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Abagnale, Frank, 173
academia:
conflicts of interest in, 82, 84–85
financial services industry’s influence in, 84–85
group-based projects in, 217–18
pharmaceutical companies’ influence in, 82
academic credentials, misrepresentation of, 135–36, 153, 154
accounting firms:
collaborative dishonesty in, 218–21
“in good faith” notion and, 219–20
Adam and Eve, 98
Adams, Mike, 107
advertising agencies, link between creativity and dishonesty in, 186–87
aesthetic preferences, impact of favors on, 75–77
Afghanistan War, 152
altruistic cheating, 222–23, 225–26, 232
supervisory effect and, 227–28
American Medical Association, 79
Amir, On, 15, 18, 31–32, 39, 262
Apple, 184
atheists, swearing on bible and, 40, 41, 42
Atlantic, 214–15
Austen, Jane, 154–55
Avnaim-Pesso, Liora, 102
Ayal, Shahar, 197, 225, 263
bacterial infections, 192–93
Balleisen, Ed, 188
bankers, cheating among politicians vs., 243
banks:
small misbehaviors of, 240
see also financial services industry
Barkan, Racheli, 21, 23, 262
Barlow, John Perry, 1, 2
baseball, steroids in, 156
Bateson, Melissa, 224
Baumeister, Roy, 100, 104, 262–63
Baylor College of Medicine, 75–77
Bazerman, Max, 45, 260
Becker, Gary, 3–4, 14, 26
Be’er Sheva, Israel, farmer’s market in, 23–24
being caught, probability of, 4–5, 13, 14, 27
varying, in matrix task, 20–22
benevolent behavior, 23–24
Bible, as moral reminder, 40, 41, 42
billable hours, overstating of, 35–37
blind customers, benevolent behavior toward, 23–26
brain:
higher connectivity in, 170
left-right split in, 164–65
of pathological liars, 169–70
Broken Windows Theory, 214–15, 249
businesspeople, self-monitoring of, 56–57
business schools, 248
group-based projects in, 217–18
cab drivers, benevolent behavior of, toward blind customer, 25–26
CAD/CAM equipment, in dentistry, 67–71
Cain, Daylian, 89
Canada, cheating in, 242
care for customers, in illegal businesses, 138–39
car mechanics, 93
Carnegie Mellon University, 197–207
car recommendation software, “fixing” answers in, 166–67
Cary, Apoth E., 246
cashless society, implications for dishonesty in, 34
Catch Me If You Can (Abagnale), 173
certificates for (false) achievements, 153–54
Chance, Zoë, 145, 264
charitable behavior, 23–24
cheating:
aggressive cheaters and, 239
altruistic, 222–23, 225–26, 227–28, 232
being made blatantly aware of, 156–57
being watched and, 223–25, 227
collaborative, see collaborative cheating
desire to benefit from, 12–14, 27, 29, 237
ego depletion, 104–6, 111–12
fake products’ impact on, 125–31
in golf, 55–65
honor codes and, 41–45
increasing creativity to increase level of, 184–87
as infection, 191–216; see also infectious nature of cheating
infidelity and, 244–45
on IQ-like tests, self-deception and, 145–49, 151, 153–54, 156–57
reducing amount of, 39–51, 248–54
removing oneself from tempting situation and, 108–11
signing forms at top and, 46–51
Ten Commandments and, 39–40, 41, 44
what-the-hell effect and, 127–31, 136
see also dishonesty
China, cheating in, 241–42
Chloé accessories, studies with, 123–34
Civil War veterans, 152
classes, infectious nature of cheating in, 195–97
Coca-Cola, stealing money vs., 32–33
cognitive dissonance, 81
cognitive load:
ability to resist temptation and, 99–100
judges’ parole rulings and, 102–3
Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), 173–74
coin logic, 167–68
collaborative cheating, 217–35
altruism and, 222–23, 225–26, 227–28, 232
being watched or monitored and, 223–25, 227–28, 234–35
emphasis on working as group or team and, 217–18
