NOTES

Introduction

1 For the extensive literature on totalitarianism see Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich. A New History (London 2000) select bibliography

2 A good discussion of the history of the term is by Philippe Burrin, ‘Political Religion. The Relevance of a Concept’, History & Memory (1997) 9, pp. 321–49. Readers should also consult Jean-Pierre Sironneau, Sécularisation et religions politiques (Le Haye 1982) and above all the historian and religious philosopher Hans Maier, Politische Religionen. Die totalitären Regime und das Christentum (Freiburg 1995); Maier (ed.), Totalitarismus und Politische Religionen. Konzepte des Diktaturvergleichs (Paderborn 1996–2003) three volumes, and his Wege in der Gewalt. Die modernen politischen Religionen (Frankfurt am Main 1996–2000). The three-volume work will appear in English translation. Scholarly readers may find much related work in the journal Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (London 2000–) vols. 1–5

3 The pioneer in this field was René Fülöp-Miller, Leaders, Dreamers and Rebels. An Account of the Great Mass-Movements of History and the Wish Dreams that Inspired Them (London 1935). There are also the many books of George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses. Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Ithaca 1975) Masses and Man. Nationalist and Fascist Perceptions of Reality (Detroit 1987). More recent work includes Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle. The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy (Berkeley 1997)

4 See Hans Maier, Das Doppelgesicht des Religiösen. Religion-Gewalt-Politik (Freiburg 2004)

5 Bertrand Russell, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism (London 1920) pp. 15–17

6 Ronald Clark, The Life of Bertrand Russell (London 1995) p. 380

7 Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the Revolution, ed. François Furet and Françoise Mélonio (Chicago 1998) 1, p. 101

8 Maier, Das Doppelgesicht des Religiösen pp. 66–7

9 Peter Schöttler, Lucie Varga. Les Autorités invisibles. Une Historienne autrichienne dans les années trente (Paris 1991); Erwein Freiherr von Aretin, Fritz Michael Gerlich. Prophet und Martyrer (Munich 1983). Gerlich’s major work was Der Kommunismus als Lehre vom Tausendjährigen Reich (Munich 1920); René Fülöp-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism (New York 1929); Waldemar Gurian, Bolshevism. Theory and Practice (London 1932). The best book on Gurian is Heinz Hürten, Waldemar Gurian. Ein Zeuge der Krise unserer Welt in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts (Mainz 1972); see also the memorial issue of The Review of Politics (1955); Luigi Sturzo’s books are legion, including Politics and Morality. Essays in Christian Democracy (London 1938). There is fine biography by Gabriele De Rosa, Luigi Sturzo (Turin 1977); from a huge literature on Aron the best includes Robert Colquhoun, Raymond Aron. The Philosopher in History 1905–1955 (London 1986); for Niebuhr see his ‘The Religion of Communism’, Atlantic Monthly (1931) 147

10 Eric Voegelin, Autobiogrphical Reflections, ed. Ellis Sandoz (Baton Rouge 1989)

11 The books referred to are The History of the Race Idea. From Ray to Carus, vol. 3 of Ellis Sandoz (ed.), The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin (hereafter cited as CWEV) (Columbia, Mo. 1998) and Race and State, vol. 2 of CWEV (Columbia, Mo. 1997)

12 Eric Voegelin, ‘Gnostic Politics’, Published Essays 1940–1952, vol. 10 of CWEV (Columbia, Mo. 2000) p. 240

13 Eric Voegelin, The Political Religions, vol. 5 of CWEV (Columbia, Mo. 2000) p. 67

14 Voegelin, ‘Gnostic Politics’ p. 230

15 Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium. Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages (London 1957) and Alain Besançon, The Rise of the Gulag. Intellectual Origins of Leninism (New York 1981)

16 There is an excellent book on British commentators on totalitarianism by Markus Huttner, Totalitarismus und säkulare Religionen (Bonn 1999) that deserves to appear in English translation

17 Christina Scott, A Historian and his World (London 1991) p. 106

18 On Dawson see Stratford Caldecott and John Morrill (eds), Eternity in Time. Christopher Dawson and the Catholic Idea of History (Edinburgh 1997) and the marvellous biography by his daughter Christina Scott, An Historian and his World

19 Frederick Voigt, Unto Caesar (London 1938) p. 37

20 Raymond Aron, ‘L’Avenir des religions séculières’, Une Histoire du XX siécle. Anthologie (Paris 1996) pp. 153ff.

21 Roger Scruton, Death-Devoted Heart. Sex and the Sacred in Wagner’s Tristan and Isolde (Oxford 2004) is a highly sophisticated discussion of these issues. There is also a fine book by Tristram Hunt, Building Jerusalem. The Rise and Fall of the Victorian City (London 2004), which illuminates the Victorian municipal gospel

22 The best books on the subject are Owen Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge 1975) and Hugh McLeod, Secularisation in Western Europe, 1848–1914 (London 2000). The treatment the subject deserves on a European level is indicated by Maurice Cowling’s monumental Religion and Public Doctrine in Modern England (Cambridge 1980–2001) three volumes. See also Edward Norman’s powerful Secularisation (London 2002). Like the writings of Maurice Cowling, those of Edward Norman have been a great stimulus to my work

23 Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Helen Zimmern (New York 1989) p. 76

24 One of the most impressive books on this theme is Lucian Hölscher, Weltgericht oder Revolution (Stuttgart 1989)

25 A theme brilliantly explored by Michael André Bernstein in Foregone Conclusions. Against Apocalyptic History (Berkeley 1994)

26 Martin Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution. Das Christentum vor der Moderne (Stuttgart 1980) is the best overall European view

27 The best comparative treatment of utopianism is by Frank E. and Fritzie Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge 1979); there are also briefer discussions in Leszek Kolakowski’s Main Currents of Marxism. Its Origins, Growth and Dissolution (Oxford 1978) vol. 1

28 James Billington, Fire in the Minds of Men. Origins of the Revolutionary Faith (New York 1980); Joseph Frank, Dostoevsky (Princeton 1996–2002) five volumes; Franco Venturi, Roots of Revolution. A History of the Populist and Socialist Movements in 19th Century Russia (London 2001). Modern Islamic terrorism is best explored through Mark Juergensmeyer, Violence and the Sacred in the Modern World (London 1992) and Terror in the Mind of God. The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley 2000); Barry Cooper, New Political Religions, or An Analysis of Modern Terrorism (Columbia, Mo. 2004); Paul Berman, Terror and Liberalism (New York 2003); and John L. Esposito, Unholy War. Terror in the Name of Islam (Oxford 2002). The most interesting book is Roger Scruton, The West and the Rest. Globalization and the Terrorist Threat (London 2002). There are more specialised works on the Al Qaeda network and Osama bin Laden

29 Robert Bellah, ‘Civil Religion in America’ in his Beyond Belief. Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditionalist World (Berkeley 1970) pp. 168ff.

30 Steven Lukes, Émile Durkheim. His Life and Work (London 1973) p. 270

31 Jeffrey F. Meyer, Myths in Stone. Religious Dimensions of Washington D.C. (Berkeley 2001)

32 See Adam Curtis’s artily slick The Power of Nightmares. The Rise of the Politics of Fear, BBC2 TV October–November 2004. For a fair and fascinating account of the US conservative scene see John Mickelthwaite and Adrian Wooldridge, The Right Nation. Why America is Different (London 2004)

33 Bellah, ‘Civil Religion in America’p. 186

34 Cecilia Bromley-Martin, ‘Being Honest about Europe’s Roots?’, Inside the Vatican (2003) 11, pp. 10–11

35 As argued by Michael Burleigh, ‘There’s More to German History than Hitler and the Holocaust’, Daily Telegraph 27 October 2004 p. 22 and ‘Don’t let the Nazis occupy your mind’, Sunday Times 15 October 2002 News Review p. 2 which rehearse these arguments in short compass

36 Home Office website: www.uknationality.gov.uk/british citizen ship/homepage/What happens at a ceremony

37 See Charles Moore’s article in the Daily Telegraph 23 April 1999 cited by David Rogers, Politics, Prayer and Parliament (London 2000) pp. 111–12. For St Elmo see Donald Attwater and Catherine Rachel John (eds), The Penguin Dictionary of Saints (London 1995) p. 120

38 Richard Fenn, Beyond Idols. The Shape of a Secular Society (Oxford 2001) p. 179

39 Henri Troyat, Gorky (London 1989) pp. 114–15

40 Tommaso Campanella, La Città del Sole. Dialogo poetico, trans. with an introduction by Daniel J. Donno (Berkeley 1981) p. 11

41 John M. Headley, Tommaso Campanella and the Transformation of the World (Princeton 1997) for the biographical particulars

42 Isaiah Berlin, ‘The Originality of Machiavelli’ in The Proper Study of Mankind. An Anthology of Essays, ed. Henry Hardy (New York 1997) p. 281

43 Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses, ed. Bernard Crick (London 1970) I. 11–15 pp. 139–52 and II. 2, p. 278

44 Hans Otto Seitscheck, ‘Frühe Verwendungen des Begriffs “Politische Religion”. Campanella, Clasen, Wieland’ in Hans Maier (ed.), Totalitarismus und Politische Religionen (Paderborn 2003) 3, pp. 109–14

45 Campanella, La Città del Sole p. 99

46 Chr. M. Wieland, Betrachtungen über die gegenwärtige Lage des Vaterlandes in F. Martini (ed.), Meine Antworten. Aufsätze über die Französische Revolution 1789–1793 (Marbach 1983) p. 113

Chapter 1: Age of Reason, Age of Faith

1 Thomas Kselman, ‘Religion and French Identity’ in William R. Hutchison and Hartmut Lehmann (eds), Many are Chosen. Divine Election and Western Nationalism (Minneapolis 1994) p. 57

2 For these details see Bernard Fay, Louis XVI or the End of the World (Chicago 1968) pp. 124–8

3 Alain Corbin, Village Bells. Sound and Meaning in the Nineteenth-Century French Countryside (London 1999) pp. 3–44

4 Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity (London 1976) p. 343

5 Ibid. pp. 342–3

6 Nigel Aston, Religion and Revolution in France 1780–1804 (London 2000) pp. 34–60

7 Bernard Cousin, Monique Cubells and René Moulinas, La Pique et la croix. L’histoire religieuse de la Révolution française (Orne 1989) p. 23

8 Robert Darnton, ‘Philosophical Sex. Pornography in Old Regime France’ in Mark Micale and Robert Dietle (eds), Enlightenment, Passion, Modernity. Historical Essays in European Thought and Culture (Stanford 2000) pp. 92–3

9 Jean-Louis Ormiéres, Politique et religion en France (Paris 2002) p. 20; see also Olwen Hufton, ‘The French Church’ in William Callahan and David Higgs (eds), Church and Society in Catholic Europe of the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge 1979) pp. 15–18

10 Owen Chadwick, The Popes and European Revolution (Oxford 1981) pp. 257ff. is fundamental

11 See Mack P. Holt, The French Wars of Religion 1562–1629 (Cambridge 1995)

12 W. R. Ward, Christianity under the Ancien Régime 1648–1789 (Cambridge 1999) p. 109

13 John McManners, Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France (Oxford 1998) 1, pp. 78–9

14 Derek Beales, ‘Joseph II and the Monasteries of Austria and Hungary’ in Nigel Aston (ed.), Religious Change in Europe 1650–1914 . Essays for John McManners (Oxford 1997) pp. 160–84

15 Pascal, Provincial Letters, trans. A. J. Krailsheimer (London 1967) Letter V, p. 86

16 Montesquieu, Persian Letters trans. Christopher Betts (London 1973) letter 57, v p. 122

17 See Douglas Letson and Michael Higgins, The Jesuit Mystique (London 1995) pp. 1–72

18 William Doyle, Jansenism. Catholic Resistance to Authority from the Reformation to the French Revolution (London 2000) is an excellent introduction. For the discussion of Richerism see M. G. Hutt, ‘The Curés and the Third Estate. The Ideas of Reform in the Pamphlets of the French Lower Clergy in the Period 1787–1789’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History (1957) 8, pp. 84ff.

