Area Rapid Transit, June 22, 2017, www.bart.gov.
52. Misra, “When Transit Agencies Spy.”
53. Bryce Covert, “Expand Fair Fares Instead of Cops on NYC’s Transit System,” City & State New York, November 19, 2019, www.cityandstateny.com.
54. Raneem Alozzi, “GO Transit Adding Fare Inspectors, Enforcing Zero-Tolerance Policy for Fare Evasion,” Toronto Star, May 15, 2019, www.thestar.com.
55. Ben Spurr, “TTC Ticketing Data Raises Concerns That Black Transit Users Are Being Fined at a Disproportionately High Rate,” Toronto Star, July 2, 2019, www.thestar.com.
56. Ben Spurr, “Mayor Tory’s Comments Spark Debate about TTC Fare Evasion,” Toronto Star, November 22, 2016, www.thestar.com.
57. Kira Barrett, “Metro Transit Police Target Black Youth for Fare Evasion, Report Says,” Street Sense Media, October 3, 2018, www.streetsensemedia.org.
58. Harold Stolper and Jeff Jones, The Crime of Being Short $2.75: Policing Communities of Color at the Turnstile (New York City: Community Service Society, 2017), 12, www.cssny.org.
59. Alyssa Jeong Perry, “Nine Years after Oscar Grant’s Death, His Mother Continues to Speak Out,” KQED News, January 1, 2018, www.kqed.org; Sam Levin, “Officer Punched Oscar Grant and Lied about Facts in 2009 Killing, Records Show,” Guardian, May 2, 2019, www.theguardian.com.
60. Jonathan Goldsbie, “The Most Damning Passages from the James Forcillo Sentence,” Now, August 4, 2016, https://nowtoronto.com.
61. Charlie Smith, “Video: Grand Chief Stewart Phillip Promises to Seek Answers in Transit Police Shooting of Naverone Woods,” Georgia Straight, March 1, 2015, www.straight.com.
62. “‘You’re Choking Me’: Video of Montreal Commuter’s Arrest Goes Viral,” CTV News, August 28, 2018, www.ctvnews.ca.
63. “Teen Launches Multimillion-Dollar Lawsuit after Incident with TTC Fare Inspectors, Police,” 680 News, April 5, 2018, www.680news.com.
64. David P. Ball, “Transit Police Report Riders to Immigration Nearly Every Day,” Tyee, July 10, 2014, https://thetyee.ca.
65. Hanna Gros and Paloma van Groll, “We Have No Rights”: Arbitrary Imprisonment and Cruel Treatment of Migrants with Mental Health Issues in Canada (Toronto: International Human Rights Program at the University of Toronto Faculty of Law, 2015), 15, https://ihrp.law.utoronto.ca.
66. Safia Samee Ali, “Minnesota Transit Cop Who Asked Man’s Immigration Status Still Working as Officer,” NBC News, June 2, 2017, www.nbcnews.com.
67. Tom Lyden, “Metro Transit Cop Who Resigned Received $50,000 Settlement,” Fox 9, September 13, 2017, www.fox9.com.
68. Hannah Critchfield, “Transgender Woman in ICE Custody after Light-Rail Arrest May Be Released,” Phoenix New Times, December 19, 2019, www.phoenixnewtimes.com.
69. Hannah Critchfield, “Transgender Woman Stepped onto Light Rail Platform: She Ended Up in ICE Custody,” Phoenix New Times, August 29, 2019, www.phoenixnewtimes.com.
70. Travis Lupick, “Vigil Marking One Year since the Death of Lucia Vega Jiménez Calls for Transit Police Reforms,” Georgia Straight, December 12, 2014, www.straight.com.
71. Tamara Baluja, “Metro Vancouver Transit Police End Controversial Agreement with CBSA,” CBC News, February 20, 2015, www.cbc.ca.
72. Rachel Dovey, “Pittsburgh’s New Transit Fare Enforcement Methods Raise Deportation Fears,” Next City, May 22, 2017, https://nextcity.org.
73. Cyrus Farivar, “Bay Area Transit System Approves New Surveillance-Oversight Policy,” Ars Technica, September 15, 2018, https://arstechnica.com.
74. “BART Board’s Vote on Surveillance Technology Protects the Privacy of BART Riders; Promotes Public Safety,” ACLU Northern California, September 13, 2018, www.aclunc.org.
75. Caroline Haskins, “Oakland Becomes Third U.S. City to Ban Facial Recognition,” VICE, July 17, 2019, www.vice.com.
76. Dexter Brown, “Transit Systems Have Their Eyes on You—but Surveillance Footage Isn’t Always There When It Counts,” CBC News, September 4, 2016, www.cbc.ca.
77. Spurr, “Metrolinx Continues to Share Presto Users’ Data.”
78. Daniel C. Vock, “Citing Racial Disparities, Cities Rethink Punishment for Transit Fare Evasion,” Governing, December 11, 2018, www.governing.com.
79. Christopher Robbins, “NYPD Officers Arrest Churro Vendor at Broadway Junction,” Gothamist, November 9, 2019, www.gothamist.com.
80. Kathleen Culliton, “Underground Resistance Mounts against Subway Policing in NYC,” Patch, November 24, 2019, www.patch.com.
81. Rachel Vick, “Queens Residents Swipe It Forward to Help Commuters in a Pinch,” Queens Daily Eagle, August 15, 2019, www.queenseagle.com; Maya Kaufman, “Guerrilla Subway Ads Urge New Yorkers to Swipe in Fareless Riders,” Patch, September 19, 2019, www.patch.com.
82. Martine Powers, “Here’s Why Some Lawmakers Are Pushing Back against Fare Evasion Crackdowns,” Washington Post, November 12, 2017.
83. Kim Kelly, “What the Prison-Abolition Movement Wants,” Teen Vogue, December 26, 2019, www.teenvogue.com.
1. “One in Five Americans Live in Rural Areas,” United States Census Bureau, August 9, 2017, www.census.gov.