infectious nature of cheating in relation to, 221–22
social utility and, 222–23
companies:
being one step removed from money and, 34–37
irrationality of, 51
see also corporate dishonesty
compliments, insincere, 159
conflicts of interest, 67–95, 238, 248
in academia, 82, 84–85
in dentistry, 67–71, 93, 94, 230
disclosure and, 88–92
dots task and, 129
eradication of, 92–95
exclusion of experimental data and, 86–88
expert witnesses and, 85–86
in financial services industry, 83–85, 93, 94
governmental lobbyists and, 77–78, 94
honesty threshold and, 130–31
inherent inclination to return favors and, 74–75
medical procedures and, 71–74, 92–94, 229
pharmaceutical companies’ influence in academia and, 82
pharma reps and, 78–82
what-the-hell effect and, 129–31
congressional staffers, cheating among, 243
Congress members, PAC money misused by, 208–10
contractors, 93
Conway, Alan, 150–51
Cooper, Cynthia, 215
Cornell University, 250–51
corpora callosa, 164–65
corporate dishonesty:
cheating a little bit and, 239–40
Enron collapse and, 1–3, 192, 207, 215, 234
recent spread of, 192, 207–8
cost-benefit analysis, 4–5, 26–27, 237, 239
infectious nature of cheating and, 201–3, 205
see also Simple Model of Rational Crime
counterfeits, see fake products
creativity, 88, 163–89, 238
brain structure and, 164–65
dark side of, 187–89
fooling oneself and, 165–67
increasing, to increase level of cheating, 184–87
infidelity and, 244
intelligence vs., as predictor of dishonesty, 172–77
link between dishonesty and, 170–72, 186–89
logical-sounding rationales for choices and, 163–64
measures of, 171
moral flexibility and, 186–87
pathological liars and, 168–70
revenge and, 177–84
credit card companies, 239–40
crime, reducing, 52
cultural differences, 240–43
Danziger, Shai, 102
decision making:
creating efficient process for, 167–68
effectiveness of group work in, 217–18
rationalization process and, 163–67
Denfield, George, 75
dentists:
continuity of care and, 228–31
treating patients using equipment that they own, 67–68, 93–94
unnecessary work and, 67–71
depletion, see ego depletion
dieting, 98, 109, 112–13, 114–15
what-the-hell effect and, 127, 130
“dine-and-dash,” 79
diplomas, lying about, 135–36, 153, 154
disabled person, author’s adoption of role of, 143–44
disclosure, 88–92, 248
study on impact of, 89–92
discounting, fixed vs. probabilistic, 194
dishonesty:
causes of, 3–4, 5
collaborative, see collaborative cheating
cultural differences and, 240–43
discouraging small and ubiquitous forms of, 239–40
importance of first act of, 137
infectious nature of, 191–216; see also infectious nature of cheating
intelligence vs. creativity as predictor of, 172–77
link between creativity and, 170–72, 186–89
opportunities for, passed up by vast majority, 238
of others, fake products and assessing of, 131–34
rational and irrational forces in, 254
reducing amount of, 39–51, 248–54
society’s means for dealing with, 4–5
summary of forces that shape (figure), 245
when traveling, 183n
see also cheating
dissertation proposals and defenses, 101
distance factors, 238
in golf, 58–59
stealing Coca-Cola vs. money and, 32–33
token experiment and, 33–34
doctors:
consulting for or investing in drug companies, 82, 93
continuity of care and, 228–29
lecturing about drugs, 81
pharma reps and, 78–82
treating or testing patients with equipment that they own, 92–94
Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, 234
dots task:
conflict of interest and, 129
description of, 127–29
link between creativity and dishonesty and, 171–72, 185–86