19 Jean Mesnard, Pascal. His Life and Works (London 1952) pp. 66ff.

20 For a clear discussion see Julian Swann, ‘The State and Political Culture’ in William Doyle (ed.), Old Regime France 1648–1788 (Oxford 2001) pp. 155–60

21 A. J. Ayer, Voltaire (London 1986) p. 30

22 Mona Ozouf, “‘Public Opinion” at the End of the Old Regime’, Journal of Modern History (1988) 60, p. S10

23 See especially the classic Robert Darnton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (Cambridge, Mass. 1982)

24 Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary, trans. Theodore Besterman (London 1972) p. 16

25 See especially Peter Gay, The Enlightenment. The Rise of Modern Paganism (New York 1966) 1, pp. 98ff.

26 Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B. Bury (London 1896) 1, p. 28

27 Quotations from David Hume, Dialogues and Natural History of Religion, ed. J. C. A. Gaskin (Oxford 1993) pp. 134–96

28 Ibid. p. 295

29 For an excellent discussion see Robert R. Palmer, Catholics and Unbelievers in Eighteenth-Century France (Princeton 1947) especially pp. 77–102

30 For the details see Darrin M. McMahon, Enemies of the Enlightenment. The French Counter-Enlightenment and the Making of Modernity (Oxford 2001) pp. 32ff.

31 See especially Carl L. Becker, The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers (New Haven 1932) pp. 71–153 for this argument

32 J. C. D. Clarke (ed.), Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (Stanford 2001) p. 92. Dr Clarke’s introduction is an important and lucid one

33 On Barruel see Jacques Godechot, The Counter-Revolution. Doctrine and Action 1789–1804 (London 1972) pp. 41ff.; Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, ed. Conor Cruise O’Brien (London 1968) pp. 211–12; see also J. G. A. Pocock, ‘Edmund Burke and the Redefinition of Enthusiasm’ in François Furet and Mona Ozouf (eds), The Transformation of Political Culture 1789–1848. The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture (Oxford 1989) 3, especially pp. 25ff.

34 Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution, ed. François Furet and and Françoise Mélino (Chicago 1998) 1, pp. 198–9 and 200–1

35 ‘Alphabet des sans culottes, ou premiers éléments d’éducation républicainé, cited by Roger Chartier, The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution (Durham, NC 1991) p. 89

36 Christopher Dawson, The Gods of Revolution (London 1972) p. 29

37 J. M. Roberts, ‘The French Origins of the “Right” ’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (1973) 23, p. 44

38 On this see David A. Bell, The Cult of the Nation in France. Inventing Nationalism 1680–1800 (Cambridge, Mass. 2001) pp. 27ff.

Chapter 2: The Church and the Revolution

1 See M. G. Hutt, ‘The Role of the Curés in the Estates General of 1789’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History (1955) 6, pp. 190–220

2 David Lloyd Dowd, Pageant-Master of the Republic. Jacques-Louis David and the French Revolution (Lincoln, Nebr. 1948) pp. 36–40

3 Norman Hampson, Prelude to Terror. The Constituent Assembly and the Failure of Consensus 1789–1791 (Oxford 1988) p. 141

4 Hans Maier, Revolution and Church. The Early History of Christian Democracy 1789–1901 (Notre Dame 1969) p. 102

5 See Timothy Tackett, Becoming a Revolutionary. The Deputies of the French National Assembly and the Emergence of a Revolutionary Culture ( 1789–1790 ) (Princeton 1996) for these observations

6 Munro Price, The Fall of the French Monarchy. Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and the Baron de Breteuil (London 2002) pp. 56–7

7 Nigel Aston, The End of an Élite. The French Bishops and the Coming of the Revolution 1786–1790 (Oxford 1992) p. 177

8 Nigel Aston, Religion and Revolution in France 1780–1804 (London 2000) pp. 130–1

9 M. G. Hutt, ‘The Diary of Rouph de Varicourt, Curé of Gex, Deputy in the Estates General of 1789’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research (1956) 29, pp. 252–61

10 John McManners, The French Revolution and the Church (London 1969) p. 26

11 François Furet, ‘Night of August 4’ in François Furet and Mona Ozouf (eds), A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass. 1989) pp. 107–13

12 Philip G. Dwyer, Talleyrand (London 2002) p. 34

13 Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity (London 1976) p. 357

14 Yann Fauchois, Religion et France révolutionnaire (Paris 1989) p. 43

15 C. Dagens et al. (eds), L’Eglise à l’épreuve de la Révolution (Paris 1989) p. 74

16 Denis Diderot, The Nun (London 1974)

17 Marcel Reinhard, ‘Religion, Révolution et Contre-Révolution', Les Cours de Sorbonne 1, pp. 46–7

18 William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (Oxford 1989) p. 138

19 Bernard Plongeron, ‘Die Zivilkonstitution des Klerus oder die Misgeschicke der nationalen Religion (1790–1791)’ in Plongeron (ed.), Aufklärung, Revolution, Restauration ( 1750–1830 ), Jean-Marie Mayeur et al. (eds), Die Geschichte des Christentums (Freiburg 2000) 10, p. 331

20 For the emancipation of the Jews see David Vital, A People Apart. A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789–1939 (Oxford 1999) pp. 42ff.

21 Bernard Cousin, Monique Cubells and René Moulinas, La Pique et la croix. L’Histoire religieuse de la Révolution française (Orne 1989) pp. 122–4

22 Hampson, Prelude to Terror p. 149

23 J. M. Roberts, ‘The French Origins of the “Right” ’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (1973) 23, pp. 27–53

24 Timothy Tackett, ‘The West in France in 1789. The Religious Factor in the Origins of the Counterrevolution’, Journal of Modern History (1982) 54, pp. 715–45

25 For a good discussion of these issues see Jean Quéniart, Le Clergé déchiré. Fidéle ou rebelle? (Rennes 1988) pp. 39–41

26 Price, Fall of the French Monarchy pp. 152–3

27 For these images see Timothy Tackett, La Révolution, l’Eglise, la France (Paris 1986) pp. 180ff.

28 For the genesis of this second oath see E. Mangenot, ‘La Législation du Serment de la Liberté et de l’É galité’, Revue de Clergé Français (1918) pp. 419–36

29 Plongeron, ‘Die Zivilkonstitution’ pp. 358–63; for detailed accounts of events see Mairie du Vie Arrondisement (ed.), 1792 . Les Massacres de Septembre (Les Carmes, L’Abbaye, Saint-Fermin) (Paris 1992)

30 Donald Sutherland, The Chouans. The Social Origins of Popular Counter-Revolution in Upper Brittany 1770–1796 (Oxford 1982) pp. 240ff.

31 Ruth Graham, ‘The Married Nuns before Cardinal Caprara’ in Bernard Plongeron (ed.), Pratiques religieuses dans l’Europe révolutionnaire ( 1770–1820 ) (Chantilly 1986) pp. 321ff.

32 Michel Vovelle, The Revolution against the Church. From Reason to the Supreme Being (Columbus 1991) p. 80; Dawson, Gods of Revolution pp. 73–4 for the final quotation

Chapter 3: ‘Puritans Thinking They are Spartans Run Amok in Eighteenth-Century Paris’

1 See M. O. Grenby, The Anti-Jacobin Novel. British Conservatism and the French Revolution (Cambridge 2001)

2 See especially William L. Pressly, The French Revolution as Blasphemy. Johann Zoffany’s Paintings of the Massacre at Paris, August 10 , 1792 (Berkeley 1999) pp. 48ff.

3 For these biographical details see David Lloyd Dowd, Pageant-Master of the Republic. Jacques-Louis David and the French Revolution (Lincoln, Nebr. 1948)

4 Jean Starobinski, 1789 . The Emblems of Reason (Charlottesville 1982) pp. 101ff.

5 Dorothy Johnson, Jacques-Louis David. Art in Metamorphosis (Princeton 1993) pp. 81–2

6 Norman Hampson, Will and Circumstance. Montesquieu, Rousseau and the French Revolution (London 1983) pp. 204–5

7 For these details see Warren Roberts, Revolutionary Artists. Jacques-Louis David and Jean-Louis Prieur. The Public, the Populace, and Images of the French Revolution (Albany, NY 2000) especially pp. 288–9

8 See Helen Weston, ‘The Corday–Marat Affair’ in William Vaughan and Helen Weston (eds), David’s The Death of Marat (Cambridge 2000) pp. 128–52

9 For the painting’s history see Marie-Pierre Foissy-Aufrére et al., La Mort de Bara (Musè Calvet, Avignon 1989)

10 Jules Michelet, Historical View of the French Revolution from its Earliest Indications to the Flight of the King in 1791, trans. C. Cocks (London 1888) p. 393

11 For these details see Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass. 1988) pp. 33–60

12 Dowd, Pageant-Master of the Republic pp. 54–72

13 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Politics and the Arts. Letter to M. D’Alembert on the Theatre, trans. with notes and introduction by Allan Bloom (Ithaca 1960) pp. 125–6

14 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings, ed. Victor Gourevitch(Cambridge 1997) pp. 150–1

15 Rousseau, ‘Considerations on the Government of Poland’ in The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings pp. 181–2

16 Bronislaw Baczko, Utopian Lights. The Evolution of the Idea of Social Progress (New York 1989) pp. 43–70

17 Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley 1984) p. 97

18 D. M. G. Sutherland, France 1789–1815 . Revolution and Counterrevolution (London 1985) p. 210

19 For numerous examples see Ferdinand Brunot, Histoire de la langue française des origines à nos jours (Paris 1967) 9, part ii, pp. 623–9

20 Boyd C. Schafer, Nationalism, Myth and Reality (New York 1955) p. 142

21 James Leith, ‘The Terror. Adding the Cultural Dimension’ in Ian Germani and Robin Swales (eds), Symbols, Myths and Images of the French Revolution (Regina 1998) pp. 9–10

22 See especially James Leith, Media and Revolution. Moulding a New Citizenry in France during the Terror (Toronto 1968) pp. 64–5

23 See James Leith, ‘On the Religiosity of the French Revolution’ in George Levitine (ed.), Culture and Revolution. Cultural Ramifications of the French Revolution (College Park, Md 1989) pp. 174–9; on plans for education see R. R. Palmer, The Improvement of Humanity. Education and the French Revolution (Princeton 1985)

24 On this debate see Serge Bianchi, La Révolution culturelle de l’an II (Paris 1982) pp. 153ff.

25 Harold T. Parker, The Cult of Antiquity and the French Revolutionaries. A Study in the Development of the French Revolutionary Spirit (Chicago 1937) p. 141

26 Michel Vovelle, The Revolution against the Church. From Reason to the Supreme Being (Columbus 1991) pp. 40–2; Renè Pillorget, ‘The Cultural Programme of the 1789 Revolution’, History (1985) 70, pp. 388–9

27 Brunot, Histoire de la langue française 9, p. 650

28 Richard Cobb, The People’s Armies (New Haven 1987) p. 471

29 Ernst Gombrich, ‘The Dream of Reason. Symbolism of the French Revolution’, British Journal for Eighteenth Century Studies (1979) 2, p. 192

30 On this calendar see Bronislaw Baczko, ‘Le Calendrier rèpublicain’ in Pierre Nora (ed.), Les Lieux de mémoire (Paris 1984) 1, pp. 37–83; James Figuglietti, ‘Gilbert Romme and the Making of the French Republican Calendar’ in David G. Troyanski, Alfred Cismaru and Norwood Andrews (eds), The French Revolution in Culture and Society (Westport 1991) pp. 13–22, and Hans Maier, ‘Über revolutionäre Feste and Zeitrechnungen’ in Hans Maier and Eberhard Schmitt (eds), Wie eine Revolution entsteht. Die französische Revolution als Kommunikationsereignis (Paderborn 1990) pp. 99–117

