It has recently been discovered that research causes cancer in rats.
Pioneering research continues to unravel ways in which humor and learning are linked. Two kinds of mice are providing increasingly detailed information about the role of the emotions in the learning process. These "mouse droppings" provide powerful incentives to take a fresh look at humor as a significant factor in the learning process.
The future of humor research and related fields involves complex processes for looking at the brain and reviewing the results from a variety of devices including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) (Fry, 2002). Humor appreciation is a complex information-processing task incorporating mechanisms of pattern recognition, categorization, meaningful search, and emotionality (Fry, 2002). Humor is difficult to study. This chapter will include a review of studies that do not specifically mention humor but examine related research like positive emotions, well-being, and happiness. I believe that the potpourri of ideas will give some indication of the complexity of the task and some foundational knowledge about the impact of humor on living.
Technology does provide some mesmerizing data on what positivity (including humor) looks like in the brain. Machines are able to measure variations in chemical composition, blood flow, and electromagnetic fields. This technology has dramatically advanced the ability of brain scientists to provide clinical applications. The research on humor shows that the chemical reactions that occur during laughter are complex, which affirms that what is known about humor and cognition is primitive at best. The quest for knowledge linking the positive emotions and learning can be compared to a mouse in a maze looking for the cheesy humor. It will be a long journey! Please note that the research on laughter and humor is still in the preliminary stages and there is much debate about the implications of the research that is mentioned in this chapter.
Funny, isn't it? Humor has not even been on the radar screen of most researchers until recently. Following the trail of mouse droppings has been a pioneering adventure. However, there are several pellets that make the case for developing a sense of humor to maximize living. This chapter will examine the research on the role of emotions in fear, stress, and depression including a look at what can be inferred from current research on how humor can:
I have long been fascinated with neuroscience and how humans learn. Several key points are emphasized in this section. Brain research is in its infancy. Only recently has technology been in existence to let scientists "see" the brain. As the pioneers in neuroscience and information explore both the biological sciences and brain imaging technology, it is evident that humor is a significant factor in the way people approach living! Humor does maximize living, and brain science is underscoring this in research study after research study.
What do you remember from second grade (Figure 3.1)? Think about your most vivid memory. Chances are that it is tied to a pretty strong emotion. I remember being put in the coat closet (yes, that is what we had back then) for talking too much. I was really angry, as it was not my fault and I was scared to tell my parents. I remember it being smelly and dark in there. My strong feelings put this memory into my long-term memory. I do not remember much else from second grade. I would bet that your memories of grade school are linked to equally strong emotions.
A little girl had just finished her first week of school. "I'm just wasting my time," she said to her mother. "I can't read, I can't write and they won't let me talk!"
An overview of the research confirms that humor is a complex process involving the emotional being. This research on emotions provides the essential foundation necessary for humor studies. Emotion is an unconscious arousal system that helps to alert the brain to potential dangers as well as opportunities. The emotions identify the dynamics of challenge and activate the problem-solving systems to respond. Almost everything humans do begins with the complex processing system of emotion (Sylwester, 2005).
Learning must go through the brain's emotional filter, so memories are composed of experiences that are linked to strong emotions. Thus, emotional memory is a critical component for the learning process. These emotions are either positively or negatively linked.
Emotional well-being is dependent on the ability to be mindful of emotional state. Part of humor practice, which is detailed in Chapter 5, is making a conscious effort to be aware of feelings. Positive psychology sometimes refers to this practice as being mindful. Some people keep a daily gratitude journal so they can focus on their positive emotions and strengthen those neural pathways.
Our friend the imaging mouse drops the information that much of the activity of humor occurs in the frontal lobes of the brain. The frontal lobes are the problem-solving, decision-making, action-initiating, paired lobes in the front part of the cerebral cortex (Sylwester, 2005). The frontal lobes recognize incongruities or discrepancies between the predicted developments and what actually occurs.
All of the senses are designed to go on high alert when observing unusual patterns in the field of vision because the human stress-driven reflective response system is designed to detect anything that might inflict harm. If what occurs is what is expected, the brain does not take notice. However, without effective internal coping strategies, if what occurs is unexpected and negative (danger), a distrustful state of fear, pessimism, anger, and so forth emerges. Conversely, if what occurs is unexpected and positive (opportunity) and resources are available to respond effectively, humans move into a state of joy—becoming happy, optimistic, and so forth. Memory is strongly linked to positive or negative emotions.
The emotions are a critical force in the learning process. According to Antonio R. Damasio, "emotion is a very adaptive form of physiological response, and it regulates our lives." He states that emotion is part of the reasoning and decision-making process and is critical to learning and memory. Our very survival depends upon the emotions as part of our regulatory system (Damasio, 1999). Sylwester (1995) says, "Emotions drive attention, attention drives learning."
Candice Pert (1997), a pioneer in cellular research, hypothesizes that emotions exist in every cell of the body. She actually started investigating neuro-peptides when she read Norman Cousins's work Anatomy of an Illness (1979). Her research explores the brain chemicals of mood and behavior and how they communicate with the immune system, and she was interested in Cousins's theory that endorphins are the key to the healing power of laughter. Her theory is that because emotions exist in every cell in the body and not just in the brain, when a strong emotion emerges, it is felt in the entire body. Although there is some controversy about this theory, there is no doubt that emotions play a vital role in attention, memory, and learning. They also impact day-today emotional well-being.
If there were a mouse in the corner of your workplace or at your family gatherings, what emotions would be observed among your family and colleagues? Would there be joy with positive interactions? Is there anger, fear, or resentment? Does the energy and mood change frequently?
