INDEX
A
‘Abd al-alīm al-‘Awī
‘Abd al-alīm al-Shuwayki
‘Abdallāh Pasha, biographical details (in chronological order): ruled 1819–1831; (1819): aim Farī as sponsor, (1819): moves against Mamluks, (1819): reintroduction of special dress codes for dhimmīs, (1820): execution of aim Fari, (1820): religious men attempting to participate in power, (1820–31): governor of Sidon, (1821): anti-Semitic and anti-Christian moves, (1822): troubled relationship with Damascus and Farī family, (1822): siege of Acre by governors of Damascus, Aleppo, plus Salumūn Farī, (1826): weakness of regime, economic decline due to excessive monopolistic control, (1827): haggling over jewelery of Catafago’s wife and daughters, (1830): successful seige of ānūr against al-Jarrār clan, (1831): failure to pay defending troops at Jaffa, (1831): six months’ resistance to Egyptian siege of Acre, living underground, final surrender
‘Abdallāh Pasha, overview: administrative structures, occasional drunkenness, reverting to assassination to ensure political control, traditional religious education with lack of political sensibility
‘Abd al-Laīf Fat Allāh
‘Abd al-Ramān Afandī Murādī
Abdel Nour
Abū ‘l-Dhahab
Abū ‘l-Hudā family
Abū Nabūt
Acre and its realm: border with Damascus, decline after Crusades, decline, exhaustion and depopulation by decline under al-Jazzār’s brutal rule, tax burden leading to depopulation, decline with continuing depopulation under Sulaymān Pasha, decline with monopolistic policies of ‘Abdallāh Pasha (1820s), detailed French maps, difficulties in classifying, for modern historians, expansion by al-Jazzār, map; expansion by Sulaymān Pasha, map; expansion by āhir, map; extent of, failure to cope with new world order, fortifications and fortified cities, map; harassment by corsairs and Bedouins, immigration-based urban history, importance to al-Jazzār, major military highways and sea lanes, map; major routes of European travelers, map; major trade routes, map; monopolies’ role in eventual economic failure and political downfall, plague, drought, famine in as political and commercial center of entire Syrian coast, regional economic shift from inland to coast, return to oblivion after siege and invasion by Egypt (1831), taking vague political and economic shape, as unique political entity, with role in international politics, links to modern European world economy
Acre (the city): architectural survey, Kesten report of artisan production area, beginning 18th Century as spacious ruin, pile of rubble, bombardment by British in return to rubble, Christian quarter, city walls, coffeehouses, commercial area-foreign quarters, khans, bazaars,, docks, failure of government administration, lack of indigenous merchant class, fertility of surrounding plain, as frontier society, as home of local ruler as well as center of (French) export trade, importance to invaders, Jews remaining few in number, major buildings and fortifications ca. map; major rebuilding effort, rubble as ideal building blocks for āhir’s new center of realm, military-political structures, Muslim quarter, no evidence of intersectarian tensions, populations and migration trends, fig., as predominantly Christian city in 18th Century, Muslim in 19th Century, public utilities, religious buildings, replaced in trade primacy by Beirut, as residence and capital of āhir al‘Umar, residential areas, as sole port for exports on Syrian coast, temporary success due to demand for cotton and wheat, wealth originating in villages of hinterland, wirash or artisan ateliers, workshops
Administrative structures: of ‘Abdallāh Pasha, of al-Jazzār, bookkeepers, civil sector plus court, economy as object of, family connections common, gatekeepers, governors or prefects, khazīndar (treasurer), little formalization or institutionalization, locals becoming influential, military commanders, minorities common in, office for peasant complaints and legal cases, palace guards, positions and officials ranked by importance and authority, for Acre and its realm in 1811 according to al-‘Awra, positions and their occupants for Acre and its realm in 1811 according to al-‘Awra, positions’ salaries, comments on, for Acre and its realm in 1811 according to al-‘Awra, question of extent of power and authority, scribes, secretaries, of Sulaymān Pasha, tax collectors, veziers, of āhir, see also Rulers
Amad Agha Za‘faranjī
