In this chapter, we’ll go over some of the topics in Civics and Government, including types of governments, the structure of U.S. government, founding documents, the Supreme Court, amendments, civil rights, and voting and elections.
In this chapter, we’ll cover some of the topics in Civics and Government that may come up on the GED® test. After each review, we’ll give you some helpful vocabulary words to think about, and we’ll ask some GED®-type questions based on that particular area. At the end of each review, there will also be a short drill for you to try on your own.
Here are the topics we’ll cover in this chapter:
Types of government
Foundation and structure of the U.S. government
Amendments and civil rights
Voting and elections
A government is the set of legal institutions, practices, and processes that determine how a state functions. The structure of government is often bound up with the social interactions that make up its economic system. Types of government found throughout world history include authoritarian or totalitarian, socialism or communism, monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy.
Authoritarian government imposes the state’s authority upon many aspects of its citizens’ lives. Power is concentrated in the hands of one leader or small elite. Examples include the military dictatorships of 20th-century Latin America. Totalitarian government extends absolute control over individuals’ attitudes and beliefs, often mobilizing its population toward one party’s national aim. Examples include Nazi Germany and Italy under Mussolini’s National Fascist Party.
Socialism is based on public ownership of economic resources and property to ensure wealth equality. In theory, the economic system is managed by the community. Communism is also based on common ownership of the means of production in a classless society, but a central, controlling government provides citizens with basic necessities. Examples of communist government include Soviet Russia, Cuba, and North Korea.
A monarchy is ruled by one person called a monarch, who usually holds his or her lifetime position by divine right or hereditary succession. Monarchies range from absolute monarchies, such as the royal line of kings in pre-Revolution France, to constitutional monarchies, like present-day Great Britain, where the monarch holds the power of tradition as a figurehead or symbol, but the government is actually administered through elected officials.
In an oligarchy, the power resides in a few people at the top; this ruling elite is interested in holding onto or increasing its power. Twentieth-century South Africa is considered an oligarchy based on race, in that a small number of white people dominated the majority black population.
A democracy, in theory, is government by the people. People elect representatives in democratic governments, but democracy can take different forms based on the structures of power.
The American constitutional democracy—a system in which the people consent to the structure and limits of a government as outlined in a constitution—developed through its rejection of a monarchy, rule by a king or queen. Other kinds of democracies have both influenced and been influenced by the American system.
Parliamentary democracy—system in which the elected legislators (lawmakers) appoint a person to be chief of government (e.g., United Kingdom)
Presidential democracy—system in which the people elect a president to be the chief of government and head of state (e.g., United States)
Direct democracy—a system in which the people decide on laws and decisions, as opposed to electing representatives to decide for them (e.g., ancient Athens)
Representative democracy—a system in which people elect representatives to make decisions and create policies (e.g., United Kingdom and United States)
Let’s try an example of a question dealing with types of democracies.
The following text comes from James Madison’s Federalist Paper #10.
…a pure Democracy, by which I mean a Society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the Government in person, can admit of no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole; a communication and concert result from the form of Government itself; and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party, or an obnoxious individual. Hence it is, that such Democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention.
1. In this text, James Madison most directly warns against
A. presidential democracy.
B. parliamentary democracy.
C. representative democracy.
D. direct democracy.
Here’s How to Crack It
The text considers the “pure Democracy” to be “spectacles of turbulence and contention.” This is a critical view of direct democracies, in which the people vote directly on decisions. Choice (D) is correct. No mention is made of a president, so (A) is incorrect. There is also no discussion of elected representatives, so eliminate (B) and (C).
government—set of legal institutions, practices, and processes that determine how a state functions
authoritarian—system of government that imposes the state’s authority upon many aspects of its citizens’ lives
totalitarian—system of government with absolute control over individuals’ attitudes and beliefs, often mobilizing its population toward one party’s national aim
socialism—theory of social organization based on community ownership of economic resources
communism—system of government in which economic resources are publicly owned and controlled by the state, which provides basic necessities to citizens
monarchy—system of government ruled by one person
divine right—belief that a ruler has been selected by God
hereditary succession—inheritance of a title along family blood lines
absolute monarchy—monarchy in which the ruler has absolute authority, unrestricted by laws or other forms of government
constitutional monarchy—monarchy in which a nonelected authority functions within the limits of a constitution or founding legal document of a government
oligarchy—system of government ruled by a few, self-interested elite
democracy—system of government by the people, who elect representatives
You can check your answers in Part VIII: Answer Key to Drills.
