NOTES

1. This is a quote from Ncciyr Tirumoi 1.4 that is included in all retellings of the story. In the hagiographies (oral and written), it is considered the moment that impresses upon Viucitta the steadfastness of ’s goal.

2. My retelling of the story is an amalgamation of several oral and written hagiographic accounts, but includes all the salient points. There are a number of subtle and obvious differences between the many versions of the story. I have discussed these differences at length in Venkatesan, Archana. “The Story.” Journal of Vaishnava Studies, 189–206; and in “ and Her Magic Mirror: Her Life as Poet in the Guises of the Goddess,” 42–117.

3. The poet Ktai is known by several names. God (Sanskrit for Ktai), cikkoutta ncciyr (the woman who gave what she had worn) and are the best known. Of these, is the most common, regardless of whether it is used to refer to her as the author of the Tiruppvai and Ncciyr Tirumoi or in her capacity as the divine consort. For reasons of familiarity and to avoid confusion, I use throughout this book, except in places where her other names have special significance.

4. For a discussion of phala ruti verses, please see the note for Tiruppvai 30. Also, refer to Cutler, Norman. Songs of Experience: The Poetics of Tamil Devotion, 27–29.

5. This town is identified with contemporary rvilliputtr, a town about seventy-five kilometers south of Maturai.

6. For a discussion of Viucitta’s relationship to as her teachers, see Hudson, Dennis. “’s Desire.” Vaiav: Women and the Worship of Krishna, 177–79.

7. For a detailed discussion of Viucitta/Periyvr, including issues relating to dating, see Ate, Lynn Marie. Periyvr Tirumoi: A Blaka Text from the Devotional Period in Tamil Literature.

There have been attempts to date on the basis of the astronomical evidence of her two poems, specifically the Tiruppvai. However, such dating is extremely unreliable for several reasons. First is that several dates correspond to any given astrological conjunction. The Tiruppvai, which forms the basis for these astrological calculations, is a poem predicated on the creation of a mythical landscape. We cannot definitively know that observed the vows she describes, and even if she did, it is impossible to distinguish her vivid world of poetic imagination from the ninth century day-to-day life she led. For a concise discussion of these astrological calculations, see Dehejia, Vidya “Introduction.” and Her Path of Love: Poems of a Woman Saint from South India, 2–3.

8. Here, I refer to the temple of rvillputtr, which was probably built around 1571 C.E., under the direction of the Nyakars of Maturai. Branfoot, Crispin. “‘Expanding Form’: The Architectural Sculpture of the South Indian Temple, ca 1500–1700.” p. 197.

9. Narayanan, Vasudha. “The Realm of Play and the Sacred Stage.” Gods at Play: Ll in South Asia, 177–204.

10. Tharu, Susie, and K. Lalitha. Women Writing in India: 600 BC to the Present, 68.

11. Cutler, Norman. Songs of Experience, 118.

12. Cutler, Norman. Songs of Experience, 120.

13. For further discussion on the significance of ’s marriage to Viu within the rvaiava hagiographic traditions, see Venkatesan, Archana. “Who Stole the Garland of Love: Stories in the rvaiava Tradition” and “ and Her Magic Mirror: Her Life as Poet in the Guises of the Goddess,” 42–117.