Amad Pasha al-Jazzār (“The Butcher”), biographical details (in chronological order): ruled (1730): birth into poverty in Bosnia, (1755): arrival in Istanbul in late teens, possibly after attempted rape and stabbing of sister-in-law, (1756): member of household of governor of Egypt,, (1756): joining service of āli Bey, formative years among Mamluks, (1758): pilgrimage, slaughter of Bedouins to avenge death of master, earning sobriquet of al-Jazzār (“the Butcher”), (1768): entering service of ‘Alī Bey al-Kabīr, (1768): refusal to assassinate āli Bey on orders, flight, (1770): resurfacing in Lebanon after uncertain wandering, (1771): requested by Amīr Yūsuf for military duty in Beirut, (1771): turns against Amīr Yūsuf, dislodged from newly fortified Beirut, (1772): entrenched in Beirut, challenging Druze, (1776): annexation of Beirut from Druze, (1776–79): attempts to control Druze, (1777): made governor of Sidon, residence in Acre, (1781): defeat of Metualis, annexation of Tyre, (1782): ultimate impossibility of military solution for Druze region, map; (1785): made governor of Damascus after immense bribes to Istanbul, (1785): military procession from Acre to Damascus, (1785): as governor, responsible for annual pilgrimage caravan, (1785): attempted monopoly of wheat trade, (1786): deposed by imperial order, (1786): reappointed governor of Damascus, (1789): suspecting dalliance by Mamluks in harem, executions resulting, (1789): rebellion of Mamluks cruelly suppressed, severe personality affect, paranoia resulting, (1790): attempts to subdue Nablus, (1790): aim Farī as top financial advisor, (1790s): execution of Damascenes, (1790s): useless, continuous war against Nablus, (1792): massacre of citizens, (1794 and 1803): failed sieges of ānūr, (1795): again deposed, (1797): costly building program requiring new, oppressive taxes, (1798 and 1799): French invasion of Egypt and march on Acre, (1799): help from British navy in defeat of Napoleon, (1799): successful resistance of siege by Napoleon, hailed as defender of the faith, (1800s): brutal rule, tax burden, leading to depopulation of region, (1804): again reappointed governor of Damascus, (1804): forgiveness of former rebel Sulaymān Pasha, (1804): death in Acre
Amad Pasha al-Jazzār (“The Butcher”), overview: administrative structures, as adventurer, drifter, man on the make, without family connections, as barbarous in a barbarous era, as charismatic, brave, strong and cool under pressure, as courageous, tactically sober, violent, treacherous, bloodthirsty, sadistic, and cruel, curious attitude toward Jaffa, map; economic pursuits as shrewd, insightful, exhibiting engineering skills, fitting soldiermold of traditional ruling elite of Ottoman provinces, fortification of Acre, as generous and compassionate, importance of Acre to, impressing European interlocutors with intellectual acumen and alertness, as “lion let loose against humanity,” military support as hired, imported soldiery, not given to conspicuous consumption, playing within rules of “Ottoman game,” reasons for seeking governorship of Damascus, ruling through oppression, force, and short-lived alliances of convenience, sources and problems of historiography, sources exhibiting disagreements, bias, ambivalence, sources, French, depicting tyrant, despot, usurper
Albanian soldiers
Aleppo
‘Alī Agha [later: Pasha] Khazindār
‘Alī Bey Agha
‘Alī Bey al-Kabīr
‘Alī Pasha
Alkali
American cotton reaching markets, graph, table
Amīr Bashīr Shihāb: ‘Abdallāh Pasha’s failed pressure tactics, return to uneasy reconciliation, commanding Druze troops, as dominant figure in Druze politics, failure of several attempts by al-Jazzār to eliminate, good relations with Sulaymān Pasha, refusal to aid besieged Acre, avoiding trouble, absenting himself from Acre region
Amīr (Druze title of rank)
Amīr ākim (Druze title of rank)
Amīr Yūsuf Shihāb
Anti-Christian measures, sectarianism
Anti-Semitism, sectarian
Aqueduct
Armies. See Military affairs/armies
Autonomy from Ottoman Empire: but avoiding open rebellion, commercial centers seeking, following traditional forms and patterns of political power, rules of “Ottoman game” in acceptance of authority of Istanbul, taking legitimacy from state and sultan
al-‘Awra, anā,’
al-‘Awra, Ibrāhīm: as ambivalent, competitive, and close observer of affairs of government and of aim Farī, giving reasons for Sulaymān Pasha’s power and influence, ignoring social organization, positions and officials ranked by importance and authority, for Acre and its realm in positions and their occupants for Acre and its realm in positions’ salaries, comments on, for Acre and its realm in
al-‘Am, ‘Abdallāh Pasha
al-‘Am, As‘ad Pasha
al-‘Am clan
al-‘Am, Muammad Pasha
al-‘Am, Sulaymān Pasha
Barī family
Banū aqr tribe
Bathhouses
Bazaars
Bedouins
Beirut: ‘Abdallāh Pasha’s attempt to buy into commerce, al-Jazzār’s fortification of, dazzling rise in 19th Century, flourishing as Acre declined, fortified by Amad Pasha al-Jazzār, French consul’s move to, key to rise in extent of government monopolies, merchants resisting Sulaymān Pasha’s extension of monopoly policy, rise of competitive, flexible, cooperating merchant class, strong trade with Damascus, Sulaymān Pasha giving up control of, transportation advantages, unparalleled population growth
Blanc, Joseph
Bookkeepers
Borders: between Acre and Damascus, contours unclear and shifting
Bosnian troops
British Navy
British trade: Continental System, and rise of Beirut
Brown, Carl L.
