Accavitti, Mike, 205
active matrix technology, 88–89
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), 57
Advanced Technology Partnership (ATP), 126
Affigen, 204
Agent Orange, 76
agglomeration, 140–141, 144, 149, 156–158, 160, 168, 171, 180–181, 222, 224, 229
agriculture, cellular, 201
Airport Improvement Program (AIP), 190
Alaska Permanent Fund, 13, 194–195
Albuquerque, New Mexico, 153–154
Alcoa, 155
Alexandria Real Estate Equities, 191
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, 203
Allen, Paul, 153
Alvarez, Luis, 26
Alzheimer’s disease, 97–98
in Kendall Square, 153
Seattle and, 154
second headquarters search, 137–138, 147–149, 157, 168, 180, 182–183, 193, 227
Amazon Web Services, 102
American Community Survey (ACS), 231–233
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, 133–134
Amgen, 152
Andersen, Martin, 172
Anderson, Carl, 20
Angle, Colin, 122
antiballistic missile (ABM), 73–74, 76
Apollo program, 47, 49, 50, 61, 80, 169
Appalachian Regional Commission, 162
Applied Biosystems, 117
Argonne National Laboratory, 74
arms race, technology-based, 40
Army Futures Command, 182–183
artemisinin, 200
artificial intelligence, 57, 148
Associated Universities Incorporated, 64
Atomic Energy Commission, 33, 65, 169, 208
Atoms for Peace program, 65
automation, 35
Baldwin, Robert, 259
Baldwin, Stanley, 23
Base-Finder program, 117
Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission, 183–184, 189
decrease support for, 78
NIH funding, 120
ONR, 51
private sector research and development, 107–108
as spending focus, 185
Battelle Technology Partnership Practice, 117
batteries, lithium-ion, 102–103
Battle of the Atlantic, 27–28
Battle of the Bulge, 28
Bayh-Dole Act (1980), 129
Bell, Alexander Graham, 18
bikini swimwear, 65
bioeconomy, 202
bioplastics, 201
Biopolis, 223–224
biotechnology research, 131, 151–153, 222–224
bombing, 21, 23, 26, 59, 62, 66, 71
Boston-Power, 102–103
Bricklin, Dan, 86
Britain. See United Kingdom
Brody, T. Peter, 88–89
Brookhaven National Laboratory, 65
Buchanan, Pat, 76
Budget Control Act of 2011, 81
Buffett, Warren, 111
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 128
Burroughs, 54
Bush, George W., 79
Bush, Vannevar, 1–7, 15–16, 24–25, 29, 31–33, 42–44, 58–59, 63–64, 70, 74, 82, 170, 180, 199, 228
calculators, 87–88
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 128, 140, 150–153, 191–192
Canada, research parks in, 227–228
canals, 16
cardiovascular disease, 120
Carson, Rachel, 67–69
catalyst competition, 181
cathode ray tube, 87
Celera, 117
cell and gene therapy, 104–107, 128, 204
Cell and Gene Therapy Catapult, 204–205
cellular communications standards, 215–217
Census Bureau, 231–232
Center for Commercialization of Regenerative Medicine (CCRM), 204
Central Florida Research Park (CFRP), 171–174, 196
CERN, 81
Chang, Morris, 220–222
Chee, Mark, 125
chemical industry, DDT and, 68
Chen, Chunxian, 225–226
Chernobyl accident, 69
China
deep-sea exploration, 211–212
5G, 217
germ-line editing, 220
hydrogen power, 207
medical R&D, 204
nuclear reactors, 208
rare earth elements (REE), 210
research parks, 225–227
synthetic biology research, 203
venture capital, 103
Chinese Thousand Talents Program, 213–214
cholesterol, lowering, 95–96
Chua, Nam-Hai, 225
Churchill, Winston, 15, 21, 63
clean energy, 101–102, 114, 134–135
Clinton, Bill, 79
Clinton, Hillary, 146–148
cobalt, 209
Coburn, Abner, 159
Colbourn, Trevor, 172
college graduates
geographic divergence in, 141
mobility of, 145
superstar cities, 149–150
Collins, Francis S., 113
colony picker, 117