14. Ramanujan, A.K. “On Women Saints.” The Divine Consort: Rdh and the Goddesses of India, 323.

15. Hawley, John Stratton. Three Bhakti Voices: Mirabai, Surdas and Kabir in Their Times and Ours, 118.

16. See appendix 1 for a translation and brief discussion of the taiya verses to the Tiruppvai and Ncciyr Tirumoi.

17. Hawley, John Stratton. Three Bhakti Voices: Mirabai, Surdas and Kabir in Their Times and Ours, 118.

18. Hawley, John Stratton. Three Bhakti Voices: Mirabai, Surdas and Kabir in Their Times and Ours, 118.

19. Tami poetic meters have three constituent elements: the foot (cr), the manner in which the metrical feet are connected (talai), and the line (ai). The fundamental component of a foot (cr) is the acai (metrical syllable), which in turn comprises combinations of long syllables (nr) and two short syllables (niai). While a metrical foot can be made of a single syllable, as the smallest metrical unit, a two-syllable acai is far more common. Such an acai is referred to as akavacr. A vecr is the next longest, consisting of four akavacr and ending in a nr. The kalippa meter uses both the akavacr and the vecr, though it is the latter that is more common. Hart, George, L. The Poems of Ancient Tamil: Their Milieu and Their Sanskrit Counterpart, 97–211.

20. This technique of juxtaposing images of violence with those of sexual desire is common in the Tami Cakam poems. The following example from the Puanru illustrates the point beautifully:

The chaste trees, dark-clustered,
blend with the land
that knows no dryness;
the colors on the leaves
mob the eyes

We’ve seen those leaves

on jeweled women
on their mounds of love.

Now the chaste wreath lies slashed
on the ground, so changed, so mixed
with blood, the vulture snatches it
with its beak,
thinking it raw meat.
We see this too
just because a young man
in love with war
wore it for glory.

Puanu 271
Trans. AK Ramanujan, Poems of Love and War. p. 186.

21. See Venkatesan, Archana. “A Woman’s Kind of Love.” Journal of Hindu Christian Studies, 16–24, for a detailed discussion on the ways in which three vr poets—, Nammvr and Tirumakai—utilize the voice of the female beloved. For a perspective discussing love and longing in the Northern Indian bhakti traditions, see also Hawley, John S. “Krishna and the Gender of Longing.” Three Bhakti Voices, 165–78, and Hawley John S. “The Damage of Separation: Krishna’s Loves and Kali’s Child,” 369–93.

22. I discuss the one of the most important uses of the Ncciyr Tirumoi in the context of temple-based ritual in the section below on the ritual lives of ’s poems. For further informationon the ritual and aesthetic lives of ’s poems, refer to Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 118–240.

23. Hudson, Dennis. “ vr: A Developing Hagiography.” The Journal of Vaishnava Studies, 27–61.

24. For a detailed discussion on the identity of Nappiai see Hudson, Dennis. “Piai: Krishna’s Cowherd Wife,” 238–61.

25. For a detailed discussion on the poetics of bhakti and bhakti poetry as a genre see Cutler, Norman. Songs of Experience: The Poetics of Tamil Devotion. Chapter 1, which focuses on the relationship between poet/persona, god and audience (19–29) and chapter 3 “The Poetics of Bhakti” (57–77) are particularly useful for the guided readings and analysis of several important bhakti verses.

26. As Edwin Bryant points out, there is no consensus regarding the date of the Bhgavata Pura, particularly in its final version. Dates for the Bhgavata Pura range from the Gupta period (280–550 C.E.) to the ninth through the thirteenth century C.E., with many Western scholars suggesting that it is the latest of the eighteen Puras. Bryant, Edwin. Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God (rmad Bhgavatam Book X). p. xvi. For a detailed discussion on the dating of the Bhgavata Pura, see Bryant, Edwin. “The Date and Provenance of the Bhgavata Pura and the Vaikuha Perum Temple” and Rukmani, T. S. A Critical Study of the Bhgavata Pura.

I am of the opinion that drew her influence for the bathing ritual in the Tiruppvai from the Cakam corpus and not the Bhgavata Pura. Dennis Hudson is of the opinion that the bathing ritual was incorporated into the South Indian Ka tradition, and that probably was inspired by its presence in the Bhgavata Pura, which scholars generally accept was composed in South India. See Hudson, Dennis. “Bathing in Krishna: A Study in Vaiava Hindu Theology,” 539–66.

27. For a detailed discussion of the vow and the use of sand images, refer to Reynolds, Holly Baker. “To Keep the Tli Strong: Women’s Rituals in Tamilnad, India,” 406–7.