Since fear can and does immediately activate the reflective response system of the brain, it has long been used to manipulate behavior within organizations. This controlling tactic is evident in many systems, including the workplace. The fear of evaluations or confrontations with the boss, the fear of being assigned additional or difficult responsibilities, and the fear of not getting a raise are widespread fear-based factors in the workplace. Both employers and employees must frequently navigate the emotional minefield of fear-based emotions in business. Do take a close look at the emotion of fear in order to better understand humor.
Fear is the most powerful emotion. It has the primary purpose of protecting us from harm. Humans are programmed to pay attention to fear because this emotion alerts the brain if safety is threatened. Fear has been the focus of considerable cognitive research. Imaging technology makes it relatively easy to locate fear in the amygdala and hippocampus regions of the brain. Fear signals danger and immediately alerts the brain to pay attention.
While this fear is critical to survival, it is tempting to use this emotional reaction to control the actions of others. Humans live within societies driven by fear. Excess fear causes chronic stress. This stress is killing us (Sapolsky, 1999)!
If you want to read an eye-opening account of what this stress can look like in the brain, check out my friend and colleague Dr. Earl Henslin's book This Is Your Brain on Joy (2008). Henslin works at Amen Clinics in California, which has the mission of helping people with distressed brains to find balance. These clinics use sophisticated imaging technology to discover how to improve brain functions (Figure 3.2). I am grateful to Dr. Henslin for permission to use these images to share the contrast between a peaceful brain and an anxious or stressed brain.
In his book, Henslin explores the impact that lifestyle has on brain health and proceeds to share numerous brain scans and information. Please note the figure and compare a "joyful, peaceful" brain with one that is in emotional pain. As you can see, the patterns that emerge depict quite a contrast. The areas where fear and sadness are located pop out in the second image, the one on the right side. Thanks to imaging technology, you can actually see a visual of the activity in our brains (Henslin, 2008). Again, a word of caution—scientists are in the infancy of learning what these brain scans mean, but the information that is gathered is showing great promise for those who work with patients who are stressed, addicted, or depressed.
Joy is a terrible thing to waste.
Another person who has identified humor in the brain through imaging fMRI scans is Rita Carter (2009). When showing cartoons to subjects, images of the areas activated by the first frame of a cartoon include activity in the temporal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the cerebellum. When an expectation is subverted (surprise factor), the amygdala becomes active. Studies on the humor that arise from unconnected ideas between coworkers suggest to Carter that keeping workers laughing may "jump-start" their creative juices. She suggests that humor forces people to attend to distractions, making them more receptive to new information. Humor elevates the brain's "reward" circuit. This elevates circulating levels of dopamine, which is linked to motivation and the anticipation of pleasure (Carter, 2009).
Our brain is wired to notice unusual movement and abnormal activity. This information is filtered by the reflexive response system of the brain and alerts it to possible danger. This same system also feels relief if the danger is nonexistent. This feeling of relief is often what triggers humor, so humor is a tool that can be used by the reflexive response center of the brain that monitors the environment for fear. When the brain discovers there is no danger, the surprise brings relief that often generates laughter and humor. Thus humor can provide the tools needed to cope with fear and stress.
Posts on the positive psychology listserv include those by Martin Seligman, who has written a new book, Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being. He describes well-being with the acronym PERMA, with five measurable elements:
Seligman says that no one of these elements by itself depicts well-being, but all contribute to it and are needed. These are all based on perceived strengths. According to Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman in Character Strengths and Virtues (2004), humor does include playful recognition and enjoyment of incongruity, which includes a cheerful view of the light side of adversity and the ability to make others smile and laugh. The values in action (VIA) inventory of strengths includes humor and playfulness as one of twenty-four character strengths. In the description of correlates and consequences, best established are the conclusions that humor is linked to good disposition and that it buffers the effects on mood of life pressures and hassles (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).
A request on the positive psychology listserv for further information on humor and positive psychology was met with a referral to Willibald Ruch. He has done extensive research on humor and exhilaration along with numerous other related works. One Ruch study involved writing a humor diary modeled on the gratitude diary, in which a person writes what they are grateful for each day. People were encouraged to write the funniest three things that happened to them that day. This intervention was shown to increase life satisfaction and decrease depression and still had an effect three months later (Ruch, Proyer & Weber, 2010).
Excess fear causes stress. There is mounting scientific evidence that suggests that excess stress has an adverse impact on learning. Yet, according to many teachers, children are exposed to stress at escalating rates. There has been increased high-stakes testing in schools, and many districts have implemented paper-and-pencil testing for students as young as four and five years old. Numerous schools are testing kindergarten children three times a year on a computer. There has been an increasing pressure to focus on what has mandated assessment (reading and math) at the expense of the arts, physical education, and play. Grades are considered extremely important and actually have been found to drive most students' learning instead of the desire to learn.
On the first day of school, a first-grader handed his teacher a note from his mother. The note read, "The opinions expressed by this child are not necessarily those of his parents."
A look at some of the research heightens awareness of the possible dangers that excess stress creates for both students and teachers. Although there are no firm conclusions, some of the recent theories on the relationship between stress, depression, memory, and learning are intriguing.
An impoverished and stressful childhood may diminish learning by having a negative impact on the medial temporal memory of a child. Prenatal stress and the stress that comes from living in poverty have been found to have a negative impact on neurological development and subsequent ability to learn (Farah, Noble, & Hurt, 2005).
Human beings all encounter certain amounts of stress, and while stress has a bad reputation, some stress is good for us. It keeps the brain alert to danger and creates the energy needed to face challenges. The source of most stress is in the brain itself (Mellin, 2010). Mellin identifies three things that people who are stressed often do. When stressed, people often seek pleasure responses that are not healthy. She identifies these "not so healthy" responses as things you "acquire, ingest or inject."
