July 12, 1798
During the first nine years of Selim’s reign, he slowly modified many of the old traditions of protocol and dress that he viewed as cumbersome and antiquated. He replaced elaborate formal headdresses of turbans or conical hats with the simpler fez. The meticulously proscribed combinations of pantaloons, robes, vests and belts disappeared in favor of simple tunics and leggings. The formal royal reception room in the Divan, where previously visitors had been carried before the Sultan, was now only used for occasions of state. Several new informal rooms within the palace were regularly used for meetings with military and political advisors. All of these changes began moving the Empire towards the modernity he expected the new century to bring. They also helped to increase Selim’s availability to those who ran the government and his participation in governance.
The messenger, who now stood before the Sultan in one of these informal rooms, had crossed the Mediterranean from Cairo to Ephesus, roughly five hundred and twenty nautical miles, in a little more than five days, and then ridden over land another three hundred miles to Istanbul. Growing unrest in the Southern portions of the Empire—Syria and Egypt—had inspired the new relay system that utilized Baba’s fastest ships for crossing the Mediterranean and men on horseback riding between stations exchanging tired mounts for fresh ones. Replacements at the stations relieved exhausted riders, and the peerless Arabian horses enabled riders to travel up to seventy-five miles a day on land, while with good wind a ship could travel more than one hundred nautical miles in a twenty-four hour period. The entire trip had taken only ten days to complete—half the time of the overland route.
Selim unfurled the carefully rolled document and read:
2 July, 1798
Bonaparte, member of the National Institute, General-in-Chief
To the good people of Egypt,
For a long time, the Beys governing Egypt have insulted the French nation and its traders. The hour of their punishment has come. For too long this assortment of slaves bought in Georgia and the Caucasus has tyrannized the most beautiful part of the world; but God, on Whom all depends, has ordained that their empire is finished.
Peoples of Egypt, you will be told that I have come to destroy your religion; do not believe it! Reply that I have come to restore your rights, to punish the usurpers, and that I respect more than the Mamlūk God, His Prophet, and the Quran. Tell them that all men are equal before God; that wisdom, talents, and virtue alone make them different from one another. But, what wisdom, what talents, what virtues distinguish the Mamlūks that they should possess exclusively that which makes life pleasant and sweet?
Is there a good piece of farmland? It belongs to the Mamlūks. Is there... a fine horse, a beautiful house? They belong to the Mamlūks.
If Egypt is their farm, let them show the lease which God has granted them. But God is just and merciful to the people. All Egyptians will be called to administer all places; the best educated, the wisest and the most virtuous will govern, and the people will be happy.
Of old, there used to exist here, in your midst, big cities, big canals, and a thriving commerce. What has destroyed all this, but Mamlūk’s greed, injustice, and tyranny?
Religious and military leaders, tell the people that we are the friends of the true Muslims.
Did we not destroy the Pope, who said that war should be waged against the Muslims? Did we not destroy the Knights of Malta because those insane people thought that God wanted them to wage war against the Muslims? Have we not been for centuries the friends of the Ottoman Sultan (may God fulfill his wishes!) and the engines of his engines? Have not the Mamlūks, on the contrary, always revolted against the authority of the Sultan, whom they still ignore? They do nothing but satisfy their own whims.
Thrice happy are those who join us! They shall prosper in wealth and rank. Happy are those who remain neutral! They will have time to know us and they will take our side. But unhappiness, threefold unhappiness to those who are themselves for the Mamlūks and fight against us! There shall be no hope for them; they shall perish.
Article 1. All villages within a radius of three leagues from the locations through which the army will pass will send a deputation to inform the Commanding General that they are obedient, and to notify him that they have hoisted the army flag: blue, white and red.
Article 2. All villages taking up arms against the French army shall be burnt down.
Article 3. All villages submitting to the army will hoist, together with the Ottoman flag, that of the army.
Article 4. The religious leaders shall have seals placed on the possessions, houses and properties belonging to the Mamlūks, and will see that nothing is looted.