31 Cited by David P. Jordan, The Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre (New York 1985) p. 193

32 R. R. Palmer, Twelve who Ruled. The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution (Princeton 1941) pp. 118–19

33 For an extremely astute account of the Revolution see S. E. Finer, The History of Government, vol. 3: Empires, Monarchies and the Modern State (Oxford 1999) pp. 1517–66

34 Michelle Vovelle, La Mentalitérévolutionnaire (Paris 1985) p. 151

35 See the outstanding study by Patrice Higonnet, Goodness beyond Virtue. Jacobins during the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass. 1998) p. 233

36 William Reddy, ‘Sentimentalism and its Erasure. The Role of Emotions in the Era of the French Revolution’, Journal of Modern History (2000) 72, p. 110

37 See especially J. L. Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (London 1952) pp. 149ff.

38 Brunot, Histoire de la langue française 9, p. 877

39 Jordan, Revolutionary Career of Maximilien Robespierre p. 175

40 For this see the suggestive comments in Barrington Moore Jnr, Moral Purity and Persecution in History (Princeton 2000) p. 74

41 Christoph Martin Wieland, ‘Betrachtungen über die gegenwärtige Lage des Vaterlandes’ in F. Martini (ed.), Meine Antworten. Aufsätze über die Französische Revolution 1789–1793 (Marbach 1983) p. 113; see also Hans Otto Seitschek, ‘Frühe Verwendungen des Begriffs “Politische Religion”. Campanella, Clasen, Wieland’ in Hans Maier (ed.), Totalitarismus und Politische Religionen (Paderborn 2003) 3, pp. 118–20

42 Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution, ed. François Furet and Françoise Mélonio (Chicago 1998) 1, p. 101

43 Lucien Jaume, Le Discours jacobin et la démocratie (Paris 1989) pp. 249–53

44 Palmer, Twelve who Ruled p. 328

45 For this story see Antoine de Baecque, Glory and Terror. Seven Deaths under the French Revolution (New York/London 2001) pp. 121–42. See also his essay on regeneration, ‘L’Homme nouveau est arrivé. La “Régénération” du Français en 1789’, Dix-Huitiéme Siécle (1988) 20, pp. 193–208. For more conventional accounts of the Terror that reduce it to a crude historiographical either–or of ideology or circumstances, see Hugh Gough, The Terror in the French Revolution (London 1998) and Arno Meyer, The Furies. Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions (Princeton 2000), a book chiefly interesting for the newfound salience the old academic left is prepared to accord religion in the historical process

46 Donald Sutherland, The Chouans. The Social Origins of Popular Counter-Revolution in Upper Brittany 1770–1796 (Oxford 1982) p. 247

47 Marie-Paule Biron, Les Messes clandestines pendant la Révolution (Paris 1989) p. 78

48 Frank Tallett, ‘Dechristianizing France. The Year II and the Revolutionary Experience’ in Frank Tallett and Nicholas Atkin (eds), Religion, Society and Politics in France since 1789 (London 1991) pp. 17–22

49 Claude Petitfrére, ‘The Origins of the Civil War in the Vendée’, French History (1988) 2, pp. 196–7

50 Reynald Secher, Le Génocide franco-français: La Vendée-vengée (Paris 1986) pp. 158–9

51 Graham Robb, Victor Hugo (London 1997) pp. 5–7

52 Cobb, People’s Armies pp. 400ff.; Secher, Le Génocide p. 152

53 For the above see Sutherland, Chouans pp. 258ff.

54 Anne Bernet, Histoire générale de la chouannerie (Paris 2000)

55 F.-A. Aulard, Le Culte de la raison et le culte de l’être suprême ( 1793–1794 ) (Paris 1892) p. 314

56 Ibid. p. 316

57 John McManners, Lectures on European History 1789–1914 . Men, Machines and Freedom (Oxford 1966) p. 48

58 E. Mangenot, ‘La Premie`re Déportation Ecclésiastique a` Rochefort’, Revue du Clergé Franc¸ais (1916) 88, pp. 289ff.; John McManners, The French Revolution and the Church (London 1969) pp. 126–7

59 Olwen Hufton, ‘The Reconstruction of a Church, 1796–1801’ in Gwynne Lewis and Colin Lucas (eds), Beyond the Terror. Essays in French Regional and Social History 1794–1815 (Cambridge 1983) pp. 21–52

60 Revue de l’Histoire de l’Église de France

61 Geoffrey Ellis, ‘Religion according to Napoleon. The Limitations of Pragmatism’ in Nigel Aston (ed.), Religious Change in Europe 1650–1914 (Oxford 1997) pp. 234–7

62 Sutherland, France 1789–1815 p. 355

63 William Roberts, ‘Napoleon and the Concordat of 1801’ in Frank Coppa (ed.), Controversial Concordats (Washington DC 1999) pp. 44–5

64 Colin Lucas, ‘Presentation’ in François Furet and Mona Ozouf (eds), The Transformation of Political Culture 1789–1848 . The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture (Oxford 1989) 3, pp. 349–50

65 Information from Robert Conquest

Chapter 4: The Alliance of Throne and Altar in Restoration Europe

1 Graham Robb, Victor Hugo (London 1997) pp. 31–2

2 For these details see the vivid account by T. C. W. Blanning, ‘The Role of Religion in European Counter-Revolution 1789–1815’ in Derek Beales and Geoffrey Best (eds), History, Society and the Churches. Essays in Honour of Owen Chadwick (Cambridge 1985) pp. 195ff.

3 James Sheehan, German History 1770–1866 (Oxford 1989) p. 392, and for Hegel’s changing political views see Horst Althaus, Hegel. An Intellectual Biography (Oxford 2000)

4 For examples see R. S. Soloway, Prelates and People. Ecclesiastical Social Thought in England 1783–1852 (London 1969) pp. 34–45

5 Rosemary Ashton, The Life of Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Oxford 1996) p. 90

6 Mark Storey, Robert Southey. A Life (Oxford 1997)

7 Maurice Cranston, The Romantic Movement (Oxford 1994) p. 62

8 Friedrich Sieburg, Chateaubriand (London 1961) pp. 100–1

9 Elisabeth Fehrenbach, ‘Über die Bedeutung der politischen Symbole im Nationalstaat’, HZ (1971) 213, pp. 318–326; Joseph Leo Koerner, Kaspar David Friedrich and the Subject of Landscape (London 1995)

10 Novalis, Die Christenheit oder Europa, ed. Carl Paschek (Stuttgart 1984)

11 ‘Submission to the Powers that be: The “Paternal Exhortation” of Patriarch Antimos of Jerusalem’ in Richard Clogg (ed.), The Movement for Greek Independence 1770–1821 . A Collection of Documents (London 1976) pp. 57ff.

12 Richard Watson, A Defence of Revealed Religion in Two Sermons Preached in the Cathedral Church of Llandaff (London 1806) p. 400

13 Archivio Segreto del Vaticano. Fondo Particolare Pio IX, cassetta 5, busta 4 ‘Catechismo Sulle Rivoluzione’ (1832)

14 Adrien Dansette, Religious History of Modern France. From the Revolution to the Third Republic (Freiburg 1961) 1, p. 176

15 Derek Beales and Eugenio Biagini, The Risorgimento and the Unification of Italy (second edition London 2002) p. 75

16 Raymond Grew, ‘Culture and Society 1796–1896’ in John Davis (ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford 2000) p. 221

17 Leonid Strakhovsky, Alexander I of Russia (London 1949) p. 159

18 John McManners, Lectures on European History 1789–1914 . Men, Machines and Freedom (Oxford 1966) p. 117

19 Strakhovsky, Alexander I of Russia p. 154

20 For Congress diplomacy see Alan Sked (ed.), Europe’s Balance of Power 1815–1848 (London 1979)

21 H. Daniel-Rops, The Church in the Age of Revolution 1789–1870 (London 1965) p. 127

22 Alan Palmer, Alexander I (London 1974) pp. 326–7

23 Guido de Ruggiero, The History of European Liberalism (Oxford 1927) p. 85

24 For Metternich’s religious views see Owen Chadwick, The Popes and European Revolution (Oxford 1981) p. 537

25 Hagen Schulze, States, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford 1994) p. 90

26 Salo Wittmayer Baron, Modern Nationalism and Religion (New York 1960) p. 33

27 Edward Norman, Church and Society in England 1770–1970 . A Historical Study (Oxford 1976) p. 70

28 For the above see mainly A. D. Gilbert, Religion and Society in Industrial England. Church, Chapel and Social Change 1740–1914 (London 1976) p. 82 for the duchess’s remarks

29 Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution 1789–1848 (London 1962) p. 299

30 Richard Lebrun, Joseph de Maistre. An Intellectual Militant (Kingston/Montreal 1988)

31 Jack Hayward, After the French Revolution. Six Critics of Democracy and Nationalism (New York 1991) p. 48

32 Richard Fargher, ‘Religious Reactions in Post-Revolutionary French Literature’ in Nigel Aston (ed.), Religious Change in Europe 1650–1914 . Essays for John McManners (Oxford 1997) p. 270

33 Lebrun, Joseph de Maistre p. 183

34 Joseph de Maistre, Considerations, ed. and trans. Richard A. Lebrun (Cambridge, 1994) p. 73

35 Ibid. p. 53

36 Ibid. p. 41

37 Jack Lively (ed.), The Works of Joseph de Maistre (New York 1965) p. 253

38 Most obviously Isaiah Berlin, ‘Introduction’ to de Maistre, Considerations p. xxix

39 Lively, Works of Joseph de Maistre p. 142

40 See especially Leon Bramson, The Political Context of Sociology (Princeton 1961) pp. 11–24

41 J. L. Talmon, Political Messianism. The Romantic Phase (London 1960) p. 312

42 For the above see mainly David Klinck, The French Counterrevolutionary Theorist Louis de Bonald ( 1754–1840 ) (New York 1996)

43 Alec R. Vidler, Prophecy and Papacy. A Study of Lamennais, the Church and the Revolution (London 1954) p. 60

44 Dansette, Religious History of Modern France 1, pp. 194–5

45 P.-J. Béranger, ‘The Coronation of Charles X’ in J. H. Stewart, The Restoration Era in France 1814–1830 (Princeton 1968)

46 C. S. Phillips, The Church in France 1789–1848 . A Study in Revival (London 1929) 1, p. 193

47 Alfred Minke, ‘Ein liberaler Triumph. Die Unabhängigkeit Belgiens’ in Bernard Plongeron (ed.), Aufklärung, Revolution, Restauration pp. 738ff.

48 K. Jürgensen, Lamennais und die Gestaltung des belgischen Staates (Wiesbaden 1963)

49 Vidler, Prophecy and the Papacy pp. 105ff.

50 Talmon, Political Messianism p. 235

51 Daniel-Rops, The Church in the Age of Revolution p. 202

52 Vidler, Prophecy and the Papacy pp. 182–3

53 For this important point see Hans Maier, Revolution und Kirche. Zur Frühgeschichte der christlichen Demokratie (Freiburg im Breisgau 1975) pp. 170–1

54 Vidler, Prophecy and Papacy pp. 198–9

55 Owen Chadwick, A History of the Popes 1830–1914 (Oxford 1998) p. 25

56 Frank Coppa, The Modern Papacy since 1789 (London 1998) p. 59

Chapter 5: Chosen Peoples: Political Messianism and Nationalism

1 See the useful discussion in Conor Cruise O’Brien’s God Land. Reflections on Religion and Nationalism (Cambridge, Mass. 1988) pp. 41–2

2 William R. Hutchinson and Hartmut Lehmann (eds), Many are Chosen. Divine Election and Western Nationalism (Minneapolis 1994)

3 Emilio Gentile, ‘The Sacralisation of Politics. Definitions, Interpretations and Reflections on the Question of Secular Religion and Totalitarianism’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2000) 1, pp. 18–55 is symptomatic of writing in this field that omits any discussion of the role of Christianity in relation to the pseudo-religious phenomena he otherwise describes so well. By contrast, David A. Bell’s The Cult of the Nation in France. Inventing Nationalism 1680–1800 (Cambridge, Mass. 2001) pp. 190ff. contains some valuable comparisons between the Counter-Reformation drive for ‘hearts and minds’ and that of the revolutionary state

4 The quotation from Hegel is from Die Verfassung Deutschlands (1802) in Hegel, Politische Schriften, ed. Hans Blumenberg et al. (Frankfurt am Main 1966) p. 37

5 Thomas Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte 1800–1866 . Bürgerwelt und starker Staat (Munich 1998) pp. 431–2

6 Ernest Gellner, Nationalism (London 1995) pp. 66ff. and 76–8

7 Wolfgang Altgeld, Katholizismus, Protestantismus, Judentum. über religiös begründete Gegensätze und nationalreligiöse Ideen in der Geschichte des deutschen Nationalismus (Mainz 1992) p. 170; John McManners, Church and State in France 1870–1914 (London 1972) p. 41 for Gambetta

8 La Riforma 3 October 1870 cited by Christopher Duggan, Francesco Crispi. From Nation to Nationalism (Oxford 2002) p. 328.