Pleasure really comes from "the desire to be of service, to do good." A brain that is stuck in stress produces an excess of stress hormones including cortisol. This stress becomes cumulative, and in time what was designed to protect you from stress can actually become a magnet for symptoms. The goal, according to Mellin, is to reverse the allostatic load by using simple tools that give you the capacity to achieve a state of joy. Instead of tolerating stressed-out feelings, you identify your level of stress and choose a tool to switch your brain to a state of well-being. Mellin describes the goal as being to actually rewire the brain to increase the joy circuits. She discusses joy as a brain state that is similar to humergy.
National Geographic has produced a revealing DVD called Stress: Portrait of a Killer (2008). It features numerous researchers, including Robert Sapolsky, who extensively studied stress in apes in Africa. By living with these primates and taking their blood samples, he determined that stress can lead to actual negative physiological consequences. Sapolsky found that the impact of stress is found deep within us, shrinking our brains, adding fat to our bellies, and even unraveling our chromosomes. Stress is measurable and can be downright dangerous (National Geographic, 2008).
Excess fear might lead to actual memory loss. Sapolsky conducted a mesmerizing study examining the brains of World War II veterans who had survived intense trauma during the war. He found that the hippocampus of these men was usually smaller than that of nonveterans in the same age category. He noted an actual loss of part of the hippocampus in these veterans as well as a resulting memory loss (Sapolsky, 1999). Current studies corroborate this relationship between excess stress, damage to the hippocampus, and subsequent memory loss, but no firm conclusions can be made yet.
Overuse or misuse of the reflexive response system can escalate simple anger and assertiveness into reflexive physical aggression. Some people constantly live in an insecure, fearful environment, producing a learned helplessness response (Sylwester, 2005). Often people just give up when they feel they have no control over their environment. "A reflexive stress response occurs unconsciously, and so reduces our ability to create factual memories" (Sylwester, 2005).
Lee Berk and Stanley Tan both gave presentations at the 2011 AATH conference based on their research. They reported that laugher stimulates the immune system and counteracts stress by lowering serum cortisol levels, increasing the amount of activated T-lymphocytes, and increasing the number and activity of natural killer cells (Berk & Tan, 1997). Both have been involved in numerous studies on the impact of laughter on stress. Berk has published a memorable poster that summarizes the research studies that have been conducted on joyful or mirthful laughter. This type of laughter is considered a positive stress (eustress) with a complex physiology that involves brain, hormone, and immune system interconnections that lead to potential benefits on health and wellness. As Berk shares through his presentations, the science of psychoneuroimmunology provides strong scientific evidence of the interconnectedness that everyday lifestyle behaviors and emotions have on modulating the physiological mechanisms.
I have been to a lot of places, but I've never been in Cahoots. Apparently you can't go alone. You have to be in Cahoots with someone. I've also never been in Cognito, either. I hear no one recognizes you there. I have, however, been in Sane. They don't have an airport; you have to be driven there. I have made several trips—thanks to friends and family. I would like to go to Conclusions, but you have to jump. . . . I'm not much on physical activity.
There is hope for depression. A team of researchers at Washington State University has been researching the underlying causes of depression. Over the last decade, there has been an increasing awareness that depression stems from more than just a shortage in brain chemicals like serotonin. Scientists have recently discovered that the disorder is also linked to malfunctions in brain "circuitry—the intricate pathways by which neurons communicate in the brain. Panksepp believes that depression is tied to three main brain circuit disorders. "You can make the case for opioids as well as the dynorphin or glutamate systems," Panksepp said (Panksepp, Dong, Wayman, & Guerra, 2009).
Pharmaceuticals are not the only option for reversing brain degeneration associated with depression. Studies show that exercise, for example, can in some cases be as effective for reducing depression as medication.
When you enrich a rat's environment with play, interaction and toys, the neurons in the hippocampus bloom and generate more synapses. The rats become smarter and learn more quickly. BDNF levels increase too. (Panksepp, Dong, Wayman, & Guerra, 2009)
Wayman and Panksepp are using play as a model to determine if play experiences early in life can protect against depression later in adulthood (Panksepp, Dong, Wayman, & Guerra, 2009).
Dong looks at dynorphin, which is a naturally occurring brain opiate related to the endorphins and enkephalins that are responsible for producing "runner's high." But instead of promoting euphoria, dynorphin makes people feel dysphoric—grumpy and unhappy. Dynorphin receptors are deeply concentrated in a circuit called the "brain reward pathway (BRP)," which is activated after pleasurable events, "like a good meal." From his research on heroin and cocaine addiction, Dong hypothesizes that dynorphin "hijacks" the BRP, causing an individual to feel despondent (Panksepp, Dong, Wayman, & Guerra, 2009).
Wayman has researched brain circuitry to identify genes that directly regulate those pathways and contribute to the development of depression. One pathway he is investigating involves brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)—an important substance for ordinary brain development. "During major depressive disorder, BDNF levels crash in several areas of the brain—such as the hippocampus, which is important for learning, memory and emotional processing" (Panksepp, Dong, Wayman, & Guerra, 2009).
Wayman goes on to explain that when BDNF levels diminish, the hippocampus shrinks and nerves alter structurally. The dendritic processes at the end of nerves lose their spines and wither. This damage impairs the capacity of nerves to communicate and dispatch impulses through the synapses. So the power of play might be an alternative "medication" for depression. As mentioned in Chapter 2, play has a powerful beneficial impact on the brain and on the development of positive emotions. Play usually induces laughter, revitalizing the body with the humergy of renewed energy and joy.