Article 5. The religious leaders shall continue to perform their functions. Each inhabitant shall remain at home, and prayers shall continue as usual. Each man shall thank God for the destruction of the Mamlūks and shall shout “Glory to the Ottoman Sultan! Glory to the French Army, friend!” May the Mamlūks be cursed, and the peoples of Egypt blessed!
Bonaparte
The Sultan was stunned to see his name affixed to a proclamation of which he had no prior knowledge. His messengers had been delivering regular communications since the French ships landed in Egypt two months earlier. But their presence appeared to be nothing more than part of the continual war between the French and the British. While the British controlled Cairo, they blocked French trade. But, the proclamation targeted the Mamlūks, warrior slaves who governed both Egypt and Syria for two hundred years with the Sultan’s reserved consent. They did so beneath his banner, and no one disputed the fact these were territories of the Ottoman Empire.
The Mamlūks had overthrown and defeated kings to become Egyptian sultans, and ruled within the careful scrutiny of the empire. They would fight fiercely to defend their territory, but would be no match for the modern, more sophisticated weaponry of the French. The Mamlūks losing battles to the French leant great support to the purpose of Selim’s new Turkish army. Perhaps it might be an opportunity to rid Egypt of the slave leaders who were just as unstable as the Janissaries, whose allegiance shifted like the wind. That they had overthrown rulers to seize power in the first place was an unsettling fact he’d had to live with.
Koca Usef Pasha, now a general in the new army, stood beside the messenger and waited for the Sultan to finish reading the document before speaking.
“The French have captured Alexandria,” he said. “Fortunately, Ben Osman’s captains know all of the secret, hidden bays, or we would not be here. Napoleon’s army marches south, towards Cairo. I have taken the liberty to assemble my men and alert the captains of the riflemen of the Corps of Gardeners. General Napoleon cannot turn back now, my lord, I believe he intends to take Egypt.”
“And what else, I wonder?” Selim mused. Egypt provided access for Turkish trade routes to Europe, and Europe’s access to Africa and Asia.
The Sultan addressed the Grand Vizier, who stood at attention on the opposite side of the room. “Summon General Aubert du Bayet to a private audience with me tomorrow morning immediately following morning prayers. Install the Valide Sultana behind the screen to translate should there be a need. Also summon the British Ambassador, Mr. Smith, for a later appointment. Make sure the two gentlemen pass each other as they depart and arrive. Arrange for all of my military advisors and generals to assemble in the Hall of the Divan immediately following the second meeting. This Napoleon is an ambitious man.”
When he was alone, Selim read the proclamation again and thought the young general seemed to be just as brash as Rose had suggested. He wondered what other information Nakshidil might be able to discover from her cousin. He did not relish the idea of another war, as he was already fighting the Russians. A new war would complicate the issues with the Janissaries as well, and whose side would his French officers choose should he go to war with France? This was a particularly complicated political and military quandary, and the world was rife with revolutions—the Americas, France, Spain and Portugal, as well as some of his own territories. And why should the Janissaries be different from the Mamlūks? Both were armies of former slaves, and what do slaves always desire? Freedom and revenge. What might ever prepare a slave to rule? Nothing.
July 14, 1798
Dearest cousin Josephine,
It is my fervent hope that you and your children are well, and that the news I hear of the new French government is indeed true—that the five-man Directory is governing fairly, and the French people are no longer hungry or disquieted. But imagine my shocked surprise to learn that your husband, General Bonaparte, has invaded our sovereign territory of Egypt and claims he did so on the Sultan’s behalf! I read his proclamation to the Egyptian people, in which he clearly states this. I am confused as to why you made no mention of such a plan to me. Is it possible you did not know of your husband’s intent to travel to our Empire?
The severity of the situation forces me to be forthright and beg you to enlighten us to his intentions. If in truth he desires to ally himself to us, why act in secrecy? We can think of no reason other than a wish to surprise and conquer. Please tell me this is not so, for if it is, then we are at war with our beloved France.
I am sending this to you in much haste, before meeting with your ambassador, Monsieur Aubert du Bayet, tomorrow. Please respond in equal haste. The thought of our sons and loved ones facing each other in battle is more than I can bear. Please respond quickly!