2. Michael Ratcliffe, Charlynn Burd, Kelly Holder, and Alison Fields, Defining Rural at the U.S. Census Bureau: American Community Survey and Geography Brief (Suitland: United States Census Bureau, December 2016), 6, www.census.gov.
3. Rural America at a Glance: 2018 Edition (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, 2018), www.ers.usda.gov; “Disability in Rural Areas,” Rural Health Information Hub, www.ruralhealthinfo.org.
4. Thirty-six percent of rural residents in Georgia are Black, and 39 percent in Mississippi. (“Race & Ethnicity in Rural America,” Housing Assistance Council, April 2012, www.ruralhome.org.)
5. A 46 percent increase between 2000 and 2010. (“Race & Ethnicity in Rural America.”)
6. “Focus on Geography Series, 2016 Census: Aboriginal Peoples,” Statistics Canada, 2019, www12.statcan.gc.ca.
7. Eric Marr, “Assessing Transportation Disadvantage in Rural Ontario, Canada: A Case Study of Huron County,” Journal of Rural and Community Development, 10, no. 2 (2015): 102.
8. Matthew Yglesias, “Amtrak Turns 45 Today: Here’s Why American Passenger Trains Are So Bad,” Vox, May 1, 2016, www.vox.com.
9. “2018 Traffic Data for U.S Airlines and Foreign Airlines U.S. Flights,” Bureau of Transportation Statistics, www.bts.dot.gov.
10. “Reducing Emissions from Aviation,” European Union, https://ec.europa.eu/clima. Twenty-two percent of global emissions may come from aviation by 2050, given decarbonization in other sectors juxtaposed with increasing demand for flying. (Magdalena Heuwieser, “The Illusion of Green Flying,” Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung, September 21, 2018, www.boell.de.)
11. The comparable stats for urban residents are 10.1 percent of households that don’t own a vehicle, and 17.8 that have access to three or more. (Jeremy Mattson, Rural Transit Fact Book 2017 (Fargo: North Dakota State University, 2017), 13, www.surtc.org.)
12. In 2017, 47 percent of fatal car crashes were in rural areas, down from 61 percent in 2000. The rate of crash deaths per 100 million miles is 2.2 times higher in rural areas than urban areas, with 67 percent of all deaths involving pickups happening in rural areas and 57 percent of all SUV-related deaths. Not surprisingly, 71 percent of deaths in rural areas occurred on roads with speed limits of 55 miles per hour or higher, compared to only 29 percent in urban areas. (“Fatality Facts 2017: Urban/Rural Comparison,” Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, December 2018, www.iihs.org.)
13. Daniel Gatti, “Rural Drivers Can Save the Most from Clean Vehicles,” Union of Concerned Scientists, December 13, 2018, https://blog.ucsusa.org. The proliferation of personal electric vehicles in rural areas is projected to reduce considerably more emissions than for a driver in an urban county: 3.3 metric tons of greenhouse gases per year in rural counties, compared to 1.8 metric tons in the city.
14. Todd Litman, Rural Multimodal Planning: Why and How to Improve Travel Options in Small Towns and Rural Communities (Victoria: Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2019), 10, www.vtpi.org.
15. Alicja Siekierska, “Rural Communities to Power Providers: How Everyone Is Prepping for Electric Vehicle Adoption,” Financial Times, August 17, 2017.
16. Diana Martin, “Charge Towards Electric Vehicles Is Trickling into the Rural and Agriculture Landscape,” Ontario Farmer, April 7, 2019, www.ontariofarmer.com.
17. Chris Mooney, “How Solar Power and Electric Cars Could Make Suburban Living Awesome Again,” Washington Post, December 24, 2014.
18. “Lyft Is Now Live across 40 States,” Lyft, August 31, 2017, https://blog.lyft.com; Sarah Buhr, “You Can Now Catch a Lyft Even in Rural Areas in 40 U.S. States,” TechCrunch, August 31, 2017, https://techcrunch.com.
19. Jonathan Wang, “Uber in Small Towns and Cities—A Data Deep Dive,” Uber, September 8, 2017, https://medium.com.
20. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber Covers 75 Percent of the US, but Getting to 100 Will Be Really Hard,” Verge, October 23, 2015, www.theverge.com.
21. M.L. Schultze, “Ride Hailing in Rural America: Like Uber with a Neighborly Feel,” National Public Radio, April 17, 2017, www.npr.org.
22. Rob Nielson, “Lawsuit Brings Liberty Mobility to a Halt,” January 19, 2018, Yankton Daily Press, www.yankton.net.
23. Tori Weldon, “Rural Transportation Service Expands to Meet ‘Overwhelming Need,’” CBC News, July 3, 2018, www.cbc.ca.
24. Wolfgang Bernhart, Hitoshi Kaise, Yuzuru Ohashi, Tobias Schonberg, and Laurianne Schilles, Reconnecting the Rural: Autonomous Driving as a Solution for Non-urban Mobility (Frankfurt: Roland Berger, 2018), www.rolandberger.com.
25. Bernhart, Kaise, Ohashi, Schonberg, and Schilles, Reconnecting the Rural, 2.
26. Bernhart, Kaise, Ohashi, Schonberg, and Schilles, Reconnecting the Rural, 6.
27. Bernhart, Kaise, Ohashi, Schonberg, and Schilles, Reconnecting the Rural, 17.
28. Dale Neef, “High-Speed Broadband, Autonomous Vehicles and Small-Town and Rural Communities,” Smart Cities Dive, June 29, 2018, www.smartcitiesdive.com.
29. Bradley Berman, “Are Electric Cars Only for the Rich?: Sacramento Is Challenging That Notion,” New York Times, January 24, 2019. Members of the California Air Resources Board argued in a 2018 op-ed: “Volkswagen wants us to believe that it is making substantial investments in rural and disadvantaged communities. But there’s a big difference between charging stations built for these communities and charging stations built for drivers traveling long distances and stopping along the highway.”(Dean Florez and Eduardo Garcia, “Volkswagen’s Obligation Is to All Californians, Not Just the Rich,” Sacramento Bee, December 18, 2019, www.sacbee.com.)