what-the-hell effect and, 129–31
downloads, illegal, 137–39
dressing above one’s station, 120–21
Ebbers, Bernie, 13
ego depletion, 100–116, 238, 249
basic idea behind, 101
cheating and, 104–6
in everyday life, 112–16
removing oneself from tempting situations and, 108–11, 115–16
of Sex and the City’s Samantha Jones, 103
sometimes succumbing to temptation and, 114–15
sudden deaths among students’ grandmothers at exam time and, 106–8
ego motivation, 27
England, cheating in, 242
Enron, 1–3, 192, 207, 215, 234
essay mills, 210–13
exams, sudden deaths among students’ grandmothers and, 106–8
exhaustion, 249
consumption of junk food and, 97–98
judges’ parole rulings and, 102–3
see also ego depletion
experimental data, exclusion of, 86–88
expert witnesses, 85–86
explanations, logical-sounding, creation of, 163–65
external signaling, 120–22
dressing above one’s station and, 120–21
fake products and, 121–22
failures, tendency to turn blind eye to, 151
“fair,” determination of what is, 57
fake products, 119, 121–40, 238
illegal downloads and, 137–39
misrepresentation of academic credentials and, 135–36
rationalizations and, 134–35
self-signaling and, 123–26, 135
signaling value of authentic version diluted by, 121–22
suspiciousness of others and, 131–34
what-the-hell effect and, 127–31, 135
farmer’s market, benevolent behavior toward blind customer in, 23–24
fashion, 117–26
counterfeit goods and, 119, 121–22, 121–40, 123–26; see also fake products
dressing above one’s station and, 120–21
external signaling and, 120–22
self-signaling and, 122–26
Fastow, Andrew, 2
favors, 74–82
aesthetic preferences and, 75–77
governmental lobbyists and, 77–78
inherent inclination to return, 74–75
pharma reps and, 78–82
see also conflicts of interest
Fawal-Farah, Freeda, 117, 118
FBI, 215
Fedorikhin, Sasha, 99–100
Feynman, Richard, 165
financial crisis of 2008, 83–85, 192, 207, 234, 246–47
financial favors, aesthetic preferences and, 77
financial services industry:
anonymous monitoring and, 234–35
cheating among politicians vs., 243
conflicts of interest in, 83–85, 93, 94
government regulation of, 234
fishing, lying about, 28
Frederick, Shane, 173
friends, invited to join in questionable behavior, 195
fudge factor theory, 27–29, 237
acceptable rate of lying and, 28–29, 91
distance between actions and money and, 34–37
getting people to cheat less and, 39–51
infidelity and, 244
rationalization of selfish desires and, 53
stealing Coca-Cola vs. money and, 32–33
Gazzaniga, Michael, 164–65
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), 219–20
generous behavior, 23–24
Get Rich Cheating (Kreisler), 14
Gilovich, Tom, 250, 263–64
Gino, Francesca, 45, 104, 123, 127, 131, 145, 170, 184, 197, 225, 234–35, 242, 258–59
Glass, Ira, 6
Gneezy, Ayelet, 177, 257–58
golf, 55–65
cheating by “average golfer” vs. study participants and, 63–64
mistallying score in, 61–64
moving location of ball in, 58–59, 63
mulligans in, 60–61, 63–64
self-monitoring in, 56–57
survey on cheating in, 57–64
government regulations, 234
grandmothers, sudden deaths of, at exam time, 106–8
gray matter, 169–70
Green, Jennifer Wideman, 117
grocery shopping, ego depletion and, 109, 112–13
group or team work, 220–23
performance unaffected by, 233
possible benefits of, 223
predominance of, in professional lives, 217–18, 235
social utility and, 222–23
see also collaborative cheating
Grüneisen, Aline, 210–11, 257
guilt, self-inflicted pain and, 250–52
Harford, Tim, 3–4
Harper’s Bazaar, 117–18
Harvard Medical School, 82
Harvey, Ann, 75