People who are prone to depression may secrete more cortisol during a stressful time. There may also be decreased prefrontal cortex activity, causing moody and negative behavior. Depressed people have trouble concentrating. Symptoms of depression also include deteriorating efficiency, sloppy work, numerous sick days, verbal outbursts, and social rejection (Sylwester, 2005).
Depression should not be overlooked when it comes to its impact on productivity. "It is not possible to explain either the disease or its treatment based solely on levels of neurotransmitters," says neurobiologist Ronald Duman (Duman, Malberg, & Thome, 1999).
There is evidence that indicates that recurrent depression is in fact a neuro-degenerative disorder, disrupting the structure and function of brain cells—destroying nerve cell connections, even killing certain brain cells, and precipitating cognitive decline. At the very least, depression sets up neural roadblocks to the processing of information and keeps us from adaptively responding to whatever challenges life throws our way (Estroff, 1999).
David Granirer is the founder of Stand Up for Mental Health, a project teaching stand-up comedy to people with mental illness. He has taught individuals with depression, cancer, and addictions. His success is inspiring. He believes negative emotions can be the key to happiness. If a person takes his or her negative emotions and creates comedy about it, it can lead to healing. Humor is a powerful tool to accept and learn from dysfunctions. You can read a bit more about David's novel program in Chapter 6. Humor and laughter can be the first drugs of choice for depression. More and more therapists are being trained to use laughter therapy in treating people with depression.
Do not disturb! I am disturbed enough already!
How does humor enhance learning? The humor elements of learning are grouped here into the metaphor of "hook, line, and sinker." These are described as tools that can fill the "learner's tackle box" (see Figure 3.3):
How do you activate the hook, line, and sinker tools in your tackle box? Hook it with humor. Cast in the line of practice and repetition, and sink information into long-term memory with feedback and reflection.
The process described in this metaphor involves a purposeful and determined use of humor for the purpose of memory retention. Humor has the power to capture attention (hook), manipulate this information in the working memory (line), and become a part of the automatic response system (sinker).
The brain is hardwired to familiar patterns. Driving and solving a math problem become routine with practice. Over time, repetitious daily activity follows established habits of behavior. As previously mentioned, fear protects from danger. In order to do this, the brain is alerted to a pattern disruption or any surprise element. Fear serves as a protective device when something out of the ordinary is observed. This surprise component is what provides the opportunity to effectively use humor in the teaching and learning process because humor usually contains an element of surprise.
Surprise defies the brain's predictions and expectations. When someone acts out of the ordinary or when something unusual happens, the brain pays attention. It is often recommended in implementing differentiation strategies that teachers change state every ten to fifteen minutes to "wake up" the attentional center of the brain. This change of state assists the learners who may have difficulty paying attention. A humor hook is perfect bait for the learner's tackle box. If you want to learn something, do try to find the humor in it!
The hook is followed with a line, a direct connection that links past experiences with the new information. The emotional memory is strong. Humor can be used to activate the brain by linking to the emotional context of humor, thus finding the information that needs to be remembered. This humor context can be attained through repetition and practice. These are the critical components in creating strong lines or neural pathways to the long-term memory. Neurons that fire together wire together. Practice and repetition condition the brain to form pathways that will become hardwired. These neural connections streamline the learning process. Learning is quicker, more automatic, and more efficient when pathways in the brain are frequently traveled.
The more humor that is interjected into the learning process (instead of boring rote stuff), the more likely learners will want to repeat the information and strengthen the neural pathway. A strong line is dependent on frequent usage. If it's fun, it will be practiced.
Several authors of the neuroscience literature detail strategies for using feedback and reflection as tools for sinking the information into long-term memory and ensuring recall (Jones, 2003). Humor can be used to assist when knowledge is accessed. Again, the more humor links (emotional memory) provided for the brain, the better chance there will be for recalling information. Reflection is another opportunity to use humor, and it can be a powerful tool for subsequent memory recall. Other powerful sinker techniques are summary, assessment, and authentic assessment (performing a real life task).
So humor has the power to capture attention (hook). If you manipulate this information through practice and repetition in the working memory (line), it becomes a part of the automatic response system (sinker) with feedback and reflection. The frequency of humor implemented at any of these points improves the probability that the emotional memory will be found and the learner will remember the information.
Many teachers informally use humor as an integral part of teaching for memory retention and recall. However, what is suggested here is a purposeful use of humor applied to what is already known from cognitive research.
Enid Schwartz has spent years developing courses for medical personnel on humor. She now teaches her course "Humor in Health Care" online. Her groundbreaking work includes cartoons in the text of her book along with jokes, quips, and quotes throughout the text (Schwartz, 2010). She shares how she uses humor online. She purposefully injects humor into every aspect of the curriculum. Many appreciate her willingness to try laughter online!
Learning is not just for school. Healthy adults are usually lifelong learners. A focus on productive, active learning is associated with extended healthy living. It is important as aging occurs to continue to find ways to challenge the adult brain towards new and different ways of learning. Check out my original book for details on more research on humor and learning (Morrison, 2008).
I'm having amnesia and déjà vu at the same time. I'm sure I've forgotten this before.
Developing positive relationships with colleagues is one of the greatest benefits of humor. Laughter is a visible sign of humor in action and reflects the social side of humor. Why do humans laugh? When do you laugh? What connection does laughter have to humor? Robert Provine, in his book Laughter, a Scientific Investigation (2000), makes it clear that it is difficult to research humor because of the variety of definitions and vague terminology. However, laughter is observable, and "because laughter is unplanned and uncensored, it is a powerful probe into social relationships" (Provine, 2000).