commercialization lags, 97–98
commuting time, 145, 164, 232, 232 (table), 235
Companies of the World, Modern Alchemy (documentary), 87
competition, creating new innovation hubs through, 180–183
computer simulation, 171, 173, 176
computers, 29–30
electromechanical, 51
graphic user interface (GUI), 92–93
magnetic core memory, 53
military funding of research, 51–53, 55–56
post-WWII development, 6–7
Conant, James B., 4, 15, 23, 59, 63–64
concentration of talent, 140–141
Concorde, 73
contract manufacturing organizations (CMOs), 105–106
Control Data, 54
corporation research labs, 18–19
cost of living, 12, 141–142, 148, 183, 226
Council for a Livable World, 71
Council for the Advancement of Science Writing, 49
Council on Environmental Quality, 72
crime data, 232 (table), 233, 235
Cubic Corporation, 174
Curie, Marie, 198
cystic fibrosis gene, 115
DARPA. See Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
David Sarnoff Research Center, 88
de Tocqueville, Alexis, 17
deep-sea exploration, 208–212
Deep Space Network, NASA, 49
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 56–57, 122, 135–136, 185
defense contracts, concentration of opportunity and, 59
Department of Defense spending under Reagan, 80
development as spending focus, 185
Diamond Light Source, 131–132
disease, war against, 33
Dixon, David, 152
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 114–116
Dow Chemical, 76
Dr. Strangelove (film), 47
DuBridge, Lee A., 26
DUKW, 29
Dulles, Allen, 44
Durfee, William Franklin, 18
economic growth
concentration of, 170
Human Genome Project and, 118
income inequality, 126–127
innovation and, 58
per capita GDP since 1973, 114
promoted by technology leadership, 215–217
economic polarization and political polarization, 146–147
The Edge of the Sea (Carson), 67
education
in Florida, 174
geographic divergence in, 145
geographic polarization of attitudes toward, 147
as knowledge source, 91
political polarization and, 146–147
superstar cities, 149–150
supply to meet demand, 186–189
technology hubs and, 163–164, 182, 186
See also higher education
effective tax rate, 190
Eisenhower, Dwight, 42, 44, 60, 62, 65, 70–71, 82, 161
electric vehicles, fuel cell, 205–207
electricity, development of, 18
Electronics Research Center (ERC), 151
employment
IBM, 54
labor market in 1992, 58
post-WWI, 7
in space industry, 51
See also job creation
Endo, Akira, 95
Engineering Biology Research Consortium, 203
engineers, 29
aerospace, 48
German, 46
graduates pre-WWII, 20
entrepreneur-philanthropists, 110
entrepreneurial environment, 166–167
entrepreneurial spirit, 163–164
entrepreneurs, 198
bringing idea to market, 99
SBIR program and, 123
technology hubs and, 163–164, 166–167, 173, 233
wealth concentration, 190
environmental impact of technological advancement, 218–219
environmental movement, 69, 76
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 76, 80
Erskine, John, 74
ethics, 219–220
failures
proprietary nature of, 94–96
of venture-backed investments, 99
Fair Housing Center of Greater Boston, 144
Fairchild Semiconductor, 55
family incomes, 126–127
Federal Aviation Administration, 190
federal government
budget deficit, 79
expanding of frontiers and, 13, 32
GI Bill (1944), 5, 36, 40, 186
mandatory spending on programs, 77, 229
place-based policies, 138, 158–162
real estate holdings of, 192
See also government spending on scientific research; specific federal agencies, departments, and institutions
for innovation hubs initiative, 189–190
See also venture capital
Finland, 130, 175, 212, 215–216
Flamm, Kenneth, 52