30. “Uber available in rural areas—But for now, expect longer wait times for the expanding ride-service. Uber drivers, who work on a contractual basis, cannot charge for the drive to a passenger. In a rural town about an hour outside of downtown, the wait was about 18 minutes,” Reddit, r/uber, 2017, www.reddit.com/r/uber.
31. Aditi Shrikant, “Transportation Experts See Uber and Lyft as the Future: But Rural Communities Still Don’t Use Them,” Vox, January 11, 2019, www.vox.com.
32. Shrikant, “Transportation Experts See Uber and Lyft.”
33. Joel Hruska, “Self-Driving Cars Still Can’t Handle Snow, Rain, or Heavy Weather,” ExtremeTech, October 30, 2018, www.extremetech.com.
34. Writing about “connected and autonomous vehicles” (CAVs) in the context of the U.K., Jessica Sellick of the Rural Services Network posed a series of key unanswered questions: “What will the pattern of uptake be in rural areas? Is rural road infrastructure being taken into account in the design, development and use of CAVs? And will there be a ‘rural premium’ in the development and deployment of CAVs in the countryside?” (Jessica Sellick, “What Future for Rural Driverless Cars?,” Rural Services Networks, July 1, 2018, www.rsnonline.org.uk.)
35. Mattson, Rural Transit Fact Book, 18.
36. Aubrey Byron, “Getting from Here to There in Rural America,” Strong Towns, November 1, 2018, www.strongtowns.org.
37. Byron, “Getting from Here to There.”
38. Mattson, Rural Transit Fact Book, 13, 17.
39. Marr, “Assessing Transportation Disadvantage,” 101; “Economics of Transportation Research Needs for Rural Elderly and Transportation Disadvantaged Populations,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2017, https://tti.tamu.edu. Seniors with access to a vehicle may however limit their driving at night time, rush hour, and bad weather, eventually having to stop driving altogether.
40. Scott Bogren, “Rural Transit: You Can Get There From Here,” Community Transportation Association of America, 1998, www.ctaa.org.
41. “Mobility & Aging in Rural America: The Role for Innovation,” Grantmakers in Aging, May 2, 2018, www.giaging.org.
42. “Economics of Transportation Research Needs,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, 11.
43. Tanya Snyder, “‘We’re Done’: Shutdown Strikes Small, Midsize and Rural Transit,” Politico, January 24, 2019, www.politico.com.
44. Study of Intercity Bus Service, U.S. Department of Transportation, 2005, www.transportation.gov.
45. “Linking US Small Cities and Towns: Time for State Leadership,” Human Transit, August 7, 2019, www.humantransit.org.
46. “Saskatchewan Transportation Company Comes to End of Road,” Global News, June 1, 2017, https://globalnews.ca.
47. Jennifer Graham, “Regina Woman Files Human Rights Complaint, Alleges Discrimination after STC Closure,” Canadian Press, June 23, 2017, www.cbc.ca.
48. Ashleigh Mattern, “New Highway of Tears: Mental Health Counsellor Fears for Northern Sask. Residents after STC Closure,” CBC News, November 16, 2017, www.cbc.ca.
49. “Loss of STC Keeping Domestic Violence Victims from Shelters, Survey Says,” CBC News, August 13, 2018, www.cbc.ca.
50. “‘Without STC, I Am in Prison’: People with Disabilities Press for Return of Sask. Bus Company,” CBC News, May 10, 2018, www.cbc.ca.
51. Kendall Latimer, “Saskatchewan Sells STC Assets for $29M, Slightly More Than Appraised Value,” CBC News, December 13, 2017, www.cbc.ca.
52. “Sask. Made ‘Fundamental Mistake’ Treating STC as Business, Not Service: Researcher,” CBC News, May 31, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
53. Abigail Turner, “Thompson Left Without Local Transit after Greyhound Pulls Out,” Global News, October 31, 2018, www.globalnews.ca.
54. “First Nations to Feel Brunt of Greyhound Cuts in Western Canada: AMC,” CTV Winnipeg, July 9, 2018, https://winnipeg.ctvnews.ca.
55. “Indigenous Man’s Death en Route to Hospital Prompts Call for Inquiry,” CBC News, October 17, 2018, www.cbc.ca.
56. “Still Waiting for the Bus: The Unnatural Death of Prairie Intercity Transit,” ATU Canada, 2019, www.atucanada.ca.
57. Jean Dupuis, VIA Rail Canada Inc. and the Future of Passenger Rail in Canada (Ottawa: Library of Parliament, November 16, 2011), http://publications.gc.ca.
58. Ernie Smith, “The Consequences of Amtrak Not Owning Its Own Tracks,” Atlas Obscura, May 2, 2017, www.atlasobscura.com.
59. Aaron Gordon, “Hyperloop Is the Midwest’s Answer to a Question No One Asked,” Jalopnik, December 18, 2019, www.jalopnik.com.
60. Paris Marx, “China’s High-Speed Train Map Puts U.S. Transportation to Shame,” Radical Urbanist, January 22, 2018, https://medium.com.
61. Brad Plumer, “Amtrak’s $151 Billion High-Speed Rail Plan: Are There Cheaper Options?,” Washington Post, July 16, 2012, www.washingtonpost.com.
62. George Skelton, “Capitol Journal: Newsom Is Right to Scale Back the Bullet Train, and It’s Good Politics Too,” Los Angeles Times, February 14, 2019, www.latimes.com; Roger Rudick, “Skirmish Over High-Speed Rail Funds,” StreetsBlog SF, December 3, 2019, www.sf.streetsblog.org.
63. Kate Sullivan, “US Dept. of Transportation Cancels Nearly $1 Billion Grant for California’s High-Speed Rail Project,” CNN, February 20, 2019, www.cnn.com.
64. Mick Akers, “Start of High-Speed Rail Construction Likely Delayed 2 Years,” Las Vegas Review-Journal, May 30, 2019, www.reviewjournal.com.
65. Paul Langan, “List of All Ontario-Quebec High Speed Rail Studies,” High Speed Rail Canada, May 21, 2018, www.highspeedrailcanada.com.