While laughter is generally thought to be an expression of humor or comedy, it is observed most often during social interactions with others and does not necessarily result from jokes or funny stories. Provine uses the term sidewalk science, which he says is a low-tech approach to brain and behavior research based on everyday experience. His observations of human laughter and an analysis of subsequent recorded conversations are the basis for his interpretation that laughter can be considered a distinct vocalization that usually occurs during positive social interactions (Provine, 2000).
Philosopher John Morreall (1997) speculates that human laughter may have its biological origins as a shared expression of relief at the ending of danger. The relaxation felt after laughing may help inhibit the fight-or-flight response, making laughter a behavioral sign of trust in one's companions.
Laughter is a part of human behavior regulated by the brain. It helps humans clarify their intentions in social interaction and provides an emotional context for conversations. Laughter is used as a signal for being part of a group—it signals acceptance and positive interactions. Laughter is sometimes contagious; the laughter of one person can provoke laughter from others. This may account for the popularity of laugh tracks in situation comedy television shows. Imaging studies reveal that the limbic system is involved in laughter. The limbic system is a primitive part of the brain that is involved in emotions and helps us with basic functions necessary for survival. Two structures in the limbic system are involved in producing laughter: the amygdala and the hippocampus (Morreall, 1997).
The Rotman Research Institute at the University of Toronto released the first study to show that the frontal lobe plays a prominent role in the ability to appreciate humor. The study, led by Prathiba Shammi, measured responses to jokes and cartoons. Half of the study group had injury to the prefrontal lobes caused by stroke, tumor, or surgical removal. The responses of this group were compared to a control group similar in age, gender, and education. The study found that damage to the right anterior frontal lobe was disruptive to the ability to appreciate jokes and cartoons (Shammi, 1999).
Peter Derks conducted a study of laughter using electrodes attached to the brain. The electricity observed in the entire cerebral cortex indicated that most of the brain is actively engaged during laughter. Laughter can be just a simple physical response to the nonhumorous stimulus of tickling, while positive social interactions usually evoke a smile, laugh, or chuckle and can be thought of as eliciting the laughter response (Derks, 1997).
There have been several studies of the benefits of laughter. Some research indicates that laughter increases adrenaline, oxygen flow, and pulse rate. After laughter, many people report feeling more relaxed and calm. Laughter can be observed in relationships with another person or with several others. The relatively new research on mirror neurons suggests that the brain has a basic mirroring response to emotional actions.
When parents conceive a child, their combined genetic information provides the developing embryo with the necessary body-building directions—such as gender identity, nose placement, and skin color. After the child is born, parents and others must provide cultural information about how to live in a complex social environment. They provide this mentoring through language and the brain's remarkable, recently discovered mirror neuron system.
The renowned neuroscientist V. S. Ramachandran suggested at the turn of the twenty-first century that the discovery of mirror neurons might provide the same powerful unifying framework for the understanding of teaching and learning that the 1953 discovery of DNA did for the understanding of genetics. Recent developments suggest that his prediction might be correct. Ramachandran goes on to say,
When we observe someone yawn, it activates the brain's yawning system. Adults typically override the tendency and stifle the yawn—but if we stick out our tongue at an infant who is only a few hours old, it's probable that she will immediately reciprocate, even though she had never before stuck out her tongue (or even had any conscious awareness of her tongue). Her observation of our behavior will automatically activate the mirror neurons that regulate her tongue movements. Since she has a zillion movements to learn and therefore no reason to stifle the action, her mirror neurons will activate the motor neurons that project her tongue. Similarly, smile and she'll smile. Clap your hands and she'll clap her hands. It's like monkey see, monkey do in childhood. (quoted in Sylwester, 2006)
Research on mirror neurons as related to humor and laughter has been fascinating to study. Laughter is contagious. When someone laughs, even if the situation is not funny, it is easy to join in the laughing. How do the mirror neurons figure into this? The contagious character of laughter is caused by mirror neurons found in brain cells that become active when an organism is watching an expression or behavior that they can do. When you see someone laughing, even if you don't know what is causing the laughter, you will probably laugh too. The imitative behavior is caused by mirror neurons being activated (Miller, 2010).
All creatures must learn to coexist. That's why the brown bear and the field mouse can share their lives in harmony. Of course, they can't mate or the mice would explode.
One of my favorite "mouse droppings" involves the impact of different cage environments on rats. (See Figure 3.4.) Could positive experiences change the actual physical structure of the brain? Rats were put in three different environments. The first rats were loners raised in dark isolation with only food and water. The second set was raised with other rats in a small but social group. The third group of rats was treated to a condition called environmental complexity. These fortunate rats lived in colonies of twelve with toys and frequent stimulation from the scientists. These lucky rats did indeed have larger brain mass and performed better on problem-solving maze tasks. A subsequent study (Volkmar & Greenough, 19720) found that the brains of rats in the wild had the most neural connections, which might lead someone to ask if schools are just cages with toys and friends!
Since personalities emerge from genetics and emotionally stored memories (LeDeux, 2002), it seems probable that humor identity comes from the experiences of joy, laughter, and fun stored in memories and from the temperament that is inherited. This is the nature–nurture theory explored in Chapter 2.
A positive emotional relationship with significant adults provides the emotional groundwork for the neurological development of a child from birth (Siegel, 1999). When a child enters preschool, the emotional response system is fairly well developed. There are people who are unable to respond appropriately in a school or workplace environment because they do not have the emotional tools necessary.