9 Wolfgang Altgeld, ‘Religion, Denomination and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Germany’ in Martin Walser Smith (ed.), Protestants, Catholics and Jews in Germany 1800–1914 (New York 2001) p. 55

10 Elie Kedourie, Nationalism (fourth edition Oxford 1993) p. 1

11 For a useful summary of the latest work on these themes see Antony D. Smith, Chosen Peoples. Sacred Sources of National Identity (Oxford 2003) pp. 115ff.

12 Otto Dann, Nation und Nationalismus in Deutschland 1770–1990 (Munich 1993) pp. 52–3

13 Nicholas Hope, German and Scandinavian Protestantism 1700–1918 (Oxford 1995) pp. 217ff. is fundamental

14 Dräsecke, ‘Vaterlandsfreude. Eine Dankpredigt zur Feier des Tages von Leipzig’ (Bremen 1815), cited by Arlie J. Hoover, The Gospel of Nationalism. German Patriotic Preaching from Napoleon to Versailles (Stuttgart 1986) p. 59

15 Carlton Hayes, ‘Nationalism as a Religion’ in his Essays on Nationalism (New York 1926) pp. 93–125 and Nationalism. A Religion (New York 1960) p. 47 for the general themes, and Koppel Pinson, Pietism as a Factor in the Rise of German Nationalism (New York 1934) especially pp. 25–7 for these remarks on Pietism. But see also the caveats of Hartmut Lehmann, ‘Pietism and Nationalism. The Relationship between Protestant Revivalism and National Renewal in Nineteenth-Century Germany’, Church History (1982) 51, pp. 39ff. regarding Pinson’s undifferentiated use of the term Pietism

16 David Nicholls, Deity and Domination. Images of God and the State in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London 1989)

17 Michel de Certeau et al., Une Politique de la langue. La Révolution française et les patois (Paris 1975) p. 181

18 Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (New York 1945) pp. 368–9

19 Pinson, Pietism as a Factor p. 158

20 Elie Kedourie, Nationalism p. 60

21 On this see Maurice Cranston, The Romantic Movement (Oxford 1994) p. 24

22 Kohn, Idea of Nationalism p. 434; Isaiah Berlin, Vico and Herder. Two Studies in the History of Ideas (London 1980) is still serviceable, although the standard modern biography is Michael Zaremba, Johann Gottfried Herder–Prediger der Humanität (Cologne 2003)

23 Ute Schneider, ‘Die Erfindung des Bösen. Der Welsche’ in Gerd Krumreich and Hartmut Lehmann (eds), ‘Gott mit uns’. Nation, Religion und Gewalt im 19 . und frühen 20 . Jahrhundert (Göttingen 2000) p. 48

24 Rainer Wohlfeil, Spanien und die deutsche Erhebung (Wiesbaden 1965) pp. 309ff.

25 As pointed out by Carlton Hayes, ‘The Propagation of Nationalism’ in his Essays on Nationalism pp. 76–7

26 Dann, Nation und Nationalismus in Deutschland p. 74

27 Jerry Dawson, Friedrich Schleiermacher. The Evolution of a Nationalist (Austin 1966) pp. 60ff. and Salo Wittmayer Baron, Modern Nationalism and Religion (New York 1960) pp. 136ff. are useful

28 Hasko Zimmer, Auf dem Altar des Vaterlands. Religion und Patriotismus in der deutschen Kriegslyrik des 19 . Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt am Main 1971) pp. 56–7

29 For this see Hoover, Gospel of Nationalism p. 67

30 Hartmut Lehmann, ‘The Germans as a Chosen People. Old Testament Themes in German Nationalism’, German Studies Review (1991) 14, pp. 261ff.

31 Zimmer, Auf dem Altar p. 27

32 Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Nationalismus (Frankfurt am Main 2002) p. 69

33 Erich Pelzer, ‘Die Wiedergeburt Deutschlands 1813 und die Dämonisierung Napoleons’ in Krumreich and Lehmann (eds), ‘Gott mit uns’ pp. 150–1

34 Adam Zamoyski, Holy Madness. Romantics, Patriots and Revolutionaries 1776–1871 (London 1999) p. 193

35 Cranston, Romantic Movement pp. 42–3

36 Hayes, ‘Nationalism as a Religion’ p. 61; see also the discussion in Baron, Modern Nationalism and Religion p. 47

37 Jonathan Sperber, The European Revolutions 1848–1851 (Cambridge 1994) p. 99

38 Thomas Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte 1800–1866 pp. 279–81

39 Altgeld, ‘Religion, Denomination and Nationalism’ pp. 56–7

40 Altgeld, Katholizismus, Protestantismus, Judentum p. 172

41 Ulrich von Hehl, ‘Zwei Kulturen–eine Nation? Die frühe burschenschaftliche Einheitsbewegung und das Wartburgfest’, Historisches Jahrbuch (1991) 111, p. 47

42 Thomas Nipperdey, ‘Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert’ in his Geschichtswissenschaft und Vereinswesen im 19 Jahrhundert (Göttingen 1972)

43 George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses. Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Ithaca 1975) pp. 81ff.

44 See Stuart Woolf, A History of Italy 1700–1860 (London 1979) pp. 247–8 for a good discussion of the variety of sects

45 See James Billington, Fire in the Minds of Men. Origins of the Revolutionary Faith (New York 1980) pp. 130ff., and J. Rath, ‘The Carbonari. Their Origins, Initiation Rites, and Aims’, AHR (1964) pp. 353ff.

  46 Gellner, Nationalism pp. 41ff.

47 Richard Clogg (ed.), The Movement for Greek Independence 1770–1821 . A Collection of Documents (London 1976) pp. 184ff.

48 For the diplomacy of the Greek war of independence see Paul Schroeder’s excellent account in The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (Oxford 1994) pp. 614ff.

49 There is an excellent discussion of these issues in David Brewer, The Flame of Freedom. The Greek War of Independence 1821–1833 (London 2001) pp. 104ff.

50 W. St Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free. The Philhellenes in the War of Independence (New York 1972)

51 Mikhail Dimitriev, ‘Polen’ in Bernard Plongeron (ed.), Aufklärung, Revolution, Restauration ( 1750–1830 ), Jean-Marie Mayeur et al. (eds), Die Geschichte des Christentums (Freiburg 2000) 10, p. 751

52 For this discussion of the dominant modes of Polish political conduct see Norman Davies, Heart of Europe. A Short History of Poland (Oxford 1984) pp. 179ff.

53 S. Helsztynski (ed.), Adam Mickiewicz 1798–1855 . Selected Poetry and Prose (Warsaw 1955) pp. 103–4

54 For these details see Monica Gardner, Adam Mickiewicz. The National Poet of Poland (London 1911)

55 S. J. Connolly, Priests and People in Pre-Famine Ireland 1780–1845 (Dublin 2001) pp. 209–13

56 For an exceptionally fine discussion of these issues see Alvin Jackson, Ireland 1798–1998 (Oxford 1999) pp. 25–6

57 Oliver MacDonagh, The Emancipist. Daniel O’Connell 1830–1847 (London 1989) p. 245

58 Edward Norman, A History of Modern Ireland (London 1971) p. 57

59 See Oliver MacDonagh, The Hereditary Bondsman. Daniel O’Connell 1775–1829 (London 1988); Jeanne Sheehy, The Rediscovery of Ireland’s Past. The Celtic Revival 1830–1930 (London 1980) pp. 9ff. is an incisive and useful discussion of these emblems

60 MacDonagh, Hereditary Bondsman pp. 211ff.

61 Thomas Bartlett, The Fall and Rise of the Irish Nation. The Catholic Question 1690–1830 (Dublin 1992) p. 332

62 F. O’Ferrall, Catholic Emancipation and the Birth of Irish Democracy 1820–1830 (Dublin 1985)

63 Marcus Tanner, Ireland’s Holy Wars. The Struggle for a Nation’s Soul 1500–2000 (New Haven 2001) p. 235

64 For a good discussion of Catholic political mobilisation see R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland 1600–1972 (London 1988) pp. 289ff.

65 MacDonagh, Emancipist pp. 226ff.

66 Charles Gavan Duffy, Young Ireland. A Fragment of Irish History 1840–1850 (London 1880) pp. 344–7

67 A. Griffith, Thomas Davis, the Thinker and Teacher (Dublin 1918)

68 On Young Ireland see D. George Boyce, Nationalism in Ireland (London 1982) especially pp. 154ff.

69 Woolf, A History of Italy p. 311

70 Giuseppe Mazzini, ‘Foi et avenir’ (1835) in his Scritti editi e inediti (Imola 1906–40) 6, pp. 263ff.

71 Giuseppe Mazzini, Life and Writings (London 1864) 1, pp. 105–6

72 Roland Sarti, Mazzini. A Life for the Religion of Politics (Westport 1997) pp. 54–5

73 Denis Mack Smith, Mazzini (New Haven 1994) p. 17

74 See J. L. Talmon, Political Messianism. The Romantic Phase (London 1960), pp. 256–61

75 Mazzini, Life and Writings pp. 124–5

76 Roland Sarti, ‘Giuseppe Mazzini and his Opponents’ in John Davis (ed.), Italy in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford 2000) p. 76

77 Sarti, Mazzini p. 80

78 E. E. Y. Hales, Mazzini and the Secret Societies. The Making of a Myth (London 1956) p. 141

79 Smith, Mazzini especially pp. 12ff.

80 Owen Chadwick, A History of the Popes 1830–1941 (Oxford 1998) pp. 50–1

81 H. Daniel-Rops, The Church in an Age of Revolution 1789–1870 (London 1965) p. 252

82 Chadwick, History of the Popes pp. 82ff.

83 David Kertzer, The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara (New York 1997)

84 See Lucy Riall, Sicily and the Unification of Italy. Liberal Policy and Local Power 1859–1866 (Oxford 1998)

85 Christopher Duggan, Francesco Crispi. From Nation to Nationalism (Oxford 2003)

86 Nelson Moe, “‘This is Africa”. Ruling and Representing Southern Italy, 1860–61’ in Albert Russell Ascoli and Krystyna von Henneberg (eds), Making and Remaking Italy. The Cultivation of National Identity during the Risorgimento (Oxford 2001) pp. 135ff.