66. “Rural and Small Town Public Transit Ridership Increased Nearly 8% since 2007,” American Public Transportation Association, October 5, 2017, www.apta.com.
67. “Future of Transportation National Survey (2010),” Trans portation for America, http://t4america.org.
68. Kalena Thomhave, “Revving Up Rural Public Transit,” American Prospect, November 15, 2017, www.prospect.org.
69. Peter Shokeir, “County Enters Agreement for Rural Transit,” Daily Herald Tribune, October 29, 2018, www.dailyheraldtribune.com; “Rural Transit Service Rolled Out,” Red Deer Advocate, December 18, 2018, www.reddeeradvocate.com.
70. Todd Litman, Public Transportation’s Impact on Rural and Small Towns (Washington, DC: American Public Transportation Association, 2017), 31; Jayme Fraser, “More and More Montanans Depending on Rural Public Transit,” Billings Gazette,’ July 26, 2016, www.billingsgazette.com.
71. Sue Woodrow and Day Soriano, “Transportation Partnership Offers Economic Hope in North Central Montana,” Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, January 1, 2011, www.minneapolisfed.org.
72. Woodrow and Soriano, “Transportation Partnership Offers Economic Hope.”
73. Briar Stewart, “‘Safe, Reliable and Affordable’: New Bus Service Aims to Make Notorious Highway of Tears Less Dangerous,” CBC News, September 21, 2017, www.cbc.ca.
74. “5,000 People Have Used Highway of Tears Buses in First Year of Service,” Canadian Press, February 2, 2018, www.cbc.ca.
75. For example, the thirty-minute trip from Smithers to Moricetown costs five dollars, about one-tenth of the cost Greyhound had charged. (Stewart, “‘Safe, Reliable and Affordable.’”)
76. “Bulkley Nechako Regional Transit System: Rider’s Guide,” BC Transit, November 6, 2017, www.bctransit.com.
77. Quinn Bender, “Highway of Tears Public Transit Plan Wins Safety and Security Awards,” Terrace Standard, November 30, 2018, www.terracestandard.com.
78. “Transit Department,” Spokane Tribe of Indians, www.spokanetribe.com.
79. “Iqaluit Cuts $17-a-Ride Bus Service,” CBC News, December 14, 2004, www.cbc.ca.
80. Rajnesh Sharma, “Hoping for a Public Transport System,” Nunavut News, December 14, 2019, www.nunavutnews.com.
81. Ben Adler, “Even Rural America Can Have Good Public Transportation,” Grist, July 23, 2014, www.grist.org.
82. Kalena Thomhave, “Revving Up Rural Public Transit,” American Prospect, November 15, 2017, www.prospect.org.
83. Mark Mather, Paola Scommegna, and Lillian Kilduff, “Fact Sheet: Aging in the United States,” Population Reference Bureau, July 15, 2019, www.prb.org.
84. Thomhave, “Revving Up Rural Public Transit.”
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2. Michael Lewis, “One in 10 Toronto Workers Is Now a Gig Economy Worker, StatCan Says,” Toronto Star, December 16, 2019, www.thestar.com.
3. “New Study Suggests Automation Will Not Wipe Out Truck-Driving Jobs,” SAGE Publications, June 18, 2019, www.phys.org; Maury Gittleman and Kristen Monaco, “Automation Isn’t About to Make Truckers Obsolete,” Harvard Business Review, September 18, 2019, https://hbr.org; Parix Marx, “Self-Driving Trucks Won’t Kill Millions of Jobs,” OneZero, August 19, 2019, https://onezero.medium.com.
4. “Get Started,” Uber, www.uber.com.
5. “Drive with Lyft,” Lyft, www.lyft.com.
6. Jonathan V. Hall and Alan B. Krueger, “An Analysis of the Labor Market for Uber’s Driver-Partners in the United States,” ILR Review 71, no. 3 (2018): 705–32.
7. “Drive for Money: 9 Reasons It’s Easy to Make Money with Uber,” Uber, www.uber.com.
8. “How Many Uber Drivers Are There?,” Ridester, January 29, 2019, www.ridester.com; Iqbal, “Uber Revenue and Usage Statistics.”
9. Lyft Impact, www.lyftimpact.com.
10. “How to Drive for Uber and Lyft (at the Same Time),” Ridester, April 9, 2019, www.ridester.com.
11. Alicia Adamczyk, “Here’s Why Uber Is Testing Self-Driving Cars,” Money, May 19, 2016, https://money.com.
12. Harry Campbell, “What’s the Real Commission That Uber Takes from Its Drivers?,” Rideshare Guy, July 25, 2016, https://therideshareguy.com.
13. Jillian D’Onfro, “Uber Says Its Drivers Are Making $75,000–$90,000 a Year,” Business Insider, May 27, 2014, www.businessinsider.com.
14. Ryan Lawler, “Uber Study Shows Its Drivers Make More per Hour and Work Fewer Hours Than Taxi Drivers,” TechCrunch, January 22, 2015, https://techcrunch.com.
15. Hubert Horan, “Can Uber Ever Deliver? Part Thirteen: Even After 4Q Cost Cuts, Uber Lost $4.5 Billion in 2017,” Naked Capitalism, February 16, 2018, www.nakedcapitalism.com; Horan, “Uber’s Path of Destruction.”
16. Lawrence Mishel, Uber and the Labor Market: Uber Drivers’ Compensation, Wages, and the Scale of Uber and the Gig Economy (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2018), 2, www.epi.org.
17. Caroline O’Donovan and Jeremy Singer-Vine, “How Much Uber Drivers Actually Make per Hour,” Buzzfeed News, June 22, 2016, www.buzzfeednews.com; Tracey Lindeman, “After ‘Flawed’ MIT Paper, Uber Drivers Can’t Agree on How Poorly They’re Paid,” Motherboard, March 6, 2018, www.vice.com; Noah Smith, “Uber Better Not Be the Future of Work,” Bloomberg Opinion, March 8, 2018, www.bloomberg.com.