Educators notice the sad and angry kids, usually notice the kids who are depressed, and always notice the kids who act out. These kids become the adults who are dysfunctional in the workplace. Can you identify someone you have worked with who exhibits some level of dysfunction? The challenges of working with these folks are explored in subsequent chapters, but the importance of nurturing the positive emotions from an early age is well established. There is now sufficient evidence to show that positive emotions lead to well-being and increased health in both adults and children (Diener & Chan, 2010).
This wallpaper is killing me. One of us will have to go.
Talk about facing the most difficult challenge of life—death—with a sense of humor! As defined in Chapter 1, a sense of humor is the capacity of a human being to respond to life challenges with optimism (Morrison, 2005). The goal is to increase optimistic response patterns along with positive emotionality experiences. There is often "dark" or "sick" humor in response to life tragedies. This topic is explored further in Chapter 4. "Humor can provide the healthiest and most powerful method of providing a perspective on life's difficult experiences" (Sultanoff, 1994).
Humor is often shared during extreme pattern disruptions or crisis experiences. After the events of 9/11 there were concerns for the ability of the nation to find its sense of humor. Our perceived ability to cope was dependent on the ability to respond to a new trauma. Millions tuned in to the late-night shows to see how comedians would handle the painful events. David Letterman took a week off and came back with a tribute to New York. As comedians tried to balance the grief and the need for the normalcy that humor has to offer, it was a time when humor (or the lack of it) was in the forefront of the lives of the citizens of the United States.
Can we be funny? Why start now?
Tom Ridge announced a new color-coded alarm system. Green means everything's okay. Red means we're in extreme danger. And champagne-fuchsia means we're being attacked by Martha Stewart.
This thing is so confusing. Yesterday the alert went from blue to pink; now half the country thinks we're pregnant.
Would you believe that age improves a sense of well-being and the ability to respond to challenges with humor? There is hope that aging may actually improve the positive thinking of the brain. Psychologists Mroczek and Spiro (2005) surveyed 2,727 men and women ages 25 to 74 to determine how age, gender, marital status, education, health, and other factors impact well-being. They found that the aging process itself predicted a more positive mental state.
The older the person was, the more he or she reported positive emotions like cheerfulness, life satisfaction, and overall happiness within the past 30 days. And, surprisingly, the younger participants reported more negative emotions, like feeling sad, nervous, hopeless or worthless. (Mroczek & Spiro, 2005)
Although elderly white males have the highest suicide rate of any group, Mroczek and Spiro found that older men in the study, especially those who were married, reported being the happiest and having the least amount of negative emotion. Older women also reported more positive emotions than younger women. How do Mroczek and Spiro account for this increase in happiness among people nearing the end of their lives?
From research, it is noted that older adults regulate their emotions more effectively than younger or middle-aged adults. It is thought that older individuals seem to be able to know, through their years of experience, what kinds of external events increase or decrease their positive and negative emotions. Therefore, they achieve a better "emotional balance" by selecting people and situations that will minimize negative and maximize positive emotions (Mroczek & Spiro, 2005).
Once humor is established as a hardwired response pattern, a sense of humor can become a finely honed skill that enables an individual to consistently respond with optimism and humergy. When humans persist at increasing the fun in their lives, they become increasingly skilled at developing their own individual humor craft. So this story is in honor of the joys of aging!
Four old retired guys are walking down a street in Yuma, Arizona. They turn a corner and see a sign that says, "Old Timers Bar—ALL drinks 10 cents." They look at each other and then go in, thinking this is too good to be true. The old bartender says in a voice that carries across the room, "Come on in and let me pour one for you! What'll it be, gentlemen?" There seems to be a fully stocked bar, so each of the men orders a martini.
In short order, the bartender serves up four iced martinis—shaken, not stirred—and says, "That'll be 10 cents each, please." The four men stare at the bartender for a moment. Then look at each other. They can't believe their good luck. They pay the 40 cents, finish their martinis, and order another round. Again, four excellent martinis are produced, with the bartender again saying, "That's 40 cents, please." They pay the 40 cents, but their curiosity is more than they can stand. They have each had two martinis and so far they have spent less than a dollar.
Finally one of the men says, "How can you afford to serve martinis as good as these for a dime a piece?" "I'm a retired tailor from Phoenix," the bartender says, "and I always wanted to own a bar. Last year I hit the lottery jackpot for $125 million and decided to open this place. Every drink costs a dime. Wine, liquor, beer, it's all the same."
"Wow! That's quite a story," says one of the men.
The four of them sip at their martinis and can't help but notice seven other people at the end of the bar who do not have drinks in front of them and hadn't ordered anything the whole time they were there. One man gestures at the seven at the end of the bar without drinks and asks the bartender, "What's with them?"
The bartender says, "Oh, they're all old retired people from Florida. They're waiting for Happy Hour when drinks are half price."
Hob Osterlund (2011) and her team recently completed a five-year study on the use of comedy in people undergoing chemotherapy. This was the first study of its kind and did have significantly positive results. The following results of this groundbreaking study are printed with permission of Osterlund.
Impact of Humor on Outpatients Receiving Chemotherapy The COMIC Study: Corresponding Author: Hob Osterlund.
We compared cancer and chemotherapy-related symptoms as well as immune and endocrine function between participants who watched either a humorous or non-humorous DVD. Participants who watched the humorous DVD described an overall decrease in cancer and chemotherapy-related symptoms as well as decreased anxiety. They also exhibited physiologic changes consistent with improved immune function as compared to their baseline.