1. Click on the description of totalitarian government above.
2. Great Britain is an example of a country that has different types of government. It has a monarch, a king or queen from a royal family who symbolizes traditional power, but elected representatives make its laws and policies. This system is an example of
For nearly a millennium, societies have attempted to put forth the ideals later captured by the American system. Notably, in 1215, nobles from England wrote the Magna Carta, which sought to limit the power of the king and protect the rights of individuals. Centuries later, some of the first Europeans to arrive in the New World, the English Pilgrims, created the Mayflower Compact in 1620. All who signed this document consented to laws voted upon by the majority in exchange for protection and survival. Such constitutions became increasingly common in the New World and within a century and a half, the colonists were ready to cut ties with England.
Angered at Britain’s refusal to grant them the rights of British citizens, the people of the 13 colonies decided to revolt. The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson in 1776. It said, in part,
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness….
It went on to list the colonists’ grievances against the king of England. The declaration was adopted on July 4, 1776.
During the war with England that followed (called the Revolutionary War), the colonists ruled themselves through an organization called the Continental Congress. However, after England was defeated, the former colonists wrote the U.S. Constitution in 1787, which created principles of government that are still in use today. The Constitution was designed to compromise between the need for autonomy of the individual states and the need for a strong central government. It began
We, the people of the United States…
The U.S. Constitution listed the powers of the states and the powers of the federal government and set up the system of government that we have described above. Worried that the rights of individuals were not sufficiently protected, the founding fathers wrote the first 10 amendments to the Constitution in 1791. These have come to be known as the Bill of Rights. These rights include freedom of speech, the right to bear arms, the right to a trial by jury, protection against illegal search and seizure, and protection against cruel and unusual punishment.
Let’s try the following question.
The following text is taken from the Mayflower Compact:
Having undertaken, for the Glory of God, and advancements of the Christian faith and honor of our King and Country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the Northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents, solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God, and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic; for our better ordering, and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony; unto which we promise all due submission and obedience.
1. Click the section of the text that best shows the authors’ concern for all decisions being made with the common welfare of the Mayflower community in mind.
Here’s How to Crack It
When reading the passage, look for clues related to “welfare” and “community.” The “general good” is synonymous with welfare. Therefore “the general good of the colony” is most accurate.
Magna Carta—document signed by King John of England in 1215 establishing that the king was subject to the same laws as citizens
Mayflower Compact—document written by male passengers of the Mayflower setting up how their settlement would govern itself
Declaration of Independence—document outlining England’s abuses of power and declaring the American colonies’ independence from the British Empire
Revolutionary War—war fought by American colonists for independence from Britain, 1775–1783.
Continental Congress—organization of representatives from the 13 American colonies that issued the Declaration of Independence in 1776
U.S. Constitution—founding document of the U.S. government
Bill of Rights—first 10 amendments or additions to the U.S. Constitution
The formation of the United States government was highly influenced by the philosophers of the 1600s and 1700s. These philosophers emphasized the importance of individual rights, popular sovereignty (consent of the governed), and the rule of law over the arbitrary rule of monarchs.
With these federalist concerns in mind, the writers of the U.S. Constitution designed the structure of the federal government. This document establishes three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. These three branches are coequal, meaning that the power within each one is equal to the others. This separation of powers ensures that authority is never concentrated in the hands of one person or body. Let’s explore each branch more thoroughly and then see how they interact.
The executive branch of the U.S. government includes the president, elected by the people to serve as head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, the vice president, and the cabinet, which consists of the department heads appointed by the president. The powers of the executive branch include signing bills into law, vetoing bills, nominating federal judges and Supreme Court justices, issuing pardons, and making treaties.