18. “Ways Female Uber Drivers Can Stay Safe,” Ridester, April 2, 2018, www.ridester.com.
19. Selina Wang, “The Dark Realities Women Face Driving for Uber and Lyft,” Bloomberg, December 18, 2018, www.bloomberg.com.
20. Jaden Urbi, “Some Transgender Drivers Are Being Kicked Off Uber’s App,” CNBC, August 8, 2018, www.cnbc.com.
21. Wells et al., “The Work Lives of Uber Drivers: Worse Than You Think,” Working-Class Perspectives, July 10, 2017, https://workingclassstudies.wordpress.com.
22. “Fired from Uber: Why Drivers Get Deactivated, and How to Get Reactivated,” Ridesharing Driver, February 7, 2018, www.ridesharingdriver.com.
23. Ngai Keung Chan, “The Rating Game: The Discipline of Uber’s User-Generated Ratings,” Surveillance & Society 17, vol. 1/2 (2019): 1477–87.
24. Luke Stark, “Recognizing the Role of Emotional Labor in the On-Demand Economy,” Harvard Business Review, August 29, 2016, https://hbr.org.
25. Stark, “Recognizing the Role of Emotional Labor”; Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber Is Now Offering a ‘Quiet Mode’ Option for Its Luxury Service,” Verge, May 14, 2019, www.theverge.com.
26. Noam Scheiber, “How Uber Uses Psychological Tricks to Push Its Drivers’ Buttons,” New York Times, April 2, 2017, www.nytimes.com.
27. “Can I (the Driver) Be Deactivated or Lose Uber Account for Having a Low Acceptance Rate?,” RideGuru, January 24, 2018, https://ride.guru; “Fired from Uber,” Ridesharing Driver.
28. “Have You Been Sidelined by Uber?,” Ridester, January 29, 2018, www.ridester.com.
29. Jason Koebler, “Why Everyone Hates UberPOOL,” Motherboard, May 23, 2016, www.vice.com; Harry Campbell, “2017 Uber Driver Survey Results: Earnings, Satisfaction, and Demographics,” Rideshare Guy, January 17, 2017, https://therideshareguy.com; Harry Campbell, “7 Reasons Why I Hate Uberpool and Lyftline,” Rideshare Guy, April 17, 2017, https://therideshareguy.com.
30. Jennifer Calfas, “Uber Just Admitted That Its Pay Policy Will Make Drivers Even More Unhappy: Here’s How That Could Affect Your Future Rides,” Money, April 15, 2019, http://money.com.
31. Johana Bhuiyan, “Lower Pay and Higher Costs: The Downside of Lyft’s Car Rental Program,” Los Angeles Times, May 20, 2019, www.latimes.com.
32. Aaron Gordon, “Uber Launches New Program to Get Drivers Who Can’t Afford Cars to Drive Cars for Them,” Jalopnik, May 30, 2019, https://jalopnik.com.
33. Noam Scheiber, “Uber Drivers Are Contractors, Not Employees, Labor Board Says,” New York Times, May 14, 2019, www.nytimes.com.
34. Jordan Golson, “Uber Is Using In-App Podcasts to Dissuade Seattle Drivers from Unionizing,” Verge, March 14, 2017, www.theverge.com.
35. Carmel DeAmicis, “The Flop of Uber Drivers’ National Protest Shows How Hard It Is for Them to Organize,” Vox, October 18, 2015, www.vox.com; Andrew J. Hawkins, “‘Shame on Uber’: Hundreds of Drivers Demand More Pay at NYC Protest,” Verge, February 1, 2016, www.theverge.com.
36. Christian Perea, “Will Uber Rates Ever Go Up Again?,” Rideshare Guy, April 3, 2017, https://therideshareguy.com.
37. Will Sabel Courtney, “96 Percent of Uber Drivers Ditch the Company within a Year,” Drive, April 20, 2017, www.thedrive.com.
38. David Bush, “Automation: Will Robots Take Our Jobs?,” Socialist.ca, February 27, 2018, www.socialist.ca.
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40. Andrew J. Hawkins, “JFK Airport Roiled by Protests against Trump’s Immigration Ban,” Verge, January 28, 2017, www.theverge.com; German Lopez, “Why People Are Deleting Uber from Their Phones after Trump’s Executive Order,” Vox, January 29, 2017, www.vox.com; Biz Carson, “Over 200,000 People Deleted Uber after the Company Operated Its Service at JFK Airport during the Trump Strike,” Business Insider, February 2, 2017, www.businessinsider.com; Jordan Pearson, “Lyft Accused of Helping People Cross a Workers’ Picket Line in Toronto,” Motherboard, August 28, 2018, www.vice.com.
41. Dana Hull, “Tesla Is a ‘Hotbed for Racist Behavior,’ Worker Claims in Suit,” Bloomberg, November 13, 2017, www.bloomberg.com; Richard Lawler, “Tesla: Racial Harassment Lawsuit Is a ‘Hotbed of Misinformation,’” Engadget, November 15, 2017, www.engadget.com; Ethan Baron, “Tesla Fails in Bid to Push Racism Lawsuit into Arbitration,” Mercury News, June 4, 2018, www.mercurynews.com; Josh Eidelson, “Tesla Workers Claim Racial Bias and Abuse at Electric Car Factory,” Bloomberg, April 12, 2018, www.bloomberg.com; Sam Levin, “Tesla Email Reveals Company’s Effort to Silence an Alleged Victim with Cash,” Guardian, April 13, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
42. Julia Carrie Wong, “Tesla Factory Workers Reveal Pain, Injury and Stress: ‘Everything Feels Like the Future but Us,’” Guardian, May 18, 2017, www.theguardian.com.
43. Will Evans and Alyssa Jeong Perry, “Tesla Says Its Factory Is Safer: But It Left Injuries off the Books,” Reveal, April 16, 2018, www.revealnews.org.
44. Josh Eidelson and Dana Hall, “Tesla Staff’s Lost Workdays Triple on Factory Injuries, Illness,” Bloomberg, March 19, 2019, www.bloomberg.com.