Henn, Steve, 209
heretics, external signaling of, 120
Hinduism, 25
honesty threshold, 130–31
honor codes, 41–45, 204
ideological organizations, 232n
“I knew it all along” feeling, 149
illegal businesses, loyalty and care for customers in, 138–39
impulsive (or emotional) vs. rational (or deliberative) parts of ourselves, 97–106
cognitive load and, 99–100
ego depletion and, 100–106
exhaustion and, 97–98
Inbar, Yoel, 250, 264
infectious nature of cheating, 191–216, 249
bacterial infections compared to, 192–93
in class, 195–97
collaborative cheating in relation to, 221–22
Congress members’ misuse of PAC money and, 208–10
corporate dishonesty and, 192, 207–8
cost-benefit analysis and, 201–3, 205
essay mills and, 210–13
matrix task and, 197–204
positive side of moral contagion and, 215–16
regaining ethical health and, 214–15
slow and subtle process of accretion in, 193–94, 214–15
social norms and, 195, 201–3, 205–7, 209
social outsiders and, 205–7
vending machine experiment and, 194–95
infidelity, 244–45
“in good faith” notion, 219–20
Inside Job, 84–85
insurance claims, 49–51
intelligence:
creativity vs., as predictor of dishonesty, 172–77
measures of, 173–75
IQ-like tests, cheating and self-deception on, 145–49
certificates emphasizing (false) achievement and, 153–54
increasing awareness of cheating and, 156–57
individuals’ tendency to turn a blind eye to their own failures and, 151
IRS, 47–49
Islam, 249
Israel, cheating in, 241
Italy, cheating in, 242
Jerome, Jerome K., 28
Jobs, Steve, 184
Jones, Bobby, 56
Jones, Marilee, 136
Judaism, 45, 249
judges, exhausted, parole decisions and, 102–3
junk food, exhaustion and consumption of, 97–98
Keiser, Kenneth, 135
Kelling, George, 214–15
John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Washington, D.C., 6–7
Kirk, Ulrich, 75
Kreisler, Jeff, 13–14
Kubrick, Stanley, 150–51
Landis, Floyd, 155
Larez, Thomas, 152
law firms, overstating of billable hours in, 35–37
lawyers, conflicts of interest and, 93
Lay, Kenneth, 2
left brain, 164–65
Legend of Bagger Vance, The, 55–56
Less Stress, More Success (Jones), 136
Levav, Jonathan, 102
lobbyists, governmental, 77–78, 94
locks, as protection from mostly honest people, 38
Loewenstein, George, 89
Logic of Life, The (Harford), 3–4
long-term relationships with service providers, 228–31
Lord of the Rings, The (Tolkien), 223
loyalty, in illegal businesses, 138–39
Luce, Mary Frances, 229, 259–60
lying:
acceptable rate of, 28–29
dressing above one’s station as, 120–21
to ourselves, 141–61; see also self-deception
pathological, brain structure and, 168–70
publicly, capacity for self-deception and, 153–54
white lies and, 159–61
Madoff, Bernie, 173, 192
Maharabani, Eynav, 21, 24–26, 258
Marvel, William, 152
Marx, Groucho, 1
matrix task, 15–23
aggressive cheaters and, 239
cheating one step removed from money in (token condition), 33–34
with close supervision, 226–27
with collaborative element, 225–28
concerns about standing out and, 22–23
control and shredder conditions in, 17–18
cultural differences and, 240–43
ego depletion and, 106
fake products and, 125–26
honor codes and, 41–44
infectious nature of cheating and, 197–204
with moral reminders, 39–44, 46–47
self-paying condition in, 20, 21
sign-at-the-top vs. sign-at-the-bottom conditions in, 46–47
task in, 15–16
tax reporting and, 45–47
varying amount of money in, 18–20
varying probability of getting caught in, 20–22
Mazar, Nina, 15, 18, 31–32, 39, 45, 194, 261
McGwire, Mark, 156
McKenzie, Scott, 57, 263
Mead, Nicole, 104, 261
medical device reps, 80