flat-panel displays, 86–90, 217
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 119, 121
Forman, Chris, 233
Framingham Heart Study, 120
free-rider problem, 92–94, 206
fuel cell electric vehicles, 205–207
Garwin, Richard, 72
Gates, Bill, 94, 111, 153, 208
General Electric, 18–20
General Social Survey, 147
genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 219
genome, 115
Genome Corporation, 116
genomics, 118
Genzyme, 152
geographic disparities in federal government R&D spending, 132–133
Georgia Research Alliance (GRA), 174–175
germ-line editing, 220
Germany
computer research, 57
hydrogen power, 207
missile technology, 46
in World War II, 1–2, 16, 21–22, 27–28, 51–52
GI Bill (1944), 5, 36, 40, 186
Gilbert, Walter, 115–116
Gingrich, Newt, 80
Glaeser, Edward, 244, 298, 299, 305
Goldfarb, Avi, 233
Goldin, Claudia, 257
Google, in Kendall Square, 153
Gordon, Robert, 249
government spending
on higher education, 45
mandatory spending on programs, 77, 229
Vietnam, 77
government spending on scientific research
computer development, 52–57
concentration of opportunity and, 59
decrease from 1960s to present, 8, 77–78, 81–83
erosion of, 63
geographic disparities in, 132–133
hydrogen power, 206
integrated circuits, 55–56
jump-starting the growth engine, 11
Manhattan Project, 64
mid-1960s, 61
returns to, 119–120
space program, 47–48
suggested future commitment, 229–230
unchecked scientist access to, 75
university-based, 5–6, 25, 33–34, 40, 45, 57, 59, 75–77
GPS (Global Positioning System), 50, 56
grants, 34, 57, 119, 129–130, 135, 173, 176, 187, 221
graphical user interface (GUI), 92–93, 107
Great Society programs, 77, 79
Greenberg, Daniel, 75
Greenstein, Shane, 233
Groves, Leslie, 64
hadal zone, 210–211
Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib), 120–121
Halberstam, David, 72
Hall, Robert E., 244, 278, 283
Hausman, Naomi, 293
health and medicine
cell and gene therapy, 104–107, 128, 204
post-WWII improvements, 37–38
synthetic biology, 200–205
See also National Institutes of Health (NIH)
healthcare, job growth in, 128
heart disease, 120
Heilmeier, George, 87
Heim, Jacques, 65
Henderson, Rebecca, 294
Hendrix, Gary, 124
Hendrix, James, 98
Higgs boson, 81
high school science teaching, 45, 187
high-temperature gas-cooled reactors, 207–208
higher education
expansion to jump-start the growth engine, 11
geographic disparity, 154
job growth and, 189
post-1940, 5–7
post-WWII increase in students and faculty, 34, 36
Higher Education Facilities Act (1963), 45
Holmes, Ezekiel, 159
housing costs/prices, 142–145, 153, 164, 181, 232, 232 (table), 235
Hsinchu Science Park, 221–222
Human Genome Project, 113, 114–118, 176
Huntington’s disease gene, 115
hydrogen power, 205–208
IBM. See International Business Machines
iGEM (International Genetically Engineered Machine), 202–204
Illumina, 125
income
geographic divergence in, 141, 144
inequality, 126–127
in Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) region, 161
indirect returns, 190
infrastructure, technology hubs and, 182, 186, 189
Ingber, Don, 136
Inglis, David R., 74
innovation
economic growth and, 58
for growth, 169–196
military-innovation complex, 58–60
military research, 122
National Institutes of Health and, 118–121
private-sector, 16–19, 55, 122
returns to, 190
university property rights to, 129
Innovation Commission, 184–185, 189
innovation dividend
distribution of, 194–195
establishing, 190–191
financing, 191–194
innovation hubs. See technology hubs
integrated circuit, 55–56
intellectual property, 217–218
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), 70