45. Caroline O’Donovan, “Workers Involved in Union Activities Say Tesla Is Illegally Intimidating Them,” Buzzfeed News, April 25, 2017, www.cnbc.com.
46. Daniel Wiessner, “UAW Accuses Musk of Threatening Tesla Workers over Unionization,” Reuters, May 24, 2018, www.reuters.com.
47. “U.S. Labor Judge Rules That Tesla Broke Labor Law,” Reuters, September 27, 2019, www.reuters.com; Alexia Fernandez Campbell, “Elon Musk Broke US Labor Laws on Twitter,” Vox, September 30, 2019, www.vox.com.
48. Michael Sainato, “Tesla Workers Speak Out: ‘Anything Pro-union Is Shut Down Really Fast,’” Guardian, September 10, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
49. Fred Lambert, “Tesla Is Not Going to Buy GM Factory Because of Union Employees, Says GM CEO,” Electrek, January 11, 2019, https://electrek.co.
50. Michael Hiltzik, “Why Is Tesla Fighting a Rule That Would Force Electric-Car Manufacturers to Treat Their Workers Well?,” Los Angeles Times, June 15, 2018, www.latimes.com.
51. Susan Fowler, “Reflecting on One Very, Very Strange Year at Uber,” Susan Fowler, February 19, 2017, www.susanjfowler.com.
52. Joseph Menn and Heather Somerville, “Uber Fires 20 Employees after Harassment Probe,” Reuters, June 6, 2017, www.reuters.com.
53. Elizabeth Weise, “Uber Agrees to Pay $10 Million in Class Action Discrimination Suit,” USA Today, March 27, 2018, www.usatoday.com; Johana Bhuiyan, “A Former Uber Engineer Is Suing the Company for Discrimination and Sexual Harassment,” Vox, May 21, 2018, www.vox.com.
54. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber Senior Executive Resigns after Racial Discrimination Allegations,” Verge, July 11, 2018, www.theverge.com.
55. Mike Isaac and Katie Benner, “At Uber, New Questions Arise about Executive Behavior,” New York Times, July 13, 2018; Chris Welch, “Uber’s Chief Operating and Marketing Officers Are Both Leaving the Company,” Verge, June 7, 2019, www.theverge.com.
56. Biz Carson, “Travis Kalanick on Uber’s Bet on Self-Driving Cars: ‘I Can’t Be Wrong,’” Business Insider, August 18, 2016, www.businessinsider.com.
57. Bernhart, Kaise, Ohashi, Schonberg, and Schilles, Reconnecting the Rural, 17.
58. Veena Dubal, “Why the Uber Strike Was a Triumph,” Slate, May 10, 2019, https://slate.com.
59. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber and Lyft Face an Existential Threat in California—and They’re Losing,” Verge, September 2, 2019, www.theverge.com.
60. Andrew J. Hawkins, “Uber Argues Its Drivers Aren’t Core to Its Business, Won’t Reclassify Them as Employees,” Verge, September 11, 2019, www.theverge.com.
61. Megan Rose Dickey, “Uber and Lyft Are Putting $60 Million toward Keeping Drivers Independent Contractors,” TechCrunch, August 29, 2019, www.techcrunch.com.
62. Rachel M. Cohen, “A California Bill Could Transform the Lives of Gig Workers: Silicon Valley Wants Labor’s Help to Stop It,” Intercept, July 18, 2019, www.theintercept.com; Alexia Fernandez Campbell, “Secret Meetings between Uber and Labor Unions Are Causing an Uproar,” Recode, July 1, 2019, www.vox.com.
63. Andrew J. Hawkins, “California Just Dropped a Bomb on the Gig Economy—What’s Next?,” Verge, September 11, 2019, www.theverge.com.
64. Dubal, “Why the Uber Strike Was a Triumph.”
65. Alon Levy and Eric Goldwyn, “To Build a Better Bus System, Ask a Driver,” CityLab, June 18, 2018, www.citylab.com.
66. Laura Bliss, “There’s a Bus Driver Shortage: And No Wonder,” CityLab, June 28, 2018, www.citylab.com.
67. Tracey Lindeman, “Human Bus Drivers Will Always Be Better Than Robot Bus Drivers,” Motherboard, May 7, 2018, www.vice.com.
68. Alexis C. Madrigal, “How Automation Could Worsen Racial Inequality,” Atlantic, January 16, 2018, www.theatlantic.com.
69. Algernon Austin, “Transporting Black Men to Good Jobs,” Economic Policy Institute, October 5, 2012, www.epi.org.
70. Patricia Cohen, “Public-Sector Jobs Vanish, Hitting Blacks Hard,” New York Times, May 24, 2015.
71. Dan Malouff, “Streetcar Advantages,” BeyondDC, May 25, 2010, https://beyonddc.com.
72. Jarrett Walker, “Frequency and Freedom on Driverless Rapid Transit,” Human Transit, February 18, 2010, https://humantransit.org.
73. Beatrice Britneff, “OC Transpo to Hand Out 345 Pink Slips by Aug. 3,” Global News, July 25, 2018, https://globalnews.ca.
74. Megan Stacey, “Some London Transit Workers Seek Union President’s Resignation,” London Free Press, November 6, 2018, https://lfpress.com; Megan Stacey, “London Transit Union President Resigns amid Pressure from Members,” London Free Press, November 6, 2018, https://lfpress.com.
75. Ben Spurr, “TTC Criticized in Labour Ruling over ‘Abuse’ of Workers on Social Media,” Toronto Star, July 28, 2016, www.thestar.com.
76. Danielle Furfaro, Elizabeth Rosner, and Ruth Brown, “Museum of Sex Ads Driving Female MTA Bus Drivers Crazy,” New York Post, June 15, 2018, https://nypost.com.
77. Erin Corbett, “Transit Union Refuses to Bring White Nationalists to ‘Unite the Right’ Rally,” Fortune, August 4, 2018, https://fortune.com.
78. Bliss, “There’s a Bus Driver Shortage”; “Ten Reasons Why Unions Are Important,” War on Want, February 12, 2018, https://waronwant.org.