Busta or seraglio
Capitulations (trade treaties between Muslim and European rulers)
Caravans
Carmel, A.
Carpenters
Catafago, Antoine: ‘Abdallāh Pasha haggling over jewelry of Catafago’s wife and daughters, concentration of power as sole manager of monopoly system, chief trader for exports, dependence on support from political system and ruler, flourishing under al-Jazzār, gaining confidence of ‘Abdallāh Pasha, holding variety of countries’ vice-consulships, enjoying confidence of Sulaymān Pasha, intimate friend of aim Farī, keeping French out of Acre, move to Sidon, as multazim in Nazareth, specializing in cotton trade, also dealing in wheat
Christian quarter
Christians: beginning to leave Acre at heightening of intersectarian tensions, convents, Copts, eviction in 1821 by ‘Abdallāh Pasha, in high office, as majority of population of Acre in 18th Century, Maronites, quarantine and other protective measures against plague, see also Greek Catholics; Greek Orthodox
Churches
Clarke, E. D.
Coastal plain, ease of troop movements
Coastal shipping: major routes of, map; routes of European travelers, map
Coastal towns of Syrian region: in 16th Century, of lesser importance than Jaffa and Acre
Coffee
Coffeehouses
Cohen, A.
Colbert, J. B.
Commerce: 15th Century revival of trade, Acre’s links to modern European world economy, caravans, French replacing British in Levant in 18th Century, importance of political development to, imports to Damascus for table; link between Christian population and foreign trade, major trading networks, monopoly by French merchants, old international transit routes versus new system of cash crops for export, regulation by Capitulations, sea trade for Acre and dependencies, table; sea trade for Beirut, table; serving raw-materials needs of European industrialization, shifts in, trade routes, map; transportation by beasts of burden, wealth originating in villages of hinterland, see also Cotton trade; Monopolies; Wheat
Continental System
Convents
Copts
Cotton trade: Beirut replacing Acre as center for export, competition between French and other countries’ merchants, cotton brought from villages to Acre to market, creating first economy in eastern Mediterranean based on export of cash crops, cycle of price/supply/demand, development of regular forward market (pre-harvest advance purchases), ever-rising European demand, exploitation of peasants in producer price versus export price, exports, comparative, graph; exports from Acre, table; exports of cotton thread, table; exports quarterly of raw cotton from Acre, table; export value, raw cotton from Acre, graph; failure of indigenous export efforts of 1730s, French traders in Sidon competing with French in Acre, imports globally of cotton to France, 1775 and graph, table; imports of raw cotton to Marseilles, graph, table; mutual dependence of French and locals, near monopoly of French traders, Ottoman Empire’s attempts to control sales in order to collect taxes, profits at 45–50 percent in demand remaining high, profits at 150 percent in 1730s, repartition as means to avoid competitive bidding by traders, sectarianism of little importance to French, Sulaymān Pasha’s failed switch to cotton, āhir’s consolidation, astuteness regarding potential of, see also Monopolies
Cotton trade, reasons for breakdown: American cotton reaching markets, French invasion of Egypt and Palestine, local commercial class competing with French, naval warfare between France and England, not circumvention of répartition, not cultural differences, not Mamluk rebellion, shifting alliances between Ottoman Empire and European powers, world production finally matching demand, consequent price drop
Dalāt cavalry troops
Damascus: ‘Abdallāh Pasha’s troubled relationship with, al-‘Am clan and rivalry with al-Jazzār, as destination of Palestine trade, governor’s worry over growing power of āhir, hold of central government decreasing on, map; importance as starting point and guarantor of annual pilgrimage to Mecca, including control of southern parts of Palestine, instability of politics, military routes multiplying, province of, in early 18th Century, map; resurgence of power of, road links to points west and south, strong trade with Beirut, Sulaymān Pasha’s control of, map; wheat trade as critical, āhir desirous of good relations with
D’Arvieux, Ch
Darwīsh Pasha
Dénain, A. J.