International Business Machines (IBM), 19, 52–55, 57–58, 108–109
International Seabed Authority, 218
invention
birthplace of inventors, 146
NDRC ownership of rights, 25
post-WWII boom in, 29–31
productivity of inventors, 140
as public good, 9
underinvestment in, 110
iRobot, 122–123
Jacobs, Irwin, 124
Jaffe, Adam, 244, 294, 296, 307
Japan
flat-panel displays, 87–90, 217
hydrogen power, 206–207
radiation poisoning, 66
in World War II, 2, 27, 38, 51
jet engines, 176
Jewett, Frank B., 4, 18–19, 24
job creation
cost of, 175
decrease post-1960s, 9–10
geographic impact, 10
human genome sequencing and, 118
hydrogen-based power sector, 206
by jump-starting the growth engine, 11
military bases, 161
military R&D, 130
post-WWII, 5–7
public R&D, 126–130, 169, 175–176
satellites and, 50
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 160
university research spending and, 129
winners of future good jobs, 228–230
job destruction, 10
Johnson, Lyndon, 44, 62, 71–73, 160, 172, 180
jump-starting the growth engine, 11–14
Katz, Lawrence F., 257
Kaw, James, 224
Kendall Square, 140, 150–154, 163, 191–192
Kennedy, John F., 41, 45–46, 71–72, 77, 151
Kennedy, Ted, 151
Kerrison Predictor, 21
Khrushchev, Nikita, 44
Kistiakowsky, George, 61, 70–72, 74–75
knowledge economy, 128, 140, 142, 146, 149, 229
Kornberg, Roger, 135
land, government ownership around innovation hubs, 191–193
land swaps, 192
Langmuir, Irving, 20
Laurence, William L., 66
Lawrence, Ernest, 23, 26, 63, 197–199
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 117, 201
Le, Trinh, 294
lease, performance-related, 193–194
Lenovo, 226
Lerner, Josh, 177–178, 244, 282, 290, 291, 308
Lever Brothers, 151
Lindemann, Frederick, 63
liquid crystal display (LCD), 87–89
lithium-ion batteries, 102–103
local landlords, enrichment of, 191, 193
local policy, geographic disparities and, 154–158
localized benefits of public R&D, 130–133
locomotives, 16–17
Long, Franklin, 74
Long-Range Navigation (LRN or LORAN), 26
Loomis, Alfred L., 23–26, 59, 63
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 54, 64
lovastatin, 95–96
Maine College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, 159
Malmstrom Air Force Base, 162
Manhattan Project, 31, 33, 47, 64, 70, 80, 143, 169, 177, 191, 198–199
Mansfield, Michael, 78
Marcus, Joel, 191
MaRS (Medical and Related Sciences), 227–228
Masuzoe, Yoichi, 207
McCormick, Cyrus, 17
McMillan, Edwin, 26
McNamara, Robert, 71
medical R&D, 204
Merck, 95–96
metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs), 138–141, 163–166, 231–235
microwave oven, 30
MidAmerican Renewables, 134
middle class
expansion post-WWI, 7
post-WWII progress, 35–38
pressure on, 10
military
equipment, WWII production of, 38
pressure to curtail influence of, 78
technology adoption by, 26–28, 41, 51, 58
wasteful spending, 121–122
World War II technology, 2–4
Military Authorization Act, 78
military bases
military funding
CFRP, 173–174
computer research, 51–53, 55–56
military-industrial complex, 60
military-innovation complex, 58–60
military R&D
job creation, 130
returns to, 121–123
Millennium Pharmaceuticals, 152
Millikan, Robert, 20
mining, deep-sea, 209–212, 218
Minuteman II missile, 56
missile gap, 42, 44, 45, 48, 71
antiballistic missile (ABM), 73–74, 76
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), 70
MIT, 2, 25–26, 30, 44, 52, 59, 62, 119, 122, 128, 150–151, 163, 191–192, 220
monopolies, 59
moon mission. See space program
Moore, Gordon, 109
Moore’s law, 109
Moretti, Enrico, 122, 244, 245, 257, 290, 293, 297, 298, 299, 301, 302, 303, 304