79. Charlotte DiBartolomeo, “Amid Automation Trend, Here’s Why We Still Need Bus Drivers,” Metro, April 24, 2018, www.metro-magazine.com.
80. Ryan Flanagan, “Bus Driver Credited with Saving Man’s Life Says He’s No Hero,” CTV News, February 12, 2019, www.ctvnews.ca.
81. Maggie Gilroy, “Quick-Thinking Bus Driver Saves Student from Speeding Car,” USA Today, May 9, 2019, www.usatoday.com.
82. “Award for Milwaukee Bus Driver Who Saved Toddler,” BBC News, January 11, 2019, www.bbc.com; Phil Helsel, “Bus Driver Hailed as Hero in Seattle Shooting, Carjacking,” NBC News, March 27, 2019, www.nbcnews.com; “Sudbury Bus Driver Recognized for Saving Teen’s Life,” CBC News, January 30, 2018, www.cbc.ca.
83. “Bus Driver Saves Disabled Boy from Oncoming Traffic,” CNN, May 31, 2019, www.cnn.com; Emily Mertz, “Edmonton Bus Driver Praised for Helping Elderly Passenger with Groceries,” Global News, May 17, 2019, https://globalnews.ca; “Bowen Bus Driver Stopped in Vancouver Traffic to Save Eight Little Goslings,” Bowen Island Undercurrent, May 7, 2019, www.bowenislandundercurrent.com.
84. Holly Caruk, “No Fare: Transit Drivers Offer Free Rides to Pressure City for New Contract,” CBC News, May 14, 2019, www.cbc.ca.
85. Naomi Larsson, “No Ticket to Ride: Japanese Bus Drivers Strike by Giving Free Rides,” Guardian, May 11, 2018, www.theguardian.com.
86. Levy and Goldwyn, “To Build a Better Bus System.”
87. “Amalgamated Transit Union Assault Survey 2016,” Amalga mated Transit Union, www.atu.org.
88. “Allies in Public Transit,” In Transit, March/April 2018, www.atu.org.
89. Reka Szekely, “Labour Leaders Make the Case to Nationalize General Motors at Oshawa Event,” DurhamRegion.com, May 1, 2019, www.durhamregion.com.
90. James Bow, “A Brief History of New Flyer Industries,” Transit Toronto, April 16, 2019, www.transit.toronto.on.ca. It was NDP governments that both bought the bus company in 1971 and then sold it in 1986.
91. Caroline Haskins, “Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez’s Green New Deal Should Nationalize Utilities,” Motherboard, February 7, 2019, www.vice.com.
1. Mike Konczal, “Socialize Uber,” Nation, December 10, 2014, www.thenation.com.
2. Ben Fredericks, “California Gig Workers Win Historic Victory: Now It’s Time to Nationalize Big Tech,” Left Voice, September 18, 2019, www.leftvoice.org.
3. Lawrence Blincoe, Ted R. Miller, Eduard Zaloshnja, and Bruce A. Lawrence, The Economic and Societal Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes, 2010 (Revised) (Washington, DC: National Center for Statistics and Analysis, 2015), 1, https://crashstats.nhtsa.dot.gov.
4. Tanvi Misra, “The Social Costs of Driving in Vancouver, in 1 Chart,” CityLab, April 7, 2015, www.citylab.com.
5. A 2012 study of automobile impacts on European Union countries—including the costs of crashes, climate change, and air pollution—estimated that driving costs 373 billion euros per year, equivalent to 3 percent of the EU’s GDP. (Udo J. Becker, Thilo Becker, and Julia Gerlach, The True Costs of Automobility: External Costs of Cars Overview on Existing Estimates in EU-27 (Dresden: Technische Universität Dresden, 2012), 33, www.stopclimatechange.net.) A more recent study increased that estimate to 500 billion euros per year, noting that cycling came with benefits of 24 billion euros and walking another 66 billion euros. (Stefan Gossling, Andy Choi, Kaely Dekker, and Daniel Metzler, “The Social Cost of Automobility, Cycling and Walking in the European Union,” Ecological Economics, 158 (2019): 65–74.)
6. Laura Bliss, “Americans Are Spending Billions on Bad Highway Expansions,” CityLab, June 24, 2019, www.citylab.com.
7. Ben Welle, Guillermo Petzhold, and Francisco Minella Pasqual, “Cities Are Taxing Ride-Hailing Services Like Uber and Lyft: Is This a Good Thing?,” World Resources Institute, August 8, 2018, www.wri.org.
8. Liz Farmer, “Governments Increasingly Tax Uber and Lyft for Transit Revenue,” Truth in Accounting, April 4, 2018, www.truthinaccounting.org; “Uber, Lyft Agree to San Francisco Ride-Hail Tax,” CBS SF, July 31, 2018, https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com.
9. Nicole Badstuber, “London Congestion Charge: Why It’s Time to Reconsider One of the City’s Great Successes,” Conversation, April 11, 2019, http://theconversation.com; “First Congestion Fines to Go Out,” BBC News, February 18, 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk.
10. Paris Marx, “London and Oslo Took On Cars, but the Key Was Investing in Alternatives,” Radical Urbanist, June 3, 2019, https://medium.com/radical-urbanist.
11. Stockholm has implemented a successful system of congestion pricing that is significantly larger than London’s and charges based on time of day (rather than a flat fee between certain hours).
12. Mees, Transport for Suburbia, 46–48.
13. James Wilt, “The Leftist’s Case against the Carbon Tax,” Briarpatch, December 20, 2018, www.briarpatchmagazine.com.
14. Craig Raborn, Transportation Emissions Response to Carbon Pricing Programs (Durham: Duke University, September 2009), 5, www.nicholasinstitute.duke.edu.
15. Feargus O’Sullivan, “Madrid Takes Its Car Ban to the Next Level,” CityLab, May 24, 2018, www.citylab.com.
16. Athlyn Cathcart-Keays, “Oslo’s Car Ban Sounded Simple Enough: Then the Backlash Began,” Guardian, June 13, 2017, www.theguardian.com; Marx, “London and Oslo Took On Cars.”