Dervishes
De Taules
De Tott, Baron
Dhimmīs (non-Muslim minorities): achieving positions of power, totally dependent on goodwill of masters, commercial group’s vulnerability to whims of political strongmen, common in administrative structures of rulers, special dress codes for, see also Catafago, Antoine; aim Farī; Ibrāhīm al-abbāgh
al-Dinkizlī, Amad Agha: advising āhir to pay outstanding taxes to Istanbul, appointed mutasallim in Sidon by āhir, betrayal of āhir, & as Maghrebi mercenary hired by āhir, unacceptability of Muslim fighting sultan, winning battle by ruse and kidnapping
Docks
Doumani, B.
dress: codes for Dhimmīs (non-Muslim minorities), imitation of European
Druze: al-Jazzār’s attempts to control, map; alliance with ‘Uthmān Pasha against āhir, all peasants mobilized as warriors, resultant damage to agricultural production, Amīr Bashīr as dominant political figure, backing Beirutis independence from Acre, centered on Mount Lebanon, map; controlling Nazareth and Tiberias, deeply divided amongst themselves, easily manipulated, distracting al-Jazzār from siege of ānūr, as endogamous, hierarchical clanship, history by aydar Amad al-Shihāb, as key to military highway north, local fights readily becoming proxy wars, pursuing local rivalries without interference from Ottoman governors, receding power in Tiberias region, as religious community or ethnicity with feudalist structures, repeated assessments for extortionate bribes, Shihāb clan, success against al-Jazzār’s troops, inability to unite, Sulaymān Pasha relying on alliances, āhir wary of
Exports: alkali, olive oil, rice, sesame oil, silk, soap, tobacco, wood, see also Commerce; Cotton; Cotton trade; Wheat
Famines: of of
Farī family, see also aim Farī
Fāris Naīf
Fishermen
Fortifications: in 18th Century, map; ‘Abdallāh Pasha’s moat, of Acre by āhir, fortresses in Syrian territory, watchtowers
Forward market (pre-harvest advance purchases from village Shaykhs)
French consular correspondence
French siege
French traders/merchants: al-Jazār expels, find refuge in Jaffa and Ramla, al-Jazzār invites back, attempts to form united buyers’ group, attempts to return after expulsion, competition from Cyprus, English, Dutch, Venetians and coastal merchants, complaints of other French merchants, dependence on Ibrāhīm al-abbāgh, enjoying near monopoly, involvement in local politics, monopoly on marketing and transport of commodities to Europe, in port-based groups called nations, purchasing direct from peasants, reluctant reliance on āhir, replacing British in Levant in 18th Century, sectarianism of little importance to, seeing cotton in Izmir and Salonika after āhir’s death, visions of Levant as French colony, āhir preventing contact between local farmers/brokers and
Gabbay family
Galilee
Gatekeepers
Gautier
Gaza
Goffman, D.
Governments. See Administrative structures; Military affairs/armies; Rulers
Grain. See Wheat
Greek Catholics: Barī family, churches for, dominant role in Acre, as largest Christian group, migration from Damascus and Aleppo to Acre, Mikāīl Fakhr, Mikāīl Jamal, populations, refused to work on earth removal, Yūsuf al-Qassīs, see also al-abbāgh, Ibrāhīm
Greek Orthodox: church for, migration from Nazareth to Acre, populations
Guilds
Haifa: annexation by āhir al‘Umar, defense against governor of Damascus, under control of Nablus, use by corsairs
aim Farī: as al-Jazzār’s top financial advisor, arrest and mutilation, death on orders of protg ‘Abdallāh Pasha, death proposed by religious men in first civilian attempt to participate in power, dependence on support from political system and ruler, disliked by French merchants, intimate friend of Catafago, as Jew in high office, migration of Jews to Acre under patronage of, moves against Abū Nabūt, on prosperity and need for monopolies for money, residences in Acre and Damascus, rise to top power under Sulaymān Pasha
Hajj. See Pilgrimages
Halet Efendi
anā,’ al-‘Awra
Harems
asan Agha
asan Kapūdān Pasha
Hasselquist, Fr.