The aiva poet Mikkavcakar, roughly a contemporary of , also composed a pvai poem known as Tiruvempvai. His poem, similar to that of ’s, consists of twenty verses and describes a similar vow undertaken by a group of unmarried girls. The biggest difference between the Tiruppvai and Tiruvempvai is the focus on the bathing ritual in the latter poem. For a translation and discussion of both Tiruppvai and Tiruvempvai, see Cutler, Norman. Consider Our Vow: Translation of Tiruppvai and Tiruvempvai. For a discussion of the pvai vow in these two poems see Reynolds, Holly Baker. “To Keep the Tli Strong,” 401–13.

28. For instance, see Srinivasa Iyengar Swami’s commentary Tiruppvai Vykhyam, 40.

29. I discuss bathing as a metaphor for sexual union in the commentary section that accompanies this translation. Refer in particular to the commentary for Tiruppvai 1 and 20. I will simply note here that commentators do not shy away from the sexual implications of the metaphor of bathing and, in fact, explicate it in detail. For another perspective on the significance of bathing in the Tiruppvai, see Dennis Hudson’s “Bathing in Krishna: A Study in Vaiava Hindu Theology.” His analysis is also based on Periyavcc Piai’s commentary to the Tiruppvai.

30. Cakam poems that discuss the tai nral are Naiai 80, 82, Kalittokai 59, and Aikuunru 24. It is employed as a simile in Naiai 22 and 84. The most detailed description of the vow is in Paripal 11. For a comprehensive discussion of the tai nral in Cakam poems, refer to Reynolds, Holly Baker. “To Keep the Tli Strong,” 392–98. Also see, Cutler, Norman. Consider Our Vow, 6–9.

31. Cutler, Norman. Consider Our Vow, 8–11.

32. See Notes to Tiruppvai 1 for the significance of Mrkai to Vaiavas.

33. The Bhgavata Pura version of the gops’ vow leads directly into the episode of Ka stealing their clothes. This episode becomes the focus of Ncciyr Tirumoi 3, but ntl’s version makes no mention of a vow.

34. Cutler, Norman. Consider Our Vow. p. 11. The commentators do not refer to the tai nral as a possible source for the vow described in the Tiruppavai. They only reference the Bhgavata Pura version and in their comments present ntl as imagining herself as one of the gops described in that text.

35. Ramanujan, A.K., and Norman Cutler. “From Classicism to Bhakti,” 232–59.

36. For examples of the use of the muacu see Puanu 50. For examples of the use of the taumai see Puanu 289. For further examples of the use of drums in Cakam poetry see Hart, George L. Poets of the Tamil Anthologies: Ancient Poems of Love and War, 15–16 and 32–33. For discussion on the paai in particular, refer to page 32 of Poets of the Tamil Anthologies.

37. For example, see Srinivasa Iyengar Swami. Tiruppvai Vykhyanam, 40.

38. Cutler, Norman. Consider Our Vow, 22n3.

39. Dehejia, Vidya. and Her Path of Love, 20.

40. For instance, Nammvr’s Tiruvymoi, composed in the tightly woven antti format, lends itself to a reading that maps the poet’s unfolding mystical process. On the other hand, the Ncciyr Tirumoi is bound by a malleable internal coherence.

41. For a reading of the Ncciyr Tirumoi according to the phases of the moon, see Hudson, Dennis. “’s Desire.” Vaiav: Women and the Worship of Krishna, 171–209.

42. Ncciyr Tirumoi 4 is presented in the first person singular. The phala ruti (4.11) to this section clarifies that it represents a scenario of various gop girls divining their future. The poet says: “Ktai of Viucitta/sang a song about the lovely maidens of yarpi/of their quarrels and friendships, their intimacy and bickering/of long waits and a kal game.”