87 Duggan, Francesco Crispi p. 304

88 Ibid. p. 43389 Zamoyski, Holy Madness p. 409

90 La Riforma 10 June 1882, cited by Duggan, Francesco Crispi p. 438

Chapter 6: Century of Faiths

1 Maurice Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine in Modern England (Cambridge 1980–2001) 2, p. 97

2 David Hempton, ‘Religious Life in Industrial Britain, 1830–1914’ in Sheridan Gilley and W. J. Sheils (eds), A History of Religion in Britain. Practice and Belief from Pre-Roman Times to the Present (Oxford 1994) p. 309, and see Chapter 9 below

3 David Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Modern Germany 1780–1918 . The Long Nineteenth Century (London 1997) p. 285

4 Stefan Collini, Arnold (Oxford 1988) p. 94

5 Gordon Haight, George Eliot. A Biography (London 1968) p. 331

6 John Sutherland, Mrs Humphry Ward (Oxford 1990)

7 Ibid. p. 112

8 Mrs Humphry Ward, Robert Elsmere (27th ed. London 1889)

9 Ibid. p. 342

10 Ibid. p. 365

11 Ibid. p. 523

12 Ibid. p. 412

13 Ibid. pp. 578–81 for these details

14 Sutherland, Mrs Humphry Ward pp. 128–30

15 Frederick Crews, ‘Dialectical Immaterialism’, The American Scholar (1985) 54, p. 453

16 Graham Robb, Victor Hugo (London 1997) p. 273

17 Gustave Flaubert, Sentimental Education (London 1964) p. 334

18 Adrien Dansette, Religious History of Modern France. From the Revolution to the Third Republic (Freiburg 1961) 1, p. 265

19 Ralph Gibson, A Social History of French Catholicism 1789–1914 (London 1989) pp. 195–9

20 Hugh McLeod, Religion and the People of Western Europe 1789–1989 (Oxford 1997) p. 105

21 For these details see Jean-Louis Ormiéres, Politique et religion en France (Paris 2002) p. 88

22 Robb, Victor Hugo p. 302

23 François Furet, Revolutionary France 1770–1880 (Oxford 1992) pp. 434–45

24 André Jardin, Tocqueville. A Biography (Baltimore 1998) p. 476

25 Owen Chadwick, The Victorian Church (London 1966–70) 1, pp. 290–1

26 J. V. Langmead Casserly, The Retreat from Christianity in the Modern World (London 1952) pp. 57–8

27 Lionel Trilling, Matthew Arnold (London 1939) pp. 208–13

28 H. Daniel-Rops, The Church in an Age of Revolution 1789–1870 (London 1964) pp. 314–16 is damning of the low level of the Catholic response to these challenges

29 Michael Bartholomew, ‘The Moral Critique of Christian Orthodoxy’ in Gerald Parsons (ed.), Religion in Victorian Britain (Manchester 1988) 2, pp. 177–8

30 Chadwick, Victorian Church 1, p. 529; H. R. Murphy, ‘The Ethical Revolt against Christian Orthodoxy in Early Victorian England’, AHR (1955) 9, pp. 800–17

31 Maurice Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine in Modern England (Cambridge 1980–2001) 3, pp. 75ff. and Collini, Arnold p. 108

32 On this theme see Lucien Hölscher, Weltgericht oder Revolution. Protestantische und sozialistische Zukunftsvorstellungen im deutschen Kaiserreich (Stuttgart 1989) p. 68

33 Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin (London 1991) p. 665

34 Thomas Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte 1800–1866 . Bürgerwelt und starker Staat (Munich 1998) p. 496

35 Max Weber, ‘Science as a Vocation’ in H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills(eds), From Max Weber. Essays in Sociology (London 1970) pp. 129–56

36 Dansette, Religious History of Modern France 1, p. 311

37 Chadwick, Victorian Church 1, p. 145

38 Ibid. p. 559

39 J. W. Burrow, ‘Faith, Doubt and Unbelief’ in Laurence Lerner (ed.), The Victorians (London 1978) p. 168

40 A. N. Wilson, God’s Funeral. A Biography of Faith and Doubt in Western Civilization (New York 1999) pp. 194–6 is excellent on this clash and much else

41 Alec Vidler, The Church in the Age of Revolution (London 1971) pp. 114–15

42 Desmond and Moore, Darwin pp. 670–1; see also James R. Moore, ‘Freethought, Secularism, Agnosticism. The Case of Charles Darwin’ in Parsons (ed.), Religion in Victorian Britain 1, pp. 274ff.

43 Chadwick, Victorian Church 2, p. 23

44 W. R. Ward, Christianity under the Ancien Régime 1648–1789 (Cambridge 1999) pp. 174–6

45 Horst Althaus, Hegel. An Intellectual Biography (Oxford 2000) p. 37

46 Ward, Robert Elsmere

47 Chadwick, Victorian Church 2, p. 141

48 For an excellent discussion of these processes see Martin Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution. Das Christentum vor der Moderne (Stuttgart 1980) pp. 76–80 and 136–9

49 James Sheehan, German History 1770–1866 (Oxford 1989) p. 563

50 Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution p. 127

51 See Hans Frei, ‘David Friedrich Strauss’ in Ninian Smart et al. (eds), Nineteenth-Century Religious Thought in the West (Cambridge 1985) 1, pp. 215–60; the best account of Karl Marx’s early career remains David McLellan, Karl Marx. Life and Thought (London 1973) pp. 32ff.

52 H. W. Wardman, Ernest Renan. A Critical Biography (London 1964) pp. 77–8

53 David C. J. Lee, Ernest Renan. In the Shadow of Faith (London 1996) pp. 198–9

54 D. G. Charlton, Secular Religions in France 1815–1870 (Oxford 1963) pp. 96ff. For French examples

55 Langmead Casserley, Retreat from Christianity pp. 61–2

56 Oeuvres de Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon (Paris 1966) 1, p. 248

57 Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents in Marxism. Its Rise, Growth, and Dissolution (Oxford 1978) 1, pp. 219–20

58 Jack Hayward, After the French Revolution. Six Critics of Democracy and Nationalism (New York 1991) p. 94

59 Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge, Mass. 1979) p. 596

60 Frank E. Manuel, The New World of Henri Saint-Simon (Cambridge, Mass. 1956) pp. 312–17

61 There is an excellent discussion of Saint-Simon in Sidney Pollard, The Idea of Progress. History and Society (London 1968) pp. 104–14

62 Isaiah Berlin, Freedom and its Betrayal. Six Enemies of Human Liberty (London 2003) p. 108

63 As cogently argued by Berlin, ibid. p. 107

64 Manuel, The New World of Henri Saint-Simon pp. 360–1

65 Lucien Hölscher, Die Entdeckung der Zukunft (Frankfurt am Main 1999) pp. 96–7

66 Frank Manuel, Prophets of Paris (Cambridge, Mass. 1962) for the details

67 Langmead Casserley, Retreat from Religion p. 42

68 Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte. An Intellectual Biography (Cambridge 1993) 1, pp. 362ff.

69 T. R. Wright, The Religion of Humanity. The Impact of Comtean Positivism on Victorian Britain (Cambridge 1986) p. 14

70 Andrew Wernick, Auguste Comte and the Religion of Humanity (Cambridge 2001) pp. 87–97

71 Charlton, Secular Religions in France pp. 46ff.

72 Henri de Lubac, The Drama of Atheist Humanism (San Francisco 1983 originally Paris 1944) p. 216

73 Raymond Aron, Main Currents in Sociological Thought (New York 1965) 1, p. 123

74 De Lubac, Drama of Atheist Humanism p. 229

75 Edward Caird, The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte (Glasgow 1885) p. 239

76 De Lubac, Drama of Atheist Humanism pp. 260–1

77 J. L. Talmon, Political Messianism. The Romantic Phase (London 1960) pp. 130–6

78 Manuel and Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World p. 652

79 Kolakowski, Main Currents in Marxism 1, p. 202

80 Robert Owen, ‘A New View of Society’ in his A New View of Society and Other Writings, ed. Gregory Claeys (London 1991) p. 28

81 J. F. C. Harrison, Robert Owen and the Owenites in Britain and America. The Quest for the New Moral World (London 1969) p. 158

82 Frank Podmore, Robert Owen (London 1906) two volumes.

83 Harrison, Robert Owen and the Owenites p. 32

84 Ibid.

85 Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution p. 103

86 Harrison, Robert Owen and the Owenites p. 212

87 Ibid. p. 133

88 Social Hymns. For the Use of Friends of the Rational System of Society (Manchester 1835) Nr 129

89 R. A. Soloway, Prelates and People. Ecclesiastical Social Thought in England 1783–1852 (London 1969) p. 262

90 Edward Norman, Church and Society in England 1770–1970 . A Historical Study (Oxford 1976) p. 169

91 Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution p. 37 for these statistics

92 Kolakowski, Main Currents in Marxism 1, p. 184

93 James Billington, Fire in the Minds of Men. Origins of the Revolutionary Faith (New York 1980) p. 246

94 Henry James, The Princess Casamassima (London 1987 originally 1886) pp. 283–4

95 Wilhelm Weitling, Das Evangelium des armen Sünders. Die Menschheit, wie sie ist, und wie sie sein sollte (Hamburg 1971)

96 Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism 1, pp. 211–13

97 McLellan, Karl Marx pp. 156–7

98 Hölscher, Weltgericht oder Revolution p. 166

99 See Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, ed. Gareth Stedman Jones (London 2002) pp. 39–49

100 John Edward Toews, Hegelianism. The Path toward Dialectical Humanism 1805–41 (Cambridge 1980)

101 Leonard P. Wessell, Prometheus Bound. The Mythic Structure of Karl Marx’s Scientific Thinking (Baton Rouge 1984) pp. 153–5

102 Van A. Harvey, ‘Ludwig Feuerbach and Karl Marx’ in Smart et al. (eds), Nineteenth-Century Religious Thought in The West p. 295

103 McLellan, Karl Marx pp. 93–8

104 Karl Löwith, Meaning in History. The Theological Implications of the Philosophy of History (Chicago 1949) p. 43

105 The key works here apart from Löwith, Meaning in History are Kolakowski, Main Currents in Marxism 1; Wessell, Prometheus Bound; E. Tuveson, ‘The Millenarian Structure of the Communist Manifesto’ in C. Patrides and J. Wittreich (eds), The Apocalypse in English Renaissance Thought and Literature (Ithaca 1984)

106 Löwith, Meaning in History p. 36 quoting an 1856 essay by Marx

107 Igor Halfin, From Darkness to Light. Class, Consciousness, and Salvation in Revolutionary Russia (Pittsburgh 2000) especially pp. 39–84

108 Hobsbawm, Age of Revolutions p. 271: ‘The general trend of the period 1789 to 1848 was therefore one of emphatic secularisation.’ This is strange since leading historians of secularisation in the subsequent period 1848 to 1914 are totally at odds as to when, where and why limited secularisation occurred in their period, with the majority preferring to push it forwards to the 1960s; similarly, his ‘Religion and the Rise of Socialism’ in his Worlds of Labour. Further Studies in the History of Labour (London 1984) pp. 22–48 follows Marx in treating all religious aspects of socialism as ‘archaisms’ and fails to engage with the notion that socialism itself may have been a secular religion. One suspects that anyone who knows about Argentina, China, Mexico and all the other places which he writes about with such concise confidence may have similar criticisms

109 Owen Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge 1975) p. 91; religious semantics are usefully discussed by Lucian Hölscher, ‘Semantic Structures of Religious Change in Modern Germany’ in Hugh McLeod and Werner Ustorf (eds), The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe 1750–2000 (Cambridge 2003) pp. 184ff.