Health issues: famines, see also Plague
Hebron
Hesekiel al-Baghdādī
Heyd, Uriel
Highways and roads: concern with safety, east-west links, extent and increasing complexity, major military routes, sea lanes, fortresses, map; major trading networks, map; marauding by Banū aqr, marauding by Bedouins, pilgrimage route as military avenue, pilgrimage routes, in poor condition, poor quality as hindrance to invading armies’ vehicles, artillery, cannons (“bad roads as good defense”), routes of European travelers, map; of Syria
‘Imād clan
Immigration: high to account for turnover and attrition, increasing under benign rule of āhir al‘Umar, lack of family ties creating untraditional society with weak structural coherence, Syrian Greek Catholics
Imports, wool cloth from British
Irby, C.
Ismāīl Bey
Ismāīl Bey al-aghīr
Ismāīl Pasha
Izmir as economic center
Jabal ‘Āmil region
al-Jabartī, ‘Abd al-Ramān
Jaffa, map
Janissaries
al-Jarrār clan
Jaubert, A.
Jerusalem: as center of Jewish immigration, as destination for Christian tourists, fortifications, little commerce with coast, as third holiest city of Islam, typical approach from Jaffa
Jews: anti-Semitism, sectarian, blood libel case of Damascus, few in Acre, in high office, immigration of Polish, to Safed, migration to Acre in time of aim Farī, Ottoman shift to eliminate Jewish financiers, populations, of Tiberias, siding with āhir al‘Umar, see also aim Farī
Jirjis Bāz
Kanj Yūsuf Pasha
Kesten report of
Khans
Khazīndar (treasurer)
Korten, J.
Kurds, Dalāt cavalry troops
Latakia
Latins
Lockroy, E.
Maghrebi mercenaries
Maltese pirates
Mamluks: in Egypt, in Syrian region
Mangles, J.
Marketplaces
Maronites
Marseilles: chamber of commerce dissolved, trade impossible, monopoly over French Mediterranean trade, as recipient of Acre merchandise
Mashook
Masons
Mas‘ūd al-Māī
Maydānī merchants
Mercenaries. See Military affairs/armies
Merchandise. See Commerce
Metualis, map
Mikhāīl Fakhr
Mikhāīl Jamal
Military affairs/armies: ‘Abdallāh Pasha’s, Albanian soldiers, al-Jazzār’s, Bosnian troops, commanders, Dalāt cavalry troops, Druze ad hoc military levies, little innovation in tactics, technology, or organization, Maghrebi mercenaries, mercenaries hired by al-Jazzār, mercenary entrepreneurs gathering volunteers, military-political structures, troops prone to plunder, of varied ethnicities, expensive, undisciplined, of questionable effectiveness, āhir’s arming of male townspeople, āhir’s standing army, see also Fortifications
Military routes: control of Jaffa critical to, highways’ poor quality as hindrance to invading armies’ vehicles, artillery, cannons (“bad roads as good defense”), major routes, sea lanes, fortresses, map; multiplying toward Damascus
Millet system
Mishāqa
Monopolies: becoming permanent feature and tool of successive governments, creating hardship and famine ignored by rulers, forcing commerce away from Acre, by French of marketing and transport to Europe, aim Farī’s scheme and reasoning for, as key to rise of Beirut, by Marseilles over French Mediterranean trade, other nationalities occasionally challenging French, as radical break with existing patterns, refinements by Sulaymān Pasha under aim Farī and Catafago, repartition as means to avoid competitive bidding by traders, role in eventual economic failure and political downfall of Acre, on soap production, by Sulaymān Pasha on wheat causing peasant unrest, by Sulaymān Pasha on wheat, cotton, olive oil, tobacco, various products subject to, by āhīr over cotton, but not always total, āhir’s astuteness regarding potential of
Mosques
Mount Lebanon region: Druze centered on, map; silk as cash crop
Muammad Abū Maraq
Muammad Agha
Muammad ‘Alī of Egypt: enhancing agricultural production through infrastructure and land ownership improvements, interference in favor of ‘Abdallāh Pasha, massacre of Mamluks, sustained, systematic effort toward export-oriented agriculture, using economic might and monopolies to build strength of state
Muammad ‘Aqīl
Mullā Ismāīl
Muslim quarter
Muslims: absence of elite of well-established families, mosques for, plague hitting harder than Christians (1806), population estimates, Wahhabis/Wahhabiyya sect
Muafā Barbar
Muafā ibn Qarā Mullā
Muafā Pasha
Mutasallim
Nablus: balance of impotence in civil war, as discrete region at political periphery, highway connection to Acre and Jaffa, Mount Nablus region integrating into world economy, Sulaymān Pasha’s alliance with ūqāns, āhir’s challenge over Damascene trade route, map; āhir unable to annex