43. The word caku (conch) occurs in the following verses of the Ncciyr Tirumoi: 1.5, 5.1, 5.2, 5.7, 5.9, 6.6, in all of section 7, 8.5, 8.7, 9.9, in all of section 11, and 14.8. In 1.5, which is the first instance of the word’s occurrence, it is mentioned as Viu’s attribute (i caku uttamar: the lord who holds aloft the discus and the conch). In 6.6, the word conch is mentioned in the context of the heroine’s dream wedding, but refers to ordinary conches sounded to celebrate the wedding: “The drums throbbed and great white conches resounded.”

44. does not evoke the conch as frequently in the Tiruppvai. When she evokes Viu’s conch, it is always by its proper name, either Valampuri (Tiruppvai 4) or Pñcajanya (Tiruppvai 26). When she speaks of conches in general, as in Tiruppvai 6 and 14, she uses the generic word, caku.

45. For a discussion of aesthetics and anubhava, see Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 139–43.

46. The earliest rvaiava commentataries were composed for Nammvr’s Tiruvymoi. Pi (b. 1161 C.E.) was the first commentator on the Tiruvymoi. He was followed by Nañjyar (1182–1287 C.E.), NamPiai, and Periyavcc Piai (b. 1228). Only the last of this illustrious group composed commentaries on the entire Nlyira Divya Prabandham.

47. Maiprava, literally gems and coral, is a specialized Tami prose form that combines Tamil and Sanskrit vocabulary. For a detailed examination of rvaiava Maiprava literature, see Venkatachari, K. K. A. The Maiprava Literature of the rVaiava cryas.

48. See notes to the poems for examples of anecdotes that recount the savoring of the Tiruppvai and Ncciyr Tirumoi by important figures like Rmnuja.

49. For a discussion of rvaiava commentary as an aesthetic experience, see Venkatesan, Archana. “Double the Pleasure: Reading Nammvr’s Tiruviruttam.”

50. For a detailed discussion and the multiple interpretations of the ayana tirukklam, see Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 160–67.

51. An example of the Ncciyr Tirumoi and alakra concerns an apocryphal narrative attached to Ncciyr Tirumoi 9.6. In that verse, the heroine () promises Viu several pots of sweet rice if he comes to claim her. Rmnuja, the foremost of the rvaiava preceptors, is said to have honored ’s vow at the temple of Aakar, and when he arrived at ‘s temple in rvilliputtr, she is believed to have manifested from her icon and run toward him, calling him “A!” (Older Brother). This event is marked in two ways at rvilliputtr. First, to honor this moment, the festival images of , her consort Ragamar, and the divine bird, Garua are permanently placed in the foreground of the temple garbha gha. Second, on the final day of the December Festival of Bathing, the image of Rmnuja is brought into the garbha gha and placed beside to commemorate this moment. For further discussion of this episode and its use in alakra at the temple, see Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 118–22.

52. A similar festival called the Eai Kppu Utsavam is also celebrated for the goddess Mnk of Maturai. The name, which translates as “The Festival of the Anointing of Oil,” refers to the elaborate preliminaries observed prior to the actual ritual bath. In Maturai, the text used during the Eai Kppu Utsavam is Mikkavcakar’s Tiruvempvai. For a discussion of the two festivals see Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 217–19. For a discussion of the Eai Kppu Utsavam at Maturai, see Fuller, C. J. The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India, 187.

53. Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 219–20.

54. Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 219–20.

55. For a further information on the Mrkai Nra Utsavam, please see Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 167–82. For a list of ‘s alakras during the festival see 427–28.

56. Tirumakaiyvr composed the Tiruneuntakam, a poem of thirty verses. The poem describes the love-sickness of a young girl in love and the lamentations of her mother. The poem’s first eleven verses are central to the performance of the Araiyar’s muttukkui.

57. Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 220–39.

58. For a detailed discussion of the function of Araiyar Cvai and muttukkui in lore, see Venkatesan, Archana. “ and Her Magic Mirror,” 220–39, and Venkatesan, Archana. “Divining the Future of A Goddess: The Araiyar Cvai as Commentary at the rvilliputtr Temple,” 19–51.