110 A. D. Gilbert, Religion and Society in Industrial England. Church, Chapel and Social Change 1740–1914 (London 1976) p. 185

111 José Harris, Private Lives, Public Spirit. A Social History of Britain 1870–1914 (London 1993) p. 158

112 Gibson, Social History of French Catholicism p. 194

113 Edward Norman, ‘Church and State since 1800’ in Sheridan Gilley and W. J. Shiels (eds), A History of Religion in Britain (Oxford 1994) p. 278

114 Harris, Private Lives, Public Spirit pp. 167–8

115 Haight, George Eliot p. 464

116 F. W. Maitland, The Life and Letters of Leslie Stephen (London 1906) p. 144

117 See especially Getrude Himmelfarb’s outstanding The De-Moralization of Society. From Victorian Virtues to Modern Values (New York 1996) pp. 21–52. Recently many of Himmelfarb’s British critics seem to have thought better of the Victorians, without having the grace to concede their earlier errors

118 See the important article by Brian Harrison, ‘Religion and Recreation in Nineteenth-Century England’, Past & Present (1967) 38, pp. 124–5

119 McLeod, Religion and the People of Western Europe 1789–1989 p. 57

120 Chadwick, Victorian Church 1, p. 325

121 Callum Brown, ‘Did Urbanization Secularize Britain?’, Urban History Yearbook (1988) p. 12

122 Charles Dickens, Hard Times, ed. with an introduction by Kate Flint(London 1995) pp. 29–30

123 George Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life, ed. with an introduction by Jennifer Gribble (London 1998) pp. 27–31 and 55

124 Eileen Yeo, ‘Christianity in Chartist Struggle 1832–1842’, Past & Present (1981) 91, pp. 132–3

125 Chadwick, Victorian Church 2, pp. 266ff.

126 Harrison, ‘Religion and Recreation’p. 110

127 Flaubert, Sentimental Education p. 303

128 Edward Berenson, ‘A New Religion of the Left. Christianity and Social Radicalism in France 1815–1848’ in François Furet and Mona Ozouf (eds), The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture, vol. 3: The Transformation of Political Culture 1789–1848 (Oxford 1989) p. 543

129 For a good introduction to God’s relationship with the British Labour Party see Graham Dale, God’s Politicians. The Christian Contribution to 100 Years of Labour (London 2000)

130 Ibid. pp. 549ff.

131 Shirley Williams, God and Caesar. Personal Reflections on Politics and Religion (London 2003)

132 Hugh McLeod, ‘Religion in the British and German Labour Movements c. 1890–1914. A Comparison’, Bulletin of the Society for the Study of Labour History (1986) 51, p. 30

133 Stephen Yeo, ‘A New Life. The Religion of Socialism in Britain 1883–1896’, History Workshop (1977) 4, p. 12

134 Yeo, ‘Religion of Socialism’ especially pp. 31ff.

135 John McManners, European History 1789–1914 . Men, Machines and Freedom (Oxford 1966) p. 334

136 Thomas Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte 1866–1918 (Munich 1998) 2, pp. 356–7

137 Hölscher, Weltgericht oder Revolution pp. 161–2

138 Ibid. pp. 315–17

139 Hugh McLeod, Secularisation in Western Europe 1848–1914 (London 2000) p. 122

140 Vernon Lidtke, ‘Social Class and Secularisation in Imperial Germany. The Working Classes’, Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook (1980) 25, pp. 28–30

141 Hölscher, Weltgericht oder Revolution p. 184

142 Sebastian Prüfer, ‘Diefrühe deutsche Sozialdemokratie 1863 bis 1890 als Religion. Zur Problematik eines revitalisierten Konzepts’ in Berthold Unfried and Christine Schindler (eds), Riten, Mythen und Symbole–Die Arbeiterbewegung zwischen ‘Zivilreligion’ und Volkskultur (Vienna 1999) p. 42 and Britte Emig, Die Veredelung des Arbeiters. Sozialdemokratie als Kulturbewegung (Frankfurt am Main 1980) especially pp. 94–103

143 Hölscher, Weltgericht oder Revolution pp. 189–90 and 237 for the Vollmar speech

144 For a brilliant discussion of these processes see the still useful Franz Schnabel, Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahrhundert (Freiburg im Breisgau 1937) 4, pp. 568ff.

145 On this see especially Lucian Hölscher, ‘Die Religion des Bürgers. Bürgerliche Frömmigkeit und Protestantische Kirche im 19. Jahrhundert’, HZ (1990) 250, pp. 602ff.

146 Lucian Hölscher, ‘Bürgerliche Religiosität im protestantischen Deutschland des 19. Jahrhunderts’ in Wolfgang Schieder (ed.), Religion und Gesellschaft im 19 . Jahrhundert (Stuttgart 1993) especially pp. 208ff.

147 Horst Althaus, Hegel. An Intellectual Biography (Oxford 2000) p. 206

148 For this see William Weber, ‘Wagner, Wagnerism, and Musical Idealism’ in David C. Large and William Weber(eds) Wagnerism in European Politics and Culture (Ithaca 1984) pp. 28ff.

149 See especially Roger Scruton, Death-Devoted Heart. Sex and the Sacred in Wagner’s Tristan and Isolde (Oxford 2004) especially pp. 177ff.

150 Richard Wagner, ‘Religion und Kunst’ in D. Borchmeyer (ed.) Dichtungen und Schriften (Frankfurt 1983) 10, pp. 117–63. For a good discussion of these themes see Thomas Nipperdey, ‘Religion und Gesellschaft. Deutschland um 1900’, HZ (1988) 246, pp. 610–11 and his Religion in Umbruch. Deutschland 1870–1918 (Munich 1988) pp. 140–3

151 For this see especially Simon Gunn, The Public Culture of the Victorian Middle Classes. Ritual and Authority and the English Industrial City 1840–1914 (Manchester 2000) pp. 150–1

152 Hunt, Building Jerusalem p. 242

Chapter 7: New Men and Sacred Violence in Late-Nineteenth-Century Russia

1 Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution 1899–1919 (London 1990) p. 138

2 The best analysis of the intelligentsia is by Martin Malia, ‘What is the Intelligentsia?’ in Richard Pipes (ed.), The Russian Intelligentsia (New York 1961) pp. 1ff.

3 Gottfried Künzlen, Der Neue Mensch. Eine Untersuchung zur säkularen Religionsgeschichte der Moderne (Munich 1994) is the most interesting recent study of this concept

4 W. Gareth Jones, ‘Politics’ in Malcolm V. Jones and Robin Feuer Miller (eds) The Cambridge Companion to the Russian Novel (Cambridge 1998) p. 63

5 Pipes, Russian Revolution p. 140

6 Joseph Frank, Dostoevsky. The Stir of Liberation 1860–1865 (Princeton 1986) p. 164

7 For an outstanding discussion of these questions see Rufus W. Mathewson, The Positive Hero in Russian Literature (Stanford 1975)

8 James Billington, Fire in the Minds of Men. Origins of the Revolutionary Faith (New York 1980) pp. 389ff. provides a vast quarry of information

9 See William F. Woehrlin, Chernyshevskii. The Man and the Journalist (Cambridge, Mass. 1971) pp. 312ff.

10 Nikolai Chzernyshevsky, What is to be Done? Tales of the New People (Moscow 1983) p. 311

11 Ibid. p. 407

12 Ibid. p. 408

13 Abbott Gleason, Young Russia. The Genesis of Russian Radicalism in the 1860 s (Chicago 1983) p. 298

14 Adam B. Ulam, Prophets and Conspirators in Pre-revolutionary Russia (New Brunswick 1998) p. 95

15 Fyodor Dostoevsky, Complete Letters, ed. and trans. David A. Lowe (Ann Arbor 1990) 5, nr 742, p. 34 made precisely this last point about the young people’s ‘gospel of the revolver and the conviction that the government is afraid of them’

16 The best account of Nechaev’s life is in Gleason, Young Russia pp. 339–50. See also Franco Venturi, Roots of Revolution. A History of the Populist and Socialist Movements in 19th-Century Russia (New York 1960)

17 Gleason, Young Russia p. 359

18 Joseph Frank, Dostoevsky. The Miraculous Years 1865–1871 (Princeton 1995) pp. 439–42 for the text of this letter which was written in July 1870

19 Orlando Figes, Natasha’s Dance. A Cultural History of Russia (London 2002) pp. 330ff.

20 Fyodor Dostoevsky, The Notebooks for the Possessed, ed. Edward Wasiolek (Chicago 1968) p. 29

21 Dostoevsky, Complete Letters 3, nr 398, p. 281

22 Ibid. nr 387 p. 246 is a brief expression of his plight. Other letters are more akin to elaborate financial accounts

23 Ibid. nr 400, p. 284

24 Fyodor Dostoevsky, Letters from the Underworld trans. C. J. Hogarth(London 1913)

25 Dostoevsky, Complete Letters 3, nr 384, p. 235

26 Ibid. nr 393, p. 268

27 Ibid. nr 425, p. 353

28 Ibid. nr 397, p. 275

29 Ibid. nr 398, p. 277

30 Ibid. nr 399, pp. 279–80

31 Dostoevsky, The Possessed, trans. Constance Garnett (London 1931) 1, p. 162

32 Ibid. 2, pp. 71ff.

33 Ibid. p. 55

34 Ibid. 1, p. 102

35 Dostoevsky, Complete Letters 3, nr 413, p. 324

36 See Frank, Dostoevsky. The Miraculous Years 1865–1871 pp. 472ff.

37 Dostoevsky, Complete Letters 3, nr 428, p. 360

38 Joseph Frank, Dostoevsky. The Mantle of the Prophet 1871–1881 (Princeton 2002) p. 80

39 Billington, Fire in the Minds of Men p. 404

40 Dostoevsky, Complete Letters 5, nr 742, p. 32

41 Ulam, Prophets and Conspirators p. 225

42 Anna Geifman, Thou Shalt Kill. Revolutionary Terrorism in Russia 1894–1917 (Princeton 1993) p. 12

43 Ibid. p. 232

44 Venturi, Roots of Revolution p. 711

45 See Ellis Sandoz, Political Apocalypse. A Study of Dostoevsky’s Grand Inquisitor (Baton Rouge 1971) especially pp. 40ff.

46 Figes, Natasha’s Dance pp. 324–5

47 Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church (London 1972) p. 127

48 Dostoevsky, Complete Letters 5, nr 915, p. 302

49 For these points see Aileen Kelly, ‘Dostoevsky and the Divided Conscience’ in her Toward Another Shore. Russian Thinkers Between Necessity and Chance (New Haven 1998) pp. 55ff., although her arguments involve leaving out many of Dostoeysky’s vituperations against his radical critics

50 Malcolm V. Jones, ‘Dostoevskii and Religion’ in W. J. Leatherbarrow (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Dostoevskii (Cambridge 2002) p. 150

51 Fyodor Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamazov, trans. Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky (New York 1991) p. 299

52 Ibid. p. 62

53 Ibid. pp. 320–1

54 Ibid. p. 774

55 Dostoevsky, Complete Letters 5, nr 915, p. 302

Chapter 8: Rendering Unto Caesar: Church versus State, State versus Church

1 René Rémond, Religion and Society in Modern Europe (Oxford 1999) p. 133 and Roger Scruton, The West and the Rest. Globalization and the Terrorist Threat (Oxford 2002) pp. 41ff.

2 Edward Norman, Church and Society in England 1779–1970 (Oxford 1976) pp. 100–5

3 Edward Norman, ‘Church and State since 1800’ in Sheridan Gilley and W. J. Sheils (eds), A History of Religion in Britain. Practice and Belief from Pre-Roman Times to the Present (Oxford 1994) p. 278; on Gladstone, Owen Chadwick, The Victorian Church (London 1970) 2, p. 430

4 Chadwick, Victorian Church 1, pp. 271ff has an excellent discussion of these issues

5 Owen Chadwick, A History of the Popes 1830–1914 (Oxford 1998) pp. 266–7; Roy Jenkins, Gladstone (London 1995) pp. 127–33

6 For an excellent discussion of the press see Christopher Clark, ‘The New Catholicism and the European Culture Wars’ in Christopher Clark and Wolfram Kaiser (eds), Culture Wars. Secular–Catholic Conflicts in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge 2003) pp. 23ff.