Nābulusī clan
Napoleon
Nations (port-based groups of French traders)
Naval warfare: absent from āhir’s strategic thinking, al-Jazzār’s battle with Maltese corsairs, of secondary importance due to lack of ships
Nazareth: approached from Acre, as destination for Christian tourists, under Druze control, āhir al-‘Umar’s challenge over Damascene trade route, map
Negociants
Occupations: bookkeepers, carpenters, fishermen, gatekeepers, masons, mule-, camel-, and donkey-drivers, palace guards, physicians, scribes, secretaries, tax collectors, teachers, see also Administrative structures; Military affairs/armies; Society and its structure
Olive oil
Olivier, G. A.
Ottoman Empire: al-Jazzār playing “Ottoman game,” attempts to control cotton sales in order to collect taxes, attempts to prevent wheat exports to Europe, Capitulations negotiated with France, defenseless against unbelievers and heretics, facing new European presence in eastern Mediterranean, to French commentators, example of harmful despotism, lack of infrastructure, as loose arrangement of autonomous cities, massive bribes for appointments to provincial governorships, newly strengthened central government of mid-19th Century, power centers resurfacing in Arab provinces in 18th Century, provinces as part of “penetrated system,” provinces of Damascus, Sidon, and Tripolis in early 18th Century, map; regions as economic centers yet at political periphery, Russo-Turkish war, shift to eliminate Jewish financiers, Syria as essential overland link to Egypt, uncertain authority in provinces, weakness at center leading to pressure for local autonomy
Palace guards
Palestine: as anachronistic label, see also Acre and its realm
Physicians
Pilgrimages: annual to Mecca, under Damascus governor, annual to Mecca, with Damascus as starting point for, by Copts to Jerusalem, of European Christians to Jerusalem, major routes of, map; plundering of caravans by Bedouins, suspension for several years by
Pillavoine
Piracy, pirates, and corsairs
Plague: of of 1785/86, of of 1812/13, hitting Muslims harder than Christians (quarantine and seclusion), resulting in anti-Christian measures
Populations and migration trends: Acre (the city), 193fig., al-Jazzār’s brutal rule, tax burden, leading to depopulation, Beirut’s unparalled population growth, Christians as majority in Acre in 18th Century, continuing depopulation under Sulaymān Pasha, Greek Catholics, Greek Orthodox, immigration stimulated by āhir, inaccuracy of estimates, Jewish, Jewish, Latins, Maronites, Muslims, turnover and total immigration high
Ports: Acre as sole port for exports on Syrian coast, Acre’s harbor as useless, Acre’s harbor fortified, Jaffa
Prix fixe/raisonable
Public utilities
Qarā Muammad
Ramla
Religions: from absence of, to development of intersectarian tensions, and local civilian attempt to participate in power, Muslim Wahhabis/Wahhabiyya sect, Sufism, see also Christians; Dhimmīs (non-Muslim minorities); Jews; Latins; Muslims
Renaudot: on al-Jazzār’s good fortune in war, al-Jazzār’s pique and expulsion of French, description of al-Jazzār’s caravan-cum-parade to Damascus, plans for renovation and expansion of French khan, questioning lack of loyalty in al-Jazzār’s subordinates, on society in Acre and its realm, suggestions to al-Jazzār for building trade through Acre, suspicion of al-Jazzār’s motives in fights with Druze, thoughts on despotism, word portrait of al-Jazzār
Répartition as means to avoid competitive bidding by traders
Rice
Roads. See Highways and roads
Ruffin
al-Rukaynī
Rulers: of Acre as self-made usurpers challenged by powerful political elite, amīr (Druze title of rank), amīr ākim (Druze title of rank), mutasallim, as strong vis-à-vis weak society, see also ‘Abdallāh Pasha; Administrative structures; Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzār; Sulaymān Pasha; āhir al‘Umar
Russian fleet in eastern Mediterranean
Russo-Turkish war
al-abbāgh, ‘Abbūd
al-abbāgh, abīb
al-abbāgh, Ibrāhīm: convinced of imminent collapse of Ottoman Empire, death and confiscation of wealth in dependence on support from political system and ruler, French dependence on, grandfather of contemporary historian, as Greek Catholic, as powerful, wealthy adviser to āhir, preventing contact between local farmers/brokers and French, refusal of money to save āhir
al-abbāgh, Mikāīl Niqūlā
Safed: as center of Jewish immigration, conquered by āhir al-‘Umar
Sakrūj brothers
āli Bey
Salīm Pasha al-aghīr
Salt works
ānūr
aqr tribe
Sassouns family
Schatkowski Schilcher, L.