Morrill Act, 159
Morse, Samuel, 17
MSAs. See metropolitan statistical areas
Müller, Paul, 68
Myhrvold, Nathan, 169
National Aero-Space Plane, 57
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 45, 48–49, 51, 56, 78, 151
National Center for Human Genome Research (NCHGR), 116
National Defense Education Act (1958), 45, 53, 187
National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), 3–4, 23, 25–27, 29, 31, 63, 64, 70
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 125–126, 135–136
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 37, 169, 185, 204
funding of, 119
Human Genome Project and, 116–118
as innovation machine, 118–121
patents from funded studies, 133
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 210
National Research Council, 125, 150
National Research Foundation (NRF), 34, 42–43
National Science Foundation (NSF), 37, 43, 78, 129, 169, 202–203, 233
National Security Agency, 54
National Venture Capital Association, 99, 174
Naval Training Device Center, 172–173
NCR, 52
NDRC. See National Defense Research Committee
NHK, 87
NIH. See National Institutes of Health
NIST. See National Institute of Standards and Technology
Nixon, Richard, 62, 70, 72–74, 76, 80, 151
no-year appropriations, 189
Nobel Prizes, 20, 30–31, 34, 63, 66, 108, 115–116, 126, 198
Nokia, 215–216
Novartis, 152
NRG Solar, 134
nuclear accidents, 69
nuclear DNA, 115
nuclear weapons, 63–66, 70–71, 71, 78, 198
Manhattan Project, 31, 33, 47, 64, 70, 80, 143, 169, 177, 191, 198–199
nucleotides, 115
Office of Naval Research (ONR), 51–52, 56
Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), 29, 31, 42, 59, 64
Office of Technology Assessment, 80
Operation Paperclip, 46
Oppenheimer, Robert, 64
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 80
Orlando, Florida, 171–176, 179–180, 180, 196
Panelvision, 89
PARC research facility, 92–94, 107
passive matrix technology, 88
patents, 18–19
corporate reward system for scientists, 109
data on, 232 (table), 233
fuel cells, 207
NDRC and, 25
NIH funding and, 119, 121, 133
rate in superstar cities, 146
Synberc and, 202
of Thomas Edison, 91
Pauling, Linus, 66
peer review, 185
penicillin, 6
Pfizer, 97–98
pharmaceutical companies, 6
cell and gene therapy manufacturing, 104–107
cost of new drug development, 94
geographic concentration, 152
Kendall Square and, 152
lags to commercialization, 97–98
profit margins, 104
R&D, 94–96
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 148, 158
photosynthesis, artificial, 201
physics, high school, 45
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 164, 182
place-based policies
history of federal government, 138, 158–162
military bases, distribution of, 138, 161–162
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 138, 160–161
Player Piano (Vonnegut), 35, 126
polarization, economic and political, 146–147
politicians versus scientists, 72–75
politics of new global order, 38–40
The Politics of Pure Science (Greenberg), 75
Presidential Scientific Advisory Committee (PSAC), 71, 73–74
private capital, 98
private sector, public partnering with, 177–178, 186
private sector R&D
basic research, 107–108
limits of, 85–111
proprietary nature of, 94–96
publications, 108–109
SBIR program and, 123–125
too low level of, 104–107, 111
private sector R&D, limits of
development lags, 97–98
ideas, difficulty in finding, 109–110
promise of, 110–111
spending increase with public spending increase, 122
spillovers, 91–94, 96, 106–108
valley of death, 98–103
private sector science, 11
computers, 52
incremental change and, 25
invention in, 9