7 Winfried Becker, ‘Der Kulturkampf als europäisches und als deutsches Phänomen’, Historisches Jahrbuch (1981) 101, p. 423 is an excellent tour d’horizon by a leading German scholar

8 F. Dante, Storia della ‘Civilità Cattolica’ ( 1850–1891 ). II laboratorio del Papa (Rome 1990)

9 G. de Rosa, II movimento cattolico in Italia (Bari 1966) for the details

10 Wolfram Kaiser “‘Clericalism–that is our enemy!”. European Anticlericalism and the Culture Wars’ in Clark and Kaiser (eds) Culture Wars p. 71

11 David Blackbourn, ‘The Catholic Church in Europe since the French Revolution’, Comparative Studies in Society and History (1991) 33, p. 780

12 Chadwick, History of the Popes pp. 196–7

13 Kaiser, ‘European anticlericalism’ p. 49

14 Anthony Rhodes, The Power of Rome in the Twentieth Century. The Vatican in the Age of the Liberal Democracies 1870–1922 (London 1983) p. 32

15 Clark, ‘New Catholicism’ p. 22

16 Laurence Cole, ‘The Counter-Reformation’s Last Stand. Austria’ in Clark and Kaiser (eds), Culture Wars p. 303

17 Margaret Lavinia Anderson, Windthorst. A Political Biography (Oxford 1981) p. 131

18 Otto Pflanze, Bismarck and the Development of Germany (Princeton 1990) 2, p. 213

19 Richard Blanke, Prussian Poland in the German Empire ( 1871–1900 ) (Boulder 1981) p. 17

20 Heinrich Bornkamm, ‘Die Staatsidee im Kulturkampf’, HZ (1950) 170, p. 49

21 See the seminal article by David Blackbourn, ‘Progress and Piety. Liberals, Catholics and the State in Bismarck’s Germany’ in his Populists and Patricians. Essays in Modern German History (London 1987) p. 148

22 Helmut Walser Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict. Culture, Ideology, and Politics 1870–1914 (Princeton 1995) pp. 34–5

23 Ronald Ross, Beleaguered Tower. The Dilemma of Political Catholicism in Wilhelmine Germany (Notre Dame 1976) pp. 20–1

24 Barbara Stambolis, ‘Nationalisierung trotz Ultramontanisierung oder “Alles für Deutschland. Deutschland für Christus”. Mentalitätsleitende Wertorientierung deutscher Katholiken im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert’, HZ (1999) 269, pp. 58–9

25 Winfried Becker, ‘Liberale Kulturkampf-Positionen und politischer Katholizismus’ in Otto Pflanze (ed.), Innenpolitische Probleme des Bismarck-Reiches (Munich 1983) p. 69

26 Harald Just, ‘Wilhelm Busch und die Katholiken. Kulturkampfbestimmung im Bismarck-Reich’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft (1974) 25, pp. 71ff.

27 Ronald J. Ross, The Failure of Bismarck’s Kulturkampf. Catholicism and State Power in Imperial Germany 1871–1887 (Washington DC 1998) p. 17

28 For the details see Manuel Borutta, ‘Enemies at the Gate. The Moabit Klostersturm and the Kulturkampf. Germany’ in Clark and Kaiser (eds), Culture Wars p. 235

29 Ibid. p. 81

30 Thomas Nipperdey, Religion im Umbruch. Deutschland 1870–1918 (Munich 1988) p. 40

31 James Sheehan, German Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago 1978) p. 136

32 Marcel Gauchet, The Disenchantment of the Modern World. A Political History of Religion (Princeton 1997) p. 53; Becker, ‘Liberale Kulturkampf-Positionen’ p. 63

33 See Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict pp. 37–41

34 Heinrich von Treitschke, ‘Die Maigesetze und ihre Folgen’ in his Zehn Jahre deutscher Kämpfe (Berlin 1897) p. 440

35 Anderson, Windthorst p. 170

36 Ibid. p. 152

37 Marjorie Lamberti, State, Society and the Elementary School in Imperial Germany (New York 1980) pp. 40ff.

38 Blanke, Prussian Poland in the German Empire p. 24

39 Ross, Failure of Bismarck’s Kulturkampf p. 38

40 Ronald Ross, ‘The Kulturkampf and the Limitations of Power in Bismarck’s Germany’, JEH (1995) 46, pp. 672–3

41 Blackbourn, ‘Progress and Piety’ p. 156

42 Gerard Manley Hopkins, Poems and Prose, ed. W. H. Gardner (London 1953) p. 10

43 Stambolis, ‘Nationalisierung’ p. 70

44 Anderson, Windthorst pp. 251–60 has an important discussion of this issue

45 Adolf Birke, Bischof Ketteler und der deutsche Liberalismus (Mainz 1971) p. 92

46 Rhodes, Power of Rome in the Twentieth Century p. 85

47 On ‘clericalism’ see Sudhir Hazareesingh, Political Traditions in Modern France (Oxford 1994) pp. 99ff.

48 Raymond Jonas, France and the Cult of the Sacred Heart (Berkeley 2000) p. 177 and John McManners, Church and State in France 1870–1914 (London 1972) p. 40

49 Luzzatti to Minghetti 3 September 1873 in S. Halperin, Italy and the Vatican at War (London 1939) p. 326

50 Hazareesingh, Political Traditions in Modern France pp. 65ff. has an excellent discussion of these themes

51 Robert Tombs, France 1814–1914 (London 1996) pp. 442–3 brings the complexities of French republicanism to life with wit and style

52 Jean-Louis Ormiéres, Politique et religion en France (Paris 2002) p. 123

53 Graham Robb, Victor Hugo (London 1977) pp. 525–32

54 Rémond, Religion and Society in Modern Europe p. 146

55 See the useful discussion of laicisation in ibid. p. 144

56 On Buisson see Jacqueline Lalouette, La République anticléricale xixe–xxe siécles (Paris 2002) pp. 52ff.

57 Hugh McLeod, Secularisation in Western Europe 1848–1914 (London 2000) p. 140

58 Adrien Dansette, Religious History of Modern France. From the Revolution to the Third Republic (Freiburg 1961) 2, p. 55

59 Becker, ‘Der Kulturkampf’ p. 432 citing Waldeck-Rousseau

60 Ralph Gibson, A Social History of French Catholicism 1789–1914 (London 1989) p. 132

61 Ormiéres, Politique et religion en France p. 115

62 Rhodes, Power of Rome p. 114

63 Becker, ‘Der Kulturkampf’ p. 437

64 Rhodes, Power of Rome pp. 210–11

65 C. S. Phillips, The Church in France 1848–1907 (London 1936) p. 213

66 Rhodes, Power of Rome p. 116

67 Alexander Sedgwick, The Ralliement in French Politics 1890–1898 (Cambridge, Mass. 1965) is still useful

68 Phillips, Church in France p. 236

69 Clive Castaldo, ‘Socialism and Catholicism in France. Jaurés, Guesde and the Dreyfus Affair’ in Frank Tallett and Nicholas Atkin (eds), Religion, Society and Politics in France since 1789 (London 1991) p. 141

70 Pierre Pierrard, Les Chrétiens et l’affaire Dreyfus (Paris 1998) pp. 102–6

71 Dansette, Religious History of Modern France 2, p. 180

72 Maurice Larkin, Church and State after the Dreyfus Affair (London 1974) p. 86

73 Michel Winock, Nationalism, Anti-Semitism, and Fascism in France (Stanford 1998) pp. 59–70

74 Larkin, Church and State after the Dreyfus Affair p. 94; and Gabriel Merle, Émile Combes (Paris 1995) for the biographical details

75 Gibson, Social History of French Catholicism p. 129

76 Merle, Combes p. 318

77 McManners, Church and State in France p. 150

78 Chadwick, History of the Popes p. 399

Chapter 9: The Churches and Industrial Society

1 A. N. Wilson, The Victorians (London 2002) p. 413

2 Gustave Doré and Blanchard Jerrold, London. A Pilgrimage (originally London 1872, reprinted Toronto 1970) pp. 37–8

3 Alexander Herzen, My Past and Thoughts, trans. Constance Garnett (Berkeley 1982) p. 447

4 Taine’s Notes on England trans. and introduced by Edward Hyams (London 1957) p. 219

5 Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England ed. Victor Kiernan (London 1987) p. 69

6 Taine’s Notes on England pp. 10–12

7 David Landes, Prometheus Unbound. Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (second edition Cambridge 2003) p. 5

8 Taine’s Notes on England p. 98 for his comments on Manchester’s Little Ireland in New Town

9 For these statistics see G. Kitson Clark, The Making of Victorian England (London 1962) pp. 149–51

10 R. W. Vanderkiste, Notes and Narratives of a Six Years’ Mission Principally among the Dens of London (London 1859) pp. xii–xiii

11 A. D. Gilbert, Religion and Society in Industrial England. Church, Chapel and Social Change 1740–1914 (London 1976) p. 170

12 Kitson Clark, Making of Victorian England p. 171

13 Kenneth Inglis, Churches and the Working Classes in Victorian England (London 1963) p. 57

14 Hugh McLeod, Religion and the People of Western Europe 1789–1989 (Oxford 1997) pp. 127–8

15 David Hempton, ‘Religious Life in Industrial Britain 1830–1914’ in Sheridan Gilley and W. J. Shiels (eds), A History of Religion in Britain (Oxford 1994) p. 310

16 Hugh McLeod, Religion and Society in England 1850–1914 (London 1996) p. 84

17 Ibid. p. 19

18 Inglis, Churches and the Working Classes in Victorian England p. 46

19 Edward Norman. Church and Society in England 1770–1970 . A Historical Study (Oxford 1976) p. 137

20 R. S. Soloway, Prelates and People. Ecclesiastical Social Thought in England 1783–1852 (London 1969) p. 260

21 Ibid. p. 342

22 Kathleen Heasman, Evangelicals in Action. An Appraisal of their Social Work (London 1962) p. 14

23 See Irene Howat and John Nicholls, Streets Paved with Gold. The Story of the London City Mission (London 2003) pp. 35–6 and in greater detail Donald M. Lewis, Lighten their Darkness. The Evangelical Mission to Working-Class London 1828–1860 (Westport 1986)

24 London City Mission Archive, The 42 Annual Report of the London City Mission (1877) p. 223

25 LCM Archive, London City Mission Magazine (1871) 36, p. 173

26 LCM Archive, London City Mission Magazine (1849) 14, p. 18

27 LCM Archive, London City Mission Magazine (1855) 20, p. 225

28 John Matthias Weylland, These Fifty Years being the Jubilee Volume of the London City Mission (London 1884) p. 156

29 Details from LCM Archive, London City Mission Magazine (1859 1 December, p. 347 and (1889) 54, pp. 253–64 for the mission to East End Jews

30 Weylland, These Fifty Years pp. 47–50

31 Brian Harrison, ‘Religion and Recreation in Nineteenth-Century England’, Past & Present (1967) 38, pp. 108ff.

32 Information kindly supplied by Niall Ferguson from his childhood memories as a Rangers man

33 McLeod, Religion and Society in England p. 200

34 Owen Chadwick, The Victorian Church (London 1966–70) 2, p. 290

35 See Roy Hattersley, Blood and Fire. William and Catherine Booth and their Salvation Army (London 1999) especially pp. 229ff.