The legislative branch is charged with making laws. It is a bicameral branch of government, meaning that there are two chambers of the legislature or Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives. While both the Senate and the House propose, debate, and vote on bills that may or may not become laws, there are some key differences between them: The Senate has 100 members, 2 from each state, elected in statewide elections to serve 6-year terms. The House of Representatives totals 435 members, elected by constituents or voters in their home districts, meaning the number of representatives per state varies by population. Representatives serve 2-year terms.
The process of making a law is long and complicated: an idea may originate in either chamber of Congress (the Senate or the House); it then goes to a committee to be developed; if it makes it through the committee, the Senate or the House will discuss and vote on it; if it passes one chamber, it must go on to the other one for the same process; if it passes both chambers, the bill arrives at the president’s desk for a signature, but the executive may decide to veto, and then it would take a two-thirds majority of Congress to vote the bill into law.
In addition to introducing laws and overriding a presidential veto, the legislative branch has the power to coin and borrow money, declare war, and impeach or remove a president.
The judicial branch is charged with interpreting laws. It consists of U.S. district courts and the Supreme Court, the highest court in the nation. These courts decide whether or not a law or action goes against the principles written in the Constitution; if a law or action is declared unconstitutional, then it will be struck down. Decisions in the lower federal courts can be appealed all the way up to the Supreme Court, which will first decide whether they will hear the case or not. Supreme Court rulings are the final word on laws or actions that they review. There are 9 Supreme Court justices, nominated by the president, confirmed by the Senate, appointed to serve for life. The uneven number ensures that there cannot be a split decision; there will always be a majority opinion held by at least one more justice than the dissenting opinion in a case.
The powers of the judicial branch—interpreting the meaning of laws and declaring them unconstitutional—are critical in the system of checks and balances within the separation of powers in the U.S. government. The legislative branch can make a law and the president can take an executive action, but the Supreme Court can decide if a law or action can stand or if it is unconstitutional. The president may reject a bill passed by the legislature, but Congress may still vote to override a presidential veto. The executive branch can nominate justices to the Court, but they must be approved by the legislative branch. Congress can also impeach a president, who can be removed from office by a vote in the Senate. These checks and balances prevent the concentration and abuse of power through interactions between the 3 branches.
Try the following question.
The following image is a political cartoon from 1833 featuring President Andrew Jackson.
1. The cartoonist most likely wishes to convey the idea that
A. Andrew Jackson comes from royal lineage.
B. the executive branch can disrupt the system of checks and balances by overusing the veto.
C. President Jackson should be praised for his decisive leadership.
D. the president opposes Congress’s use of the veto.
Here’s How to Crack It
Andrew Jackson is declared a king who is stomping on the Constitution, all the while holding a scroll that says “veto.” This shows that the cartoonist sees Jackson as ignoring the Constitution and using the veto to overreach executive power. Therefore, (B) is correct. Choice (A) is wrong because it takes the symbolism of this political cartoon too literally. The cartoon is quite critical toward Jackson’s approach, so (C) would not make sense. Choice (D) is incorrect because Congress does not have the power to use a veto.
individual rights—protections that make sure individuals do not suffer from the interference of the government or other people
popular sovereignty—principle that the authority of government comes from the people agreeing to be governed
federalism—sharing power between national (federal) government and states
executive—branch of government with the power to execute laws
legislative—branch of government with the power to make laws
judicial—branch of government with the power to interpret laws
coequal—equal with one another in importance, describes the 3 branches of U.S. government
separation of powers—division of executive, legislative, and judicial powers into different bodies of government
president—elected head of state
vice president—executive ranking below the president
cabinet—appointed heads of departments who advise the executive
bicameral—two chambers, describes U.S. Congress
Congress—the legislative or law-making body of U.S. government
Senate—100-member body of lawmakers elected by people in their states
House of Representatives—435-member body of lawmakers elected by people in their home districts
constituent—a voter, part of the voting population represented by an elected official
committee—a group charged with a specific duty
veto—rejection of a decision or proposal
impeachment—the process of charging a government official with wrongdoing
Supreme Court—the highest federal court in the U.S. whose decisions become the standard
unconstitutional—contrary to the principles of the Constitution and thus not allowed
majority opinion—the opinion that most justices agree to and thus the Supreme Court’s decision
dissenting opinion—the opinion that disagrees with the majority in a Supreme Court ruling
checks and balances—system that allows the interactions between branches of U.S. government to prevent too much power in any one branch
You can check your answers in Part VIII: Answer Key to Drills.