I am Nakshidil, Valide Sultana of the Ottoman Empire, but please remember that I am yet and shall always remain your loving cousin,
Aimée
On the next day, immediately following his meetings with the ambassadors and his advisors, Selim ordered the formation of an additional Turkish Regiment to be hired rather than conscripted. It would be the first Turkish army of free men in over five hundred years. The recruits would be brought from Anatolia, a province of Turkey, and be trained at Uskudar, outside the city. The new troops would add twenty thousand men to Selim’s secret army.
Couriers arrived steadily for the next few weeks to report Napoleon’s movements, while Selim’s new army trained at a furious pace to ready themselves for battle.
~ ~ ~
In the Egyptian desert, General Napoleon Bonaparte, an avid student of history, Greek philosophy and ancient wars, dismounted and dropped to his knees when, from a distance of three kilometers, he first glimpsed the Great Pyramid. He had never felt more excited in his life.
“We are looking at the very same wondrous structure seen by Alexander the Great three hundred years before the birth of Christ Jesus.” he said to the man at his side, Chief Engineer Jacques-Marie Le Pére.
“I could not discern his presence in Alexandria,” Napoleon continued, “the city he designed and built. It has been overrun by foreigners far too long. Did you know that the main thoroughfare of the city is oriented toward the rising sun on Alexander’s birthday?” he asked.
“I did not know that,” Le Pére replied.
“Of course, our engagement with the Mamlūks in Alexandria was also a huge distraction. But this pyramid seems untouched by humanity or time. It stands as it always has, unencumbered by man’s folly, unconcerned by the passage of time. What an honor it is to stand before it.”
The entire retinue of eight hundred men had come to a stop, and now stood gawking at the extraordinary sight. Most were not students of history like their general. The soldiers who knew what the pyramid was began explaining the structure to others, causing an excited exchange among the men.
“Monsieur La Pére, have you ever seen a structure of this size?” Napoleon asked.
“No, my general. I doubt that any Frenchman has.”
Napoleon stood in awe and wonder imagining how such a gargantuan edifice might have been engineered and the manpower it had taken to build it. “Let’s have a closer look, and make camp in its shadow,” Napoleon said, mounting his horse and galloping forward.
When they reached the base of the Great Pyramid, Napoleon dismounted and gave orders to assemble his troops. After the men had lined up in formation, he stood on an improvised platform and addressed them.
“You stand at attention because we are the first Frenchmen to rest in the shadow of the Great Pyramid, built more than four-thousand years ago by a Pharaoh of Egypt. Two-thousand years later, Alexander the Great, ruler of the world and architect of Alexandria, stood where we now stand and founded a new dynasty, the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which ruled Egypt for three hundred years! Perhaps some of you know the story of Cleopatra, who brought an end to that dynasty by her doomed alliance with the Roman Mark Antony. I wish you to know these things so that you might offer proper reverence to this place and to know that each and every one of you shall also be a part of history now. I have no doubt the Mamlūks will find us here and attempt to dissuade us from our task, but we must not allow them to do so. Soldiers, forty centuries are watching you.”
~ ~ ~
On the thirtieth of July, Sultan Selim received disquieting news. Napoleon’s forces had prevailed once more against the Mamlūks at Gizeh and the pyramids were now in the possession of the French. On the following day, Napoleon marched unimpeded into Cairo where he met no resistance from the Egyptian people. But rather than looting and killing, to everyone’s surprise, the general sent word to dozens of the ruling Sheiks inviting them to meet with him. Believing it to be a trap, the Sheiks initially refused. A few days later, they had a change of heart and capitulated to his request. Once in his presence, the Sheiks were surprised to learn that he did not wish to conquer or rule. He wanted to “set them free.” He had even laid out and offered to them a plan for their new independence. They were to choose a ruling Divan of fourteen leaders from within their tribes to govern themselves. No invading army had ever made such a request.
~ ~ ~
During the time the Sheiks were organizing themselves into a new government, Napoleon’s cadre of engineers, cartographers, Masons, scientists and artists measured, recorded, mapped and illustrated the pyramids and the visible head and neck of the sphinx. No European had ever before seen structures such as these. Their awe and excitement were palpable. How amazed their countrymen would be when they brought the renderings and proof of their findings home. They had no doubt that their General Napoleon would join the ranks of Alexander the Great and Marco Polo.