Cancer and chemotherapy-related symptoms, as well as anxiety decreased more in the humor intervention group than in the non-humor group but were of borderline significance. These findings merit further study. In conclusion, humor has the potential to be a low-risk complement to pharmacologic therapy in oncology practice. Further studies are needed with larger numbers of participants in order to determine to what degree humor and laughter might positively affect both immediate and long-term health outcomes.
Conclusion: Pilot study findings support the use of humor as a low-risk intervention that may complement pharmacologic therapy for management of symptoms related to cancer and chemotherapy. Additional study is recommended to more fully assess the efficacy of humor in cancer and other health conditions.
For more information on this study, watch "Humor Rumor," a YouTube video that details this research in a memorable comedy format. More information about Osterlund's journey is found in Chapter 6 of this book. In another overview of the research studies, positive emotions were associated with lower pain or a greater tolerance for pain (Diener & Chan, 2010).
Dr. Lee Berk, a Loma Linda University academic medical researcher, has become a special mentor and friend through AATH. His work has continued to focus on the positive power of laughter and humor. The intuitive foundation that was laid down by Norman Cousins intrigued him in the 1980s. In his earlier work, Berk and his colleagues discovered that the anticipation of "mirthful laughter" produced surprising and noteworthy effects. Two hormones—beta-endorphins (the family of chemicals that elevates mood state) and human growth hormone (HGH, which helps with optimizing immunity)—increased by 27 percent and 87 percent respectively in study subjects who anticipated watching a humorous video. There was no such increase among the control group who did not anticipate watching the humorous film.
Another study found that the same anticipation of mirthful laughter reduced the levels of three detrimental stress hormones. Cortisol (termed "the steroid stress hormone"), epinephrine (also known as adrenaline), and dopac (the major catabolite of dopamine) were reduced 39 percent, 70 percent, and 38 percent respectively (statistically significant compared to the control group). When chronically released, high levels of these stress hormones can be detrimental to the immune system.
Lee Berk and Stanley Tan (2009) examined the effect of "mirthful laughter" on individuals with diabetes. Diabetes is a metabolic syndrome characterized by the risk of heart attack, blindness, and other neurological, immune, and blood vessel complications. They found that mirthful laughter, as a preventive adjunct therapy in diabetes care, raised good cholesterol and lowered inflammation.
A group of twenty high-risk diabetic patients with hypertension and hyperlipidemia were divided into two groups: group C (control) and group L (laughter) . Both groups were started on standard medications for diabetes (glipizide, TZD, metformin), hypertension (ACE inhibitor or ARB), and hyperlipidemia (statins). The researchers followed both groups for 12 months. The patients in the laughter group (group L) had lower epinephrine and norepinephrine levels by the second month, suggesting lower stress levels. They had increased HDL (good) cholesterol. The laughter group also had lower levels of inflammation.
At the end of one year, the research team saw significant improvement in group L: HDL cholesterol had risen by 26 percent in group L, and only 3 percent in group C. Harmful C-reactive proteins decreased 66 percent in the laughter group versus 26 percent for the control group.
The study suggests that the addition of an adjunct therapeutic mirthful laughter prescription (a potential modulator of positive mood state) to standard diabetes care may lower stress and inflammatory response and increase "good" cholesterol levels. The authors conclude that mirthful laughter may thus lower the risk of cardiovascular disease associated with diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome. Further studies need to be done to expand these findings.
In describing himself as a "hardcore medical clinician and scientist," Berk says, "the best clinicians understand that there is an intrinsic physiological intervention brought about by positive emotions such as mirthful laughter, optimism and hope. Lifestyle choices have a significant impact on health and disease and these are choices which we and the patient exercise control relative to prevention and treatment" (Berk, 2009).
As mentioned in Chapter 1, the Positive Emotions and Psychophysiology (PEP) Lab at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill wants to understand and share the significance of positive emotions. This is a study of the relationship between emotion and the autonomic nervous system activity in people who flourish. Martin Seligman, former president of the American Psychological Association, uses the term positive psychology to identify what makes people thrive. Traditionally, psychology has focused on deficit characteristics such as anger, anxiety, and sadness. Seligman, along with Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who originated the concept of flow, has changed the paradigm to the study of human strengths and sources of happiness (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
Psychology previously focused on studying what was wrong with people. Humans often center on what they are not able to do—on what they do not know. What happens when research changes the paradigm of study to strengthening the positive attributes? A hypothesis called broadening studies states that "distinct, discrete positive emotions broaden the scopes of attention, cognition, and action, widening the array of percepts, thoughts, and action presently in mind. A corollary narrowing hypothesis states that negative emotions shrink these same arrays" (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). "The positive emotions actually widen the opportunities for learning whereas the negative emotions narrow the options," say the folks at the PEP Lab (http://www.unc.edu/ peplab/.
The implications of this research are critically important to leaders in the field. It gives credence to the concept of joy-flow and the humergy concepts I've identified, and it provides the impetus for further research on humor.
The positive emotions are more difficult to study than the negative ones since they are comparatively fewer in number and relatively undifferentiated. The optimistic emotions of joy, amusement, and humor are not as easily "read" as anger or fear. As mentioned in the research on fear, folks attend quickly to the negative emotions because they alert the attentional system to the worry about immediate survival. The positive emotions, while important for personal growth and emotional stability, do not pose this urgent need (Fredrickson, 2003).
A relatively new option for the treatment of a variety of disorders is the use of either laughter therapy or humor therapy. Mostly investigational in nature, this option is based on the use of humor as a deliberate attempt to provide symptom relief, and it is practiced for both physical and emotional disorders. As previously mentioned, some therapists are experimenting with the use of humor as a treatment option for depression and mental illness. Clowns, toys, and humor resource rooms are available in some hospitals as a focus on the healing benefits of humor. There is mounting scientific evidence that humor reduces the natural stresses of illness and distracts the patient from pain.