1. Click on the power below that the U.S. Constitution grants to the executive branch of government.
2. Which of the following is a difference between the Senate and the House of Representatives?
A. The number of representatives in the House varies with population, while the Senate remains constant.
B. Members of the Senate are older than members of the House.
C. The House of Representatives deals with local issues not federal laws.
D. The Senate can make laws without a signature from the president.
Question 3 refers to Article I, Section 7, of the U.S. Constitution.
…Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law.
3. The process outlined in this section of the Constitution is
A. how a president is removed from office.
B. how a law that is unconstitutional can be changed.
C. how a law is introduced in Congress.
D. how a bill is made a law.
In addition to making laws, Congress can propose amendments, changes or additions, to the Constitution. Amendments are rare—there are currently only 27—in part because they are difficult to make happen: first, two-thirds of Congress (both the Senate and House) have to vote for it; then three-fourths of state legislatures (or special conventions) must sign off on it.
The first 10 amendments, also called the Bill of Rights because they protect many individual liberties, came about during the process of ratifying the Constitution itself. These amendments include freedom of speech, religion, the press, and assembly; the right to bear arms; protections for suspected, accused, and convicted persons throughout the legal process; and unlisted rights kept by the people and the states.
Amendments were used to extend the rights of citizens to those recently freed during the Reconstruction period after the Civil War: the 13th amendment abolished slavery, the 14th amendment made citizenship a native-born right and granted all U.S. citizens equal protection under the law, and the 15th amendment outlawed racial discimination in voting, so that black men could have the right to vote.
Women won the right to vote by pushing for the 19th amendment, ratified in 1920. And the protests of young activists during the Vietnam War led to a lowered voting age of 18 (26th Amendment).
Amendments are considered equal parts of the Constitution, which is the document that the Supreme Court uses to make decisions. Justices interpret the meaning of what is written in the context of the cases that they hear, but also consider the broader implications of the principles that are at stake.
For example, in the case of Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that when a defendant cannot afford a lawyer, the court must provide one, since representation is key to a fair trial, which is a right secured by the 6th Amendment. The Court’s ruling in Texas v. Johnson (1989) involved interpreting the 1st Amendment to conclude that even offensive speech (in this case, burning an American flag) is protected speech.
The Supreme Court played a large role in the history of civil rights. In Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), the Court ruled that a law requiring separate streetcars for whites and blacks did not violate a person’s constitutional right to equal protection of the law (14th Amendment) as long as the cars were “separate but equal.” This phrase established the legal status of segregation across public facilities and services. In 1954, the ruling in Brown v. Board of Education reversed this decision; when considering racial segregation in public schools, all justices agreed that separate is inherently unequal, making racial segregation laws unconstitutional. When Southern institutions refused to integrate, another Supreme Court decision (Cooper v. Aaron, 1958) stated that states must follow the rulings of federal courts.
The first voters in the United States were white, property-owning men. As the country was expanding westward in the 1830s, the right to vote was extended to include those farmers who did not own their own land. Black men were still excluded until after the Civil War when the 15th Amendment was passed. Still, women could not vote until the 19th Amendment in 1920.
These amendments changed the Constitution, but they did not change certain practices that continued to deny the right to vote to Southern blacks and the poor. Poll taxes, which charged a person to vote, were not abolished until the 24th Amendment in 1962. Violence and intimidation, irregularities at polling places, and literacy tests continued to discourage black voters from exercising their right until the protections of the Voting Rights Act of 1964.
Today, all U.S. citizens over the age of 18 who have proper state requirements (identification, registration, and no felony restrictions) can vote.
Elections at the local and state levels are decided by popular vote, the total number of individual votes within a constituency. (Senators have been elected directly by popular election since the 17th Amendment in 1913.)