Scribes
Sea lanes, map
Sea trade: for Acre and dependencies, table; for Beirut, table
Secretaries
Seraglio
Sesame oil
Shaykh (Druze title of rank)
Shaykh Khālid
al-Shihāb, aydar Amad
Shihāb clan, see also Amīr Bashīr Shihāb
Shūr, N.
Sidon
Silk
Slaughterhouse
Smith, Sidney
Soap
Society and its structure: absence of distinct commercial and religious elites, absence of guilds, absence of indigenous merchant class, absence of Muslim elite, commercial group’s vulnerability to whims of political strongmen, deterioration of intercommunity relations, elites enjoying enormous incomes, European impact visible, imitation of European dress, immigrant basis, lack of family ties, weak structural coherence, informational sources meager, international merchant families as urban elite, religious men bringing first civilian attempt to participate in power, liquidation of aim Farī, rulers as strong vis-à-vis weak society, townspeople as patient, submissive, humble, see also Christians; Jews; Military affairs/armies; Occupations
Sources: absence of local archives, al-Rukaynī, French consular correspondence, inaccuracy of population estimates, local eyewitness, contemporary histories, meagerness on society and its structure, Ottoman archives, primary, regional historians, secondary and scholarly literature, tourists’ reports, travel literature
Sufism
Sulaymān Pasha al-‘Ādil (“The Just”), biographical details (in chronological order): ruled (1750?): birth in Caucasus, possibly Georgia, (1785): appointed governor of Tripoli, (1789): role in Mamluk rebellion against al-Jazzār, subsequent forgiveness, (1802): sent by al-Jazzār against Druze, (1804): successful siege of Acre, (1805): appointed governor of Sidon, speech to officials, earns sobriquet “The Just,” (1806): successful siege of Jaffa, (ca. 1806): establishing order in Jerusalem, (ca. 1806): given control over sanjaks of Gaza, Jaffa, and Jerusalem, (ca. 1806): pacifying and repopulating Jabal ‘Āmil region, reassuring Metualis, (1807): alliance with ūqān clan in Mount Nablus, (1807): threat from British, (1809–11): appointed governor of Damascus, ruling virtually all of Syrian region, map, (1810–11): inflation of wheat prices due to monopoly, massive exports to British, peasant unrest, (1814): ‘Abdallāh Pasha named as successor, (1816): insistence on exporting wheat in face of famine, (1816): twice trustee for governor of Damascus, (1817): balance of impotence in civil war in Nablus, (1819): death
Sulaymān Pasha al-‘Ādil (“The Just”), overview: achieving high internal security, administrative structures, giving up control of Beirut, improvements to Acre, influencing Mount Lebanon affairs through alliances, influencing Nablus affairs by diplomacy, intimate knowledge of local politics, local eyewitness histories of, policies ensuring Acre as sole export port in Syrian coast, refinements of monopolies, road improvement attempts, sense of moderation, deliberation, diplomacy, wise reduction in military capacity and tax burden, reliance on negotiations and Mamluks
Synagogue converted to mosque
Syrian region (Bilād al-Shām): consolidation of local centers of power, as essential overland link to Egypt in imperial strategy, fortresses and territory, French trading groups (nations) in early 1700s, highways and roads, sieges and invasions by Egypt, see also Acre and its realm; Beirut; Damascus; Druze
ahā al-Kurdī
anūra
arbīa
Tax collectors
Teachers
Tiberias: under Druze control, āhir al-‘Umar’s defense of, āhir al-‘Umar’s takeover of
Tobacco
Tourism, map
Trade. See Commerce
Transportation issues. See Highways and roads
Travel literature as historical source
Tripoli/Tripolis, map
Troops. See Military affairs/armies
ūqān clan
Tyre
‘Ulama
‘Uthmān al-‘Umar
‘Uthmān Pasha al-Kurjī
Verrayon, M.