The psychology instructor had just finished a lecture on mental health and was giving an oral test. Speaking specifically about manic depression, she asked, "How would you diagnose a patient who walks back and forth screaming at the top of his lungs one minute, then sits in a chair weeping uncontrollably the next?"
A young man in the rear raised his hand and answered, "A basketball coach?"
There has been some information on the research about play in previous chapters. Play does play (pun intended) an important role in the study of humor and laughter. Play therapy has long been used with children as a vehicle for working through emotional challenges. The Association for Play Therapy defines play therapy as "the systematic use of a theoretical model to establish an interpersonal process wherein trained play therapists use the therapeutic powers of play to help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial difficulties and achieve optimal growth and development." (http://www.a4pt.org/ps.playtherapy.cfm)
A lay definition might be "a form of counseling that uses play to communicate with and render assistance, especially to children whose natural language is play" (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_therapy). Play involves multiple centers of perception and cognition across the entire brain. Depriving animals of play disrupts their brain maturation (Panksepp, 2003).
Two professors who are members of AATH have been pioneers in teaching a course on play at Western Michigan University. Kay Caskey and Laurie Young have a course titled "Holistic Approaches to Play across Life Span." They see play as an optimal way to reduce stress, increase productivity, enhance learning, and improve coping skills for people of all ages.
An article in USA Weekend titled "Where the Playgrounds Are: America's Most Playful Cities" (USA Weekend, 2011) begins by saying that play is serious business. The article reiterates that children need play. They announce the top five of America's most playful cities for kids. KaBOOM! is a national nonprofit dedicated to building and renovating America's playgrounds. It researches the best communities for offering children access to vital playground space (USA Weekend, 2011).
I'm grateful that the interest in play and humor research is growing. Future mouse droppings will be revealing to those who might think humor research is just a bunch of "crap." Leaders in every field can be most effective when they are aware of the cognitive implications of humor research and feel confident in applying this knowledge to their practice.
For many of the folks in AATH, it is difficult not to be "high on humor." There is not only an abundance of play, there is a search for playfulness. In fact there can be a passion and fervor among those who believe so strongly in the healing power of humor that it clouds their thinking about the research. Attendees at the Association for Applied and Therapeutic Humor conference in Chicago in 2003 witnessed a strong negative reaction from the audience when Rod Martin presented an overview of the research that challenged some popular theories about humor. Humor quackery is difficult to overcome, but AATH is dedicated to understanding the hard science of humor. Research on humor is increasing, but many of the mouse droppings are scattered and inconclusive.
As mentioned previously, there are few organizations dedicated to scientific research on humor. One such organization is the International Society for Humor Studies, which publishes Humor: An International Journal of Humor Research. Some journals that occasionally cite humor research in their publications include the Journal of the American Medical Association and the Journal of Physiology. For a great overview of the many facets of humor, take a look at The Encyclopedia of 20th-Century American Humor (Nilsen & Nilsen, 2000). And once again, for the lay practitioner who wants a quick, reliable overview of the research, the Association for Applied and Therapeutic Humor maintains a highly recommended website at http://www.aath.org.
To steal ideas from one person is plagiarism. To steal from many is research.
A staggering amount of data emerging from biological research and from imaging technology provides compelling evidence linking humor and optimal living. While it is clear that fear and stress inhibit well-being, the research on humor and joy is more complex. An increasing number of studies confirm the relationship between positive emotions and using humor to maximize living. The good news is that the research indicates that humor can:
Emotions drive attention and attention drives learning. The emotion of fear has traditionally driven workplace culture. Fear is the most frequent basis for evaluations, policies, and accountability. This fear is harbored in cultures that reflect stress and burnout in both employers and employees. Extreme stress is not only detrimental to a healthy lifestyle but also decreases productivity and increases anxiety.
Positive emotionality (including humor) can act as a hook, line, and sinker in memory retention. Humor has the power to capture attention (hook), manipulate this information with repetition and practice in the working memory (line), and provide feedback and reflection as part of a response system (sinker). Humergy can become a component of the automated response system.
Laughter and humor research is difficult to quantify because each individual finds humor in different ways. Laughter is contagious and reflects human connections. Mirror neuron research is giving insights as to why humans laugh with others and why humor is an important part of relationships.
Humor contributes to a healthy environment that reduces stress and increases coping capacity. It is an indicator of the ability to survive tragedy and adapt to change. Research on humor is in the pioneering stage, but as MRI and other technologies continue to advance, further insights will be gained into the complex issues of the relationship between positive emotionality and learning. Humor research is in the pioneering stages, and there is often a healthy debate about the research presented in this chapter, but the research seems to indicate enormous benefits from the inclusion of laughter and humor for everyday living.
Until the scientists get all the details worked out, get as much laughter as you can.
Since you were dying for the research, I am finishing this chapter with tombstone humor.
Having a great time—wish you were here!
I told you I was sick!
Here lies Ann Mann, who lived an old maid, but died an old Mann.
Here lies Johnny Yeast. Pardon me for not rising.
Why me? Albert J. Krispel.
I was somebody who is no business of yours.
Sir John Strange. Here lies an honest lawyer, and that is Strange.
Here lies the body of our Anna. Done to death by a banana. It wasn't the fruit that laid her low. But the skin of the thing that made her go.
What are you looking at?
In memory; from your sons, except Ricardo who did not pay any money.
Looked up the elevator shaft to see if it was on its way down. It was!
"Always go to other people's funerals, otherwise they won't come to yours."