~ ~ ~
On September the first, 1798, Aimée received the answer to her letter—unfortunately, too late to prevent Selim from declaring war on France.
Dearest, dearest cousin,
Please be comforted and relieved when I tell you that my husband has no intention of conquering your Empire! I assure you, that is not his intention. When last I saw him, at Christmas, we discussed his forthcoming trip to Egypt, and it was with great trepidation he embarked upon that journey. He did so only at the insistence of The Directory. It is my husband’s belief that they wish him to fail in this endeavor, secretly hoping for his defeat either at the hands of the British or the Egyptians. That is an empty desire, I assure you, as my husband will not court defeat. One would think The Directory would wish him to succeed in any effort, but they have become jealous of anyone who garners consistent success, and my husband’s successes have already become heroic. Mind you, I do not pretend to understand these matters fully, as I have no expertise in the intricacies of such politics.
As to why Bonaparte did not first inform the Sultan of his intentions regarding Egypt, I cannot say. But please, have faith in my word and his, for he is, above all, an honorable man. Fear not his presence, for there is a greater purpose for his trip. I tell you this in the strictest confidence, as he has not shared it with The Directory. As a result of my husband’s ceaseless survey of a wide array of knowledge, he believes there exists, in Egypt, an ancient canal linking the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. This may be his most ambitious and far-fetched notion yet, if such a canal indeed exists, it would shorten the trip from France by thousands of nautical miles, turning a treacherous journey around the Cape of Good Hope that usually takes more than two months into a mere three or four weeks! If we are able to locate and rebuild the canal, we not only gain shortened trade routes, we may simultaneously block the British access to their most prosperous colonial holding, India. Even I understand the possible benefit of this. Imagine being able to transport silk and spices from the East in a matter of weeks! I pray his notion prevails and for his safety in this adventure. I have not had word from him since he embarked from Toulon in May, as he was unable to spare a ship for the transportation of correspondence. I find myself missing his letters, which usually arrive daily, even during wartime.
In light of The Directory’s perceived intentions, Bonaparte keeps Eugène by his side as aide-de-camp, where he will not engage in battle. I pray daily for their safe return. Hortense is here in Paris with me, and the belle of Paris! I know not which one of us adores this city more, and am happy to say that it is, once again, the most exciting of places. I am always entertained, rarely without company and never bored despite my husband’s long absences.
Please continue to keep me informed of the events in your life, as I will keep you apprised of mine.
I remain and always shall remain,
Your devoted cousin,
Rose
Nakshidil immediately brought the letter to Selim and sat opposite him until he had finished reading. She knelt at his feet, her hands grasping his. She looked up at him and pleaded.
“He does not mean to conquer us,” she said. “Why must we make war on our ally, the country of my ancestors, the country that has been so generous to us? French officers trained our army, built our foundries and filled our armories with guns and cannon.” Tears streamed down her face.
“You may be the only person more sorry than I about this war, but I cannot allow anyone to govern my empire without my blessing, without my guidance and certainly not without my agreement. I know you understand that well, Naksh, and if it were any country other than France, you would not be asking me these questions.”
She wiped the tears from her cheeks. “Of course, you are correct, but I cannot help think there has been a great misunderstanding somewhere in this. And I do believe Rose.”
“You may very well be correct in that, but I must act upon the actual facts of the matter and not supposition. General Napoleon has invaded our sovereign territory of Egypt, defeated the Mamlūks in several battles, taken possession of Cairo and is building a fortress less than twenty miles from Alexandria. He has not communicated with me in any other way, and I must assume that he means to disempower me. And why should he stop at Egypt’s borders? Why not take Syria as well?”
“My mind knows you are right, but my heart refuses to follow,” she said.
“Believe me, I understand. But he must be stopped, and I can only hope our troops are up to the task. I recently met with the brother of the English ambassador, Sidney Smith, an admiral in the British navy. He is here visiting his brother after a partial retirement, whatever that may be, and has suggested an alliance with us.”
“An alliance with the English?” she asked incredulously.
“Yes, the English. It is said that war makes strange bedfellows, Naksh.”