Veziers
Volney, M
Wahhabis/Wahhabiyya sect
Watchtowers
Wazīr (title of rank)
Wheat: British demand for, exports from Acre, table, graph; exports, quarterly, from Acre, table; export value, quarterly, from Acre, graph; forward market (pre-harvest advance purchases) from village shaykhs, highly profitable exports to Britain, local selling price set to avoid bread riots, monopoly by Sulaymān Pasha causing shortages and peasant unrest, prices in Acre, table, graph; production reduced in favor of cotton, profits at 100 percent in 1730s, sale to Malta and Greek islands, subject to monopolies by rulers of Acre, trade as critical to Damascus
Women, veiled in public
Wood
Wool cloth from British
Yūsuf al-Qardāī
Yūsuf al-Qassīs
Yūsuf Pasha
āhir, al-‘Umar al-Zaydānī, biographical details (in chronological order): (1690): birth and family, (1707): brawl and killing as a teenager, (1707): move to reside with aqr tribe, (1713–18): schooling, hunting, fighting, becomes regional folk hero, (1720s): gains respect as merchant, (1722?): marries daughter of elite of Damascus, moves to Nazareth, inherits wife’s father’s fortune, (1725?): chosen by aqr tribe as representative to governor of Sidon, (1730): challenging Nablus for control of Damascene trade routes, map; (1730): takeover, eventual fortification of Tiberias, (1730s): expansion of realm in northeast and east Galilee, hire of mercenaries, and consolidation of control, map; pacification of Galilee and safety for travelers, (1734): conflict with governors of Damascus, (1735?): contesting French control of cotton trade, expanding power base, (1738 and 1741): thwarting attacks on Tiberias, (1739): decision to use rubble of Acre to build center of realm, (1739): takeover of Ba‘na by marriage to daughter of ruler, (1740): execution of nephew, (1740s): taking of Acre, (1743–57): peaceful standoff with Damascus, (1744–65): consolidation of power, monopolies of cotton exports, benign rule encouraging immigration, (1750): fortification and rebuilding of Acre, (1750s): policy of preventing contact between local farmers/ brokers and French, (1751): rebuilding walls of Acre, (1757): annexation of Haifa, Mount Carmel, and Tantura, map; (1760s): clashes and alliance with Metualis, map; (1766): defense of Haifa against governor of Damascus, (1767): de facto multazim of Jabal ‘Āmil region, (1768): given titles in recognition by Ottoman government, (1770): continuing threat from ‘Uthmān Pasha, new fortification of Acre, reconciliation with sons, arming of male townspeople, (1770s): alliance with ‘Alī Bey al-Kabīr, (1770–75): war with Damascus, Nablus, and Mamluk factions from Egypt, (1771): taking of Sidon and Jaffa, map; (1773): reconciliation between Metualis, Druze, and āhir, (1774): named governor (on decree lacking sultan’s signature), (1774): problems with sons, (1775): governorship evaporates, Egyptians take and plunder Jaffa, (1775): Acre plundered by son ‘Alī, invaded by Egyptians, (1775): Ibrāhīm al-abbāgh’s refusal of money to save āhir, (1775): betrayal and death in flight from Acre, ruled
āhir, al‘Umar al-Zaydānī, overview: clan-based administrative structures, contemporary eyewitness sources for, desirous of good relations with Damascus, eagerness to maintain contact with, and pay taxes to, Istanbul, independence yet readiness to challenge authority of Ottoman governors, investment in peasants’ productivity, safety, as stimulant to immigration, reliance on military support and presence, standing army, in special niche as merchant-turned-ruler, founder of Acre as new center for export trade
Zaydānī clan