59. The archives for the bhakti list can be found at http://www.Rmnuja.org/sv/bhakti/about.html. The database is searchable, and queries on , Tiruppvai, and Ncciyr Tirumoi yield numerous results. The e-books of Ncciyr Tirumoi with commentary can be found at http://www.sundarasimham.org/e-booksS2.htm, and Tiruppvai at http://www.sundarasimham.org/e-booksS3.htm. A commentary for Vednta Deika’s God Stuti (Praise to God) can be found at http://www.sundarasimham.org/e-books.htm.

60. Sriram, V. Carnatic Summer: Lives of Twenty Great Exponents, 10–14.

61. In recent years, select verses from the Ncciyr Tirumoi such as 7.1 (The Song to the Conch) have gained a following both among Karak musicians and their audiences.

62. Sarada, S. “Andal Charitram.” Kalakshetra Rukmini Devi: Reminiscences by S. Sarada, 138.

63. Examples of dance dramas in the diaspora and in India featuring either ’s story, her poems, or both, are Malathi Iyengar’s (California, USA) Kodhai’s Dream (2006); Jayanthi Balachandran’s (North Carolina, USA); Andal Kalyanam (2002); Adyar K. Laksman’s (Chennai, India) Godha Govindam (2004); and Priyadarshini Govind’s (Chennai, India) varnam “tkoa Vum Aiya,” (2002).

64. http://www.arangham.com/repertor/nachiyar/nachiyar.html.

65. http://www.jayanthiraman.com/Productions/productions.htm.

66. Hawley, John Stratton. Three Bhakti Voices: Mirabai, Surdas and Kabir in Their Times and Ours, 142.

67. Narayanan, Vasudha. “Brimming with Bhakti, Embodiments of Shakti: Devotees, Deities, Performers, Reformers and Other Women of Power in the Hindu Tradition,” 45.

68. Narayanan, Vasudha. “Brimming with Bhakti, Embodiments of Shakti: Devotees, Deities, Performers, Reformers and Other Women of Power in the Hindu Tradition,” 43–44.

69. Dehejia, Vidya. and Her Path of Love, 4.

70. Heifetz, Hank, trans. Origin of a Young God: Klidsa’s Kumrasambhava.

71. Hopkins, Steven Paul. Singing the Body of God: The Hymns of Vedntadeika in Their South Indian Tradition, 15–21.

72. Hopkins, Steven P. An Ornament for Jewels: Love Poems for the Lord of Gods by Vedntadeika.

73. P. Sundaram’s translation, The Poems of Andal, is accurate, but is weighed down by some of the issues discussed in the section on translation.

74. Norman Cutler in Songs of Experience explores the shift in rhetorical strategies in Tami bhakti poetry from those in evidence in Cakam corpus, placing as much emphasis on the religious content of the poems as their literary form. See chapter 3, 61–70 in particular.

75. rvaiava commentators such as Periyavcc Piai do not point out Cakam references—even obvious ones—in their commentaries. For instance, although Ncciyr Tirumoi 13.8 alludes to the Cilappatikram, no commentators deem this a suitable point of reference. This is not to say that these commentators were unaware of their Cakam literary past, or were incapable of aesthetic appreciation. Rather it indicates a fundamental shift in the understanding of what constitutes pleasure and experience (anubhava) and how that might be created and replicated in the context of doing theology. In order to accomplish the last of these, the commentators looked to a different corpus of texts, foremost amongst which was the Vlmki Rmyaa, to heighten the devotional mood. A key idea in rvaiava commentary was that of anubhava experience and a commentary as a text of experience (anubhava grantha). See Venkatesan, Archana.“ and Her Magic Mirror” for a detailed discussion of rvaiava commentary as anubhava. Also see Hopkins, Steven. Singing the Body of God, 136–65.