medical schools, pharmaceutical companies’ influence in, 82
medicine, conflicts of interest in, 71–74, 78–82, 92–94
see also pharma reps
memento mori, 247
Middle Tennessee State University, 44–45
MIT:
Charm School at, 153
honor code study at, 41–42, 43
matrix task study at, 15–21
money:
directly stealing, 32–33
distance between our actions and, 34–37
monitoring or watching, as disincentive to cheating, 223–25, 227–28, 234–35
Montague, Read, 75
Moore, Don, 89
moral considerations, 4, 13, 14
amount of cheating and, 23, 27
cognitive flexibility and, 27–28, 186–87, 242
moral reminders, 39–52, 238, 248, 249–50
decline in effectiveness of, over time, 44n
honor codes and, 41–45
infectious nature of cheating and, 203–4
signing forms at top and, 46–51
Ten Commandments and, 39–40, 41, 44, 250
mortgage-backed securities, 83–85
Mulligan, David, 60
mulligans, 60–61, 63–64
“Myth of the King of Gyges” (Plato), 223
Nettle, Daniel, 224
New York Times, 82, 150
Nisbett, Richard, 163–64
nonmonetary objects, dishonesty in presence of, 32–34
stealing Coca-Cola vs. money and, 32–33
token condition and, 33–34
Norton, Michael, 123, 127, 131, 145, 260–61
not-for-profits, 232n
Odysseus, 98
Opus Dei, 250–52
Ozdenoren, Emre, 114–15
Palmer, Arnold, 62
parking tickets, 4
parole hearings, judges’ exhaustion and, 102–3
pharmaceutical companies, 93
impact in academia of, 82
pharma reps, 78–82
“dine-and-dash” strategy of, 79
doctors’ lectures and, 81
small gifts and free drug samples from, 78
Picasso, Pablo, 184
Pizarro, David, 250, 258
plagiarism, 213
cultural differences and, 242–43
Plato, 223
Pogue, David, 178–80
political action committees (PACs), 208–10
political organizations, 232n
politicians, cheating among bankers vs., 243
postal service, U.S., 188
Prada bags:
fake, 119, 122
real, given to author, 118–19, 122, 140
Predictably Irrational (Ariely), illegal downloads of, 137–39
preferences, creating logical-sounding reasons for, 163–64
prefrontal cortex, 169–70
Princeton University, honor code study at, 42–44
probabilistic discounting, 194
prostitutes, external signaling of, 120
prudence, principle of, 220n
punishment, 13, 52
cost-benefit analysis and, 5, 13, 14
self-cleansing, in resetting rituals, 250–52
Rather, Dan, 152
rationalization of selfish desires:
of Austen characters, 154–55
fake products and, 134–35
fudge factor and, 27–28, 53, 237
link between creativity and dishonesty and, 172
revenge and, 177–84
tax returns and, 27–28
see also self-justification
reason vs. desire, 97–106
cognitive load and, 99–100
ego depletion and, 100–106
exhaustion and, 97–98
“Recollections of the Swindle Family” (Cary), 246
religion:
reminders of moral obligations and, 45, 249–50; see also Ten Commandments
resetting rituals and, 249, 250–52
reminders:
of made-up achievements, 153–54, 238
see also moral reminders
resetting rituals, 249, 250–54
to change views on stealing, 252–53
self-inflicted pain and, 249, 250–52
Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa and, 253–54
résumés, fake credentials in, 135–36, 153
revenge, 177–84
annoyance at bad service and, 177–80
author’s tale of, during European travels, 180–84
Rich, Frank, 150
right brain, 164–65
Roberts, Gilbert, 224
Rogers, Will, 55, 57
Rome, ancient:
memento mori reminders in, 247
sumptuary laws in, 120
Romeo and Juliet, 98
Rowley, Coleen, 215
Salant, Steve, 115
Salling, John, 152
Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 234
Schrödinger’s cat, 62–63
Schwartz, Janet, 80, 229, 259
Schweitzer, Maurice, 104, 260
scorekeeping, dishonesty in, 61