Presidential elections run differently: the president (and vice president) are not elected directly by citizens, but by electors through a process called the Electoral College.
The Electoral College, which was created in the Constitution, is like a compromise between a popular vote by the people and a vote in Congress: states are assigned numbers of electors in proportion to their populations, and when a candidate wins the majority of individual votes in a state, they win the electoral votes for that state. There are a total of 538 electoral votes available, which is equal to the representation in Congress of 100 Senators and 435 Representatives, plus 3 votes for the District of Columbia (D.C.). A candidate who wins the majority of electoral votes (over half, or 270) wins the election, regardless of the popular vote. In recent elections, 2000 and 2016, the candidate who won the popular vote did not win the presidency.
Elected officials may pass laws, but those laws are enforced by the executive branch through federal agencies. Federal agencies belong to executive departments, the primary units of the executive branch. The president appoints secretaries to head each department (the Department of State, the Department of Justice, and so on) and thereby oversees the execution of all federal laws and policies.
The GED® test may also ask questions that involve the political process from other angles. For instance, you should be familiar with the function of political parties, which are organizations composed of people with similar ideologies that seek to get like-minded candidates elected and pass laws consistent with their ideologies. Another influential political actor is an interest group. Interest groups represent a cause, a group of people, or even an industry. They attempt to get officials elected or laws passed that support their respective causes, groups, or industries.
Let’s try a question.
The following chart describes the United States constitutional amendment process:
1. It is NOT possible for an amendment to be passed without the input of 
Here’s How to Crack It
Since both methods of proposal involve Congress in some respect, it is not possible for an amendment to be passed without its input. Therefore, Congress is the correct answer. The president is not officially involved at all in the process. State legislatures can be avoided with proposal option 1 and ratification option 2. “State conventions” is incorrect because they are involved only in ratification option 2.
amendment—change or addition to the Constitution, made by two-thirds majority vote in Congress and three quarters of states
Bill of Rights—first 10 amendments of the Constitution, protecting many individual rights
appeal—to ask a higher court to hear a case that has been decided
judicial review—procedure in the Supreme Court of considering whether a preexisting law is constitutional or not
Plessy v. Ferguson—Supreme Court case establishing the legal status of segregation
“separate but equal”—doctrine justifying racial segregation
Brown v. Board of Education—Supreme Court case making segregation illegal
poll tax—a voting fee used to limit the right to vote until eliminated
polling place—location assigned to a person for casting his or her vote
literacy test—assessment of a person’s ability to read and write, used to discriminate against voters until outlawed
popular vote—total count of individual votes that expresses the people’s choice in an election
constituency—body of people who are represented by an elected official
elector—a voting member of the Electoral College
Electoral College—a body of people assigned to states based on population, who formally elect the U.S. president and vice president
electoral vote—vote formally cast by an elector or the total count of electoral votes that expresses the choice of president in an election
federal agencies—government organizations that enforce laws
executive department—federal office that oversees the execution of laws and policies, led by a member of the president’s cabinet
political party—group of people who organize to support an agenda and candidates for election
interest group—group of people who organize around a common interest and aim to influence public policy
You can check your answers in Part VIII: Answer Key to Drills.
Question 1 refers to the following information.
1. Which of the following could prevent a U.S. citizen from voting in 1950?
A. identity as a woman
B. unable to afford to vote
C. age of 21 years
D. slave ancestry
Question 2 refers to the text of the 1st Amendment.
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
2. Which of the following is NOT protected by the 1st amendment?
A. an individual’s religious identity
B. an individual’s right to bear arms
C. a newspaper’s right to quote a source
D. a peaceful protest
3. “Laws permitting, and even requiring, their separation in places where they are liable to be brought into contact do not necessarily imply the inferiority of either race to the other, and have been generally, if not universally, recognized as within the competency of State Legislatures in the exercise of their police power. The most common instance of this is connected with the establishment of separate schools for white and colored children, which has been held to be a valid exercise of legislative power.”
—Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896)
The above quote best exemplifies which of the following ideas?
A. civil rights and racial equality
B. separation of powers
C. racism
D. separate but equal