rise of corporate innovation, 16–19
Procter & Gamble, 224
productivity
economic growth and, 9–10, 90–91
gains from attracting new businesses, 156
of inventors, 140
living standards and, 90
post-WWII growth, 39–40
research and development as essential to, 91
wages increase with higher, 127–128
programmers, increase numbers of, 53
Project Whirlwind, 52–53
Proxmire, Bill, 73
public R&D, 113–136
expanding funding of science for growth, 175–176
geographic divergence in, 141, 179
Human Genome Project, 114–118
indirect returns, 190
job creation, 126–130, 169, 175–176
localized benefits of, 130–133
military R&D, 121–123
NIH, 118–121
NIST, 125–126
pragmatic case for, 136
redirecting toward new locations, 179–180
risk and, 133–136
SBIR program, 123–125
share of GDP, 212
surges in, 170
publications, 108–109, 119, 202, 214
punch card machines, 53
Qualcomm, 124
quality of life, 164, 183, 234
Rabi, Isidor, 26
radar, 3, 22–28, 30–31, 52, 55, 176, 199
radiation, risks associated with, 62, 65–66
Radiation (Rad) Lab, 26, 28–29, 31, 33, 177
Radio Corporation of America (RCA), 87–88
railroads, 16–17
Ramsey, Norman, 26
RAND, 53
rare earth elements (REE), 209–210, 218
Réard, Louis, 65
research
economic benefits to, 104
as knowledge source, 91
See also private sector R&D; public R&D; university research
research park strategy, 220–228
Research Triangle Park, 174
rheumatoid arthritis, 121
Richards, Theodore, 20
risks
entrepreneurs and, 86, 100–101
public R&D and, 133–136
Rockefeller Foundation, 68, 198, 211
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 20
Roomba, 122–123
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 3–4, 21, 24, 82
Rowe, Tim, 152
rubber, 201
Rutherford, Ernest, 198
SABRE (Semi-Automated Business Research Environment), 54
SAGE air defense system, 53–54, 58
Sandia National Laboratories, 154
Sanger, Frederick, 115
Sankyo, 95–96
Sanofi, 200
Saturn V rocket, 47
SBIR. See Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program
scholarships, 34
science
as a frontier, 32
postwar expectations of, 62
Science: The Endless Frontier (Bush), 4, 32–33, 113
Science Is a Sacred Cow (Standen), 66
scientists
increase training of, 33–34, 45
political power of, 61–63
political spectrum and, 82
politicians versus, 72–75
reward system for corporate, 108–109
Sculley, John, 93
The Sea Around Us (Carson), 67
sea exploration, 208–212
Seattle Washington, 73, 139, 142, 148, 150, 153–154, 158
semiconductors, 29–30, 55–56, 221–222
Sentinel program, 73–74
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 223
Sharp, Phillip, 151–152
Sharp Corporation, 87–88
Shockley, William, 55
Silent Spring (Carson), 67, 69, 218
Silicon Valley, 11, 55, 99, 140, 144, 153, 163, 220, 225
Simha, Robert, 151
Singapore, research park strategy of, 222–225
Singer, Isaac, 17–18
Site Selection magazine, 166–167
skill-biased technological change, 35
skill premium, 36–37
skilled labor
demand for, 35–36
increasing supply to meet demand, 186–189
Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program, 123–125, 133, 185
social rate of return, 106–107
solar industry, 134–135
Sorensen, Ted, 46
Soviet Union
computer research, 57
nuclear weapons, 52
Sputnik, 41–45, 47, 56, 61–62, 80, 199
spillovers, 91–94, 96, 106–108, 116, 118, 130–131, 191
spin-offs of space program, 48–50
Sputnik, 41–45, 47, 56, 61–62, 80, 199
Standen, Anthony, 66
Stanford, 92, 128, 150, 163, 167
Starbird, Alfred, 74
state competition, 154–158, 168
statins, 95–96
Steinwender, Claudia, 122, 243, 290
Strategic Computing Initiative, 57
Strategic Defense Initiative, 79–80