36 Inglis, Churches and the Working Classes in Victorian England p. 192

37 Ibid. pp. 299–300

38 Chadwick, Victorian Church 1, p. 355

39 Inglis, Churches and the Working Classes in Victorian England p. 264

40 Ibid. p. 269

41 Norman, Church and Society in England p. 170

42 Maurice Cowling, Religion and Public Doctrine in Modern England (Cambridge 1980–2001) 3, p. 256

43 Soloway, Prelates and People p. 205

44 LCM Archive, London City Mission Magazine (1871) 36, p. 176

45 Tristram Hunt, Building Jerusalem. The Rise and Fall of the Victorian City (London 2004) p. 216

46 McLeod, Religion and Society in England p. 215

47 Norris Pope, Dickens and Charity (New York 1978) p. 234; see also Tristram Hunt’s spirited Building Jerusalem pp. 292–4

48 Edwin Hodder, The Life and Work of the Seventh Earl of Shaftesbury (London 1886) 2, pp. 418–19

49 Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, selected and introduced by Victor Neuburg (originally 1849–50, London 1985) pp. 107–22

50 Geoffrey Best, Mid-Victorian Britain 1851–75 (London 1975) pp. 45–7

51 Pope, Dickens and Charity pp. 182–3

52 Herbert Hensley Henson, Retrospect on an Unimportant Life (Oxford 1942) 1, p. 28

53 Inglis, Churches and the Working Classes in Victorian England pp. 221–2

54 Norman, Church and Society in England pp. 227ff.

55 Martin Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution. Das Christentium vor der Moderne (Stuttgart 1980) p. 153

56 Joan L. Coffey, Léon Harmel. Entrepreneur as Catholic Social Reformer (Notre Dame 2003) p. 71

57 Michel Lagrée, ‘The Impact of Technology on Catholicism in France’ in Hugh McLeod and Werner Usdorf (eds) The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe 1750–2000 (Cambridge 2003) pp. 172–4

58 A. R. Vidler, A Century of Social Catholicism 1820–1920 (London 1964) p. 5

59 Roger Aubert, The Church in a Secularised Society (New York 1978) p. 145

60 Honoré de Balzac, At the Sign of the Cat and Racket and Other Stories (Amsterdam 2002) p. 10

61 Paul Mismer, Social Catholicism in Europe. From the Onset of Industrialization to the First World War (New York 1991) p. 62

62 Jacques Gadille and Jean-Marie Mayeur (eds), Liberalismus, Industrialisierung, Expansion Europas ( 1830–1914 ); Jean-Marie Mayeur et al. (eds), Geschichte des Christentums. Religion, Politik, Kultur (Freiburg 1996–2003) 11, p. 38

63 Vidler, A Century of Social Catholicism p. 48

64 Ibid. p. 14

65 Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution p. 117

66 Michael Z. Brooke, Le Play. Engineer and Social Scientist. The Life and Work of Frédéric Le Play (London 1970) pp. 64–5

67 Maria Sophia Quine, Population Politics in Twentieth-Century Europe (London 1996) pp. 55–8 is fashionably disapproving of Le Play as a harbinger of ‘Fascist’ pro-natalist policies

68 John McManners, Church and State in France 1870–1914 (London 1972) p. 83

69 Hans Maier, Revolution and Church. The Early History of Christian Democracy 1789–1901 (Notre Dame 1969) p. 259

70 Coffey, Léon Harmel p. 14

71 Ibid. especially pp. 77–92

72 Ibid. p. 167

73 Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution pp. 65ff.

74 Kurt Nowak, Geschichte des Christentums in Deutschland. Religion, Politik und Gesellschaft vom Ende der Aufklärung bis zur Mitte des 20 . Jahrhunderts (Munich 1995) pp. 127–8

75 Edgar Alexander, ‘Church and Society in Germany’ in Joseph N. Moody (ed.), Church and Society. Catholic Social and Political Thought and Movements 1789–1950 (New York 1953) pp. 410ff.

76 See the discussion in Fritz Vigener, Ketteler. Ein deutsches Bischofsleben des 19 . Jahrhunderts (Munich 1924) pp. 420–7

77 James Sheehan, German Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century (London 1982) pp. 92–4

78 Vigener, Ketteler p. 461

79 Mismer, Social Catholicism in Europe p. 142

80 On the genesis of the encyclical see G. Antonazzi, L’encyclica Rerum novarum. Testo autentico e redazioni preparatorii dei documenti originali (Rome 1957)

81 Mismer, Social Catholicism in Europe pp. 190 and 202–8

82 Vidler, A Century of Social Catholicism pp. 128–9

83 Mismer, Social Catholicism in Europe pp. 224–5

84 André Encrevé, Jacques Gadille and Jean-Marie Mayeur, ‘Frankreich’ in Mayeur et al. (eds), Geschichte des Christentums 11, p. 522

85 For this see Martin Conway, Catholic Politics in Europe 1918–1945 (London 1997) p. 24

86 Leo XIII, Graves de Communi Re 18 January 1901, paragraphs 4ff.; McManners, Church and State in France pp. 98–9

87 Adrien Dansette, Religious History of Modern France. From the Revolution to the Third Republic (Freiburg 1961) 2, p. 274

88 Martin Greschat, ‘Der deutsche Protestantismus im Kaiserreich’ in Mayeur et al. (eds), Geschichte des Christentums 11, p. 657

89 G. Brakelmann, Martin Greschat and Werner Jochmann (eds), Protestantismus und Politik. Werk und Wirkung Adolf Stoeckers (Hamburg 1982)

90 Ibid. p. 28

91 Ibid. pp. 114–16 for the programme

92 Gordon Craig, Germany 1866–1945 (Oxford 1978) p. 154

93 For an excellent discussion of Stoecker see Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron. Bismarck, Bleichröder and the Building of the German Empire (London 1977) pp. 510ff.

94 Ibid. p. 177

95 Greschat, Das Zeitalter der Industriellen Revolution pp. 218ff.

96 For the above see Thomas Nipperdey, Deutsche Geschichte 1866–1918 (Munich 1998) 1, p. 461

97 H. W. Heitzer, Der Volksverein für das katholische Deutschland im Kaiserreich 1890–1918 (Mainz 1979)

98 For the details see Ronald J. Ross, Beleaguered Tower. The Dilemma of Political Catholicism in Wilhelmine Germany (Notre Dame 1976) pp. 86–91

Chapter 10: Apocalypse 1914

1 Denis Brogan, ‘Nationalist Doctrine of M. Charles Maurras’ in his French Personalities and Problems (London 1946) p. 67

2 See Ernst Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism (New York 1966) p. 124

3 Michael Sutton, Nationalism, Positivism and Catholicism. The Politics of Charles Maurras and French Catholics 1890–1914 (Cambridge 1982) pp. 52ff.

4 Eugen Weber, Action Française. Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth-Century France (Stanford 1962) pp. 18–19

5 Charles Maurras, ‘Dictator and King’ in J. S. McClelland (ed.), The French Right from de Maistre to Maurras (London 1970) p. 220

6 Ibid. p. 232

7 Weber, Action Française p. 39

8 Sutton, Nationalism, Positivism and Catholicism p. 94

9 Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity (London 1976) pp. 471ff.

10 Frank Coppa, The Modern Papacy since 1789 (London 1998) especially pp. 140–53

11 Ina Ulrike Paul, ‘Paul Anton de Lagarde’ in Uwe Puschner, Walter Schmitz and Justus Ulbricht (eds), Handbuch zur ‘Völkischen Bewegung’ 1871–1918 (Munich 1999) pp. 50ff.

12 For an insider’s view of Lagarde’s professional odyssey see Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair (Berkeley 1961) pp. 7–18

13 Ina Ulrike Paul, ‘Paul Anton de Lagarde’ p. 69

14 On these developments see Stefanie von Schnurbein, ‘Die Suche nach einer “arteigenen” Religion’ in Puschner et al. (eds), Handbuch zur ‘Völkischen Bewegung’. This conspectus replaces such older works as George L. Mosse’s The Crisis of German Ideology. Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York 1964)

15 Alan Wilkinson, The Church of England and the First World War (London 1978) p. 16

16 Adrian Hastings, A History of English Christianity 1920–2000 (fourth edition London 2001) p. 54

17 Jacques Fontana, Les Catholiques français pendant la Grande Guerre (Paris 1990) p. 25

18 Leonard Smith, Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau and Annette Becker, France and the Great War 1914–1918 (Cambridge 2003) p. 27

19 Wilhelm Pressel, Die Kriegspredigt 1914–1918 in der evangelischen Kirche Deutschlands (Göttingen 1967) pp. 17–18

20 Hugh McLeod, Secularisation in Western Europe 1848–1914 (London 2000) pp. 277–8

21 See Klaus Vondung, Die Apokalypse in Deutschland (Munich 1998) pp. 189ff.

22 Wolfgang J. Mommsen, ‘Die kulturellen Eliten im Ersten Weltkrieg’ in his Bürgerliche Kultur und politische Ordnung. Künstler, Schriftsteller und Intellektuelle in der deutschen Geschichte 1830–1933 (Frankfurt am Main 2000) pp. 178–95; the visual reference is to sculptures by Ernst Barlach

23 Smith et al., France and the Great War p. 58

24 Frank Lenwood, Pharisaism and War (London 1915) p. 14

25 Arlie J. Hoover, God, Germany and Britain in the Great War. A Study in Clerical Nationalism (New York 1989) p. 36

26 Randall Davidson, The Testing of a Nation (London 1919) p. 87

27 Hoover, God, Germany and Britain in the Great War p. 98

28 Ernst Troeltsch, Deutscher Glaube und deutsche Sitte in unserem grossen Kriege (Berlin n.d.) p. 19

29 Albert Marrin, The Last Crusade. The Church of England and the First World War (Durham NC 1974) p. 103

30 Fontana, Les Catholiques français pp. 52–3. Treitschke came in for a trouncing too from Emile Durkheim; see Steven Lukes, Émile Durkheim. His Life and Work (London 1973) pp. 550–1

31 Martha Hanna, The Mobilization of the Intellect. French Scholars and Writers during the Great War (Cambridge, Mass. 1996) pp. 118–19

32 Hoover, God, Germany and Britain in the Great War p. 29

33 Wolfgang Mommsen, ‘Die “deutsche Idee der Freiheit” ’ in his Bürgerliche Kultur und politische Ordnung pp. 133ff. See also Klaus von See, Die Ideen von 1789 und die Ideen von 1914 . Völkisches Denken in Deutschland zwischen ¨sischer Revolution und Erstem Weltkrieg (Frankfurt am Main 1975)

34 Arlie J. Hoover, The Gospel of Nationalism. German Patriotic Preaching from Napoleon to Versailles (Stuttgart 1986) p. 125

35 Wilhelm Laible (ed.), Deutsche Theologen über den Krieg. Stimmen aus schwerer Zeit (Leipzig 1915) p. 51

36 Harmut Lehmann, “‘God is our Old Ally”. The Chosen People Theme in Late Nineteenth-and Early Twentieth-Century German Nationalism’ in William R. Hutchinson and Hartmut Lehmann (eds), Many are Chosen. Divine Election and Western Nationalism (Minneapolis 1994) p. 87

37 Marrin, Last Crusade p. 187

38 Herbert Hensley Henson, Retrospect of an Unimportant Life (Oxford 1942) 1, p. 174

39 Ibid. p. 188

40 Alan Wilkinson, The Church of England and the First World War (London 1978) p. 253

41 Percy Colson, Life of the Bishop of London. An Authorised Biography (London 1935) pp. 180ff.

42 Marrin, Last Crusade p. 141

43 The Army and Religion. An Enquiry and its Bearing upon the Religious Life of the Nation (London 1919) p. 88

44 Ibid. p. 177

45 Ibid. pp. 8–14 and 61–2

46 Ibid. p. 10

47 Ibid. p. 208

48 Ibid. p. 207

49 Maurice Larkin, ‘The Catholic Church and Politics in Twentieth-Century France’ in Martin Alexander (ed.), French History since Napoleon (London 1999) p. 155

50 Annette Becker, War and Faith. The Religious Imagination in France 1914–1930 (Oxford 1998) p. 75

51 Fontana, Les Catholiques français p. 303 for these statistics

52 See Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Writings in Time of War (London 1968) for the worked-up versions of his letters to his cousin

53 Becker War and Faith pp. 44–6

54 Jacques Le Goff, ‘Reims, City of Coronation’ in Pierre Nora (ed.), Franzo Realms of Memory. The Construction of the French Past (New York 1998) 3, pp. 246–8 with photographs of the damage sustained

55 On Vatican diplomacy see John Pollard, The Unknown Pope. Benedict XV ( 1914–1922 ) and the Pursuit of Peace (London 1999) p. 90

56 John Pollard, ‘The Papacy in Two World Wars. Benedict XV and Pius XII Compared’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2001) 2, p. 85

57 Pollard, Unknown Pope p. 116

58 Jean-Marie Mayeur, ‘Die katholische Kirche’ in Jean-Marie Mayeur et al. (eds), Geschichte des Christentums. Religion, Politik, Kultur (Freiburg 1996–2003) 12, p. 390