17. Estelle Sommeiller and Mark Price, “The New Gilded Age: Income Inequality in the U.S. by State, Metropolitan Area, and County,” Economic Policy Institute, July 19, 2018, www.epi.org.
18. Rupert Neate, “Bill Gates, Jeff Bezos and Warren Buffett Are Wealthier Than Poorest Half of US,” Guardian, November 8, 2017, www.theguardian.com.
19. Joel Shannon, “Amazon Pays No Federal Income Tax for 2018, Despite Soaring Profits, Report Says,” USA Today, February 15, 2019, www.usatoday.com.
20. “2 Richest Canadians Have More Money Than 11 Million Combined,” Canadian Press, January 15, 2017, www.cbc.ca.
21. Matt Kwong, “The Winners and Losers of Trump’s Big Tax Overhaul,” CBC News, December 21, 2017, www.cbc.ca.
22. David Rogers, “Politico Analysis: At $2.3 Trillion Cost, Trump Tax Cuts Leave Big Gap,” Politico, February 28, 2018, www.politico.com.
23. Steve Liesman, “Most of the Tax Cut Windfall Will Boost Buybacks and Dividends, Not Workers’ Pockets, Survey Predicts,” CNBC, January 30, 2018, www.cnbc.com.
24. Jeff Cox, “Companies Set to Buy Back $1 Trillion Worth of Shares This Year, and That Should Keep Market Afloat, Goldman Says,” CNBC, August 6, 2018, www.cnbc.com.
25. Lucas Powers, “Panama Papers Only a Glimpse into ‘Astonishing’ Wealth Stashed Offshore,” CBC News, April 6, 2016, www.cbc.ca.
26. “Mass Incarceration Costs $182 Billion Every Year, without Adding Much to Public Safety,” Equal Justice Initiative, February 6, 2017, https://egi.org.
27. Dave Colon, “MTA Will Spend $249M on New Cops to Save $200M on Fare Evasion,” StreetsBlog NYC, November 14, 2019, www.nyc.streetsblog.org.
28. There’s widespread support for community-based efforts: in the U.K., polling indicates that 56 percent of people supported the plan for renationalizing the railways as proposed by Jeremy Corbyn’s Labour Party, while only 15 percent opposed it. (Joe Lo, “Poll Shows Huge Support for Rail Nationalisation—Even from Tory Voters,” Left Foot Forward, January 4, 2019, https://leftfootforward.org.)
29. Janie Velencia, “Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez Wants to Raise Taxes on the Rich—and Americans Agree,” January 17, 2019, FiveThirtyEight, www.fivethirtyeight.com.
30. Jolson Lim, “Federal Poll Finds Few Canadians Believe Wealthy and Corporations Pay Fair Share of Taxes,” iPolitics, August 21, 2019, www.ipolitics.ca.
31. Matt T. Huber, “Ecological Politics for the Working Class,” Catalyst 3, no. 1 (2019).
32. Huber, “Ecological Politics for the Working Class.”
33. Jane McAlevey, “Organizing to Win a Green New Deal,” Jacobin, March 26, 2019, www.jacobinmag.com.
34. Toronto’s CUPE Local 2, representing the TTC’s electrical workers, called for these measures in mid-2019. (Kayla Gladysz, “TTC Electrical Employees Calling for Mass Strikes and Free Transit to ‘Bring Down’ Doug Ford,” Daily Hive, July 30, 2019, https://dailyhive.com.)
35. Huber, “Ecological Politics for the Working Class.”
36. “Victory for Public Education!,” United Teachers Los Angeles, 2019, www.utla.net.
37. Higashide, Better Buses, Better Cities, 12.
38. “The STM Invites Owners of Older Cars to Join the Movement,” STM, April 18, 2011, www.stm.info; “SCRAP-IT,” 2019, https://scrapit.ca.
39. “Questions Raised about New Zealand’s Gun Buyback Scheme as Amnesty Ends,” Guardian, December 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com.
40. Krystal Yee, “Why Not Retire Your Ride and Get $500,” Toronto Star, March 3, 2011, www.thestar.com.
41. “Green New Deal + Transit,” TransitCenter, April 1, 2019, www.transitcenter.org.
42. Linda McQuaig, “Take It Over: The Struggle for Green Production in Oshawa,” Bullet, September 16, 2019, www.socialistproject.ca.
43. Erick Trickey, “‘They’re Bold and Fresh’: The Millennials Disrupting Boston’s Transit System,” Politico, October 25, 2018, www.politico.com.
44. Steve Palonis, Laura Wiens, and Tom Hoffman, “In Honor of Rosa Parks: an Appeal for Transit Equity,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 4, 2018, www.post-gazette.com.
45. Mark Byrnes, “Why the Jane Jacobs vs. Robert Moses Battle Still Matters,” CityLab, April 19, 2017, www.citylab.com; Linda Poon, “Mapping the Effects of the Great 1960s ‘Freeway Revolts’,” CityLab, July 23, 2019, www.citylab.com; Reft, “From Bus Riders Union to Bus Rapid Transit”; Cadie Thompson, “Protesters in San Francisco Form Blockade around Google Bus,” CNBC, December 9, 2013, www.cnbc.com; Sarah Emerson, “‘Techsploitation’ Demonstrators Blocked Google and Apple Buses with Scooters,” Motherboard, May 31, 2018, www.vice.com.
46. Patrick Sisson, “Climate Strike: Why Transportation Is Key for These Student Activists,” Curbed, September 20, 2019, www.curbed.com.
47. “Doug Ford Is Trying to ‘Steal’ the TTC’s Subways, Public Transit Activists Charge,” CBC News, November 29, 2018, www.cbc.ca; Abigal Turner, “Winnipeg Transit Union Not Enforcing Fares amidst Second Job Action,” Global News, June 26, 2019, https://globalnews.ca.
48. Emily Riddle, “Cutting Greyhound Service in Western Canada Puts Indigenous Women at Risk,” Globe and Mail, July 10, 2018, www.theglobeandmail.com.