Stretch, 54
student loan debt, 187
supercollider, 81
Superconducting Super Collider, 81
supersonic planes, 72–73
superstar cities
agglomeration, 158
Amazon’s second headquarters search, 147–149
attitudes toward education, 147
characteristics of, 149–150
concentration of economic activity in, 140–141, 147, 170
concentration of funding, 181
creating new technology hubs, 12
housing prices, 164
localization of venture capital, 145
location of, 137–140
rate of patenting in, 146
regional inequity and, 138
Symantec, 124
Synberc (Synthetic Biology Engineering Research Center), 202–203
synchrotron, 131–132
synthetic biology, 200–205, 219–220, 225
Taiwan, research park strategy of, 220–228
tax breaks, 138, 148–149, 155–157, 182, 221
technology development
NASA and, 48–50
Technology Hub Index System (THIS), 164–167, 192, 231–235
technology hubs, 12, 146, 152, 180–182, 185–186, 191, 227, 231, 234
categories of spending, 185
creating new, 180–183
high costs in existing, 141
Huntsville, Atlanta, 48
Orlando, Florida, 171–176, 179, 196
strengths and weaknesses of locations, 231–235
See also superstar cities
Technology Transfer Program, NASA, 49
Tekes program, 130, 175, 215–216
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 138, 160–161
TerraPower, 208
Tesla, Nikola, 18
THIS. See Technology Hub Index System
Three Mile Island accident, 69
3M, 89
Tietjen, James, 88
Tolman, Richard C., 4
Tomio, Wada, 87
trade, post-WWII, 39–40
Train, Russell, 72
transistors, 7, 55–56, 88, 109
Trump, Donald, 62, 126, 147–148, 186, 190, 217
Turing, Alan, 57
TVA. See Tennessee Valley Authority
unemployment, 37–39
unintended consequences, 62, 67–69
United Kingdom
atomic weapons, 63
computer research, 57
hydrogen power, 206
synthetic biology research, 203
universities
economic growth around, 128–131
future technology hubs, 163–164
pre-WWII period, 19–20
quality measurement, 232–233, 232 (table), 235
student loan debt, 187
in superstar cities, 150
See also higher education
University of Central Florida, 171–173
University of Maine, 159
university research
government spending on scientific research, 5–6, 25, 33–34, 40, 45, 57, 59, 75–77
incentives to commercialize innovation, 129
increase in research personnel, 45
university research spending and job creation, 175
spillovers of, 131
Upjohn Institute, 155
Upton, Fred, 135
US Department of Agriculture (USDA), 68, 202
US Naval Research Laboratory, 41
V-2 rocket, 46
vaccination/vaccines, 6, 37, 120–121
vacuums, robot, 122–123
Vagelos, Roy, 95–96
valley of death, 101–102, 174, 177–178
Van Reenen, John, 122, 243, 285, 286, 290, 300
Venter, Craig, 117
venture capital, 9, 12, 86, 89, 98–103, 124, 136, 145, 153–154, 174, 177–179, 184, 227
in China, 103
constraints, 99
failed projects, 184
government partnership with, 178
ideas/sectors preferred by, 101, 105, 229
investing approaches, 100–101
in Kendall Square, 153
local investment tendency of, 15–146
location of, 178–179
SBIR compared, 123–125
short-time horizon problem, 101–102, 110
Verne, Jules, 109
Veterans Administration, 37
Vietnam War, 71–72, 75, 76, 78–79
VisiCalc, 86
von Braun, Wernher, 46–48
Wallace, Joe, 174
Washington, DC, 2–3, 142, 148–149, 158
Watson, James, 116
Weinberg, Alvin M., 197
Wellcome Trust, 132
Westinghouse, George, 18
Weston, Kathy, 116
Williams, Heidi, 243, 245, 282, 288
Williams, Richard, 87
Woodring, Harry H., 162
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, 211
World War I, 19–20, 27, 36, 38
Xerox Corporation, 92–94
Zacharias, Jerrold, 26
zoning regulations, 143, 181, 189, 191
Zuckerberg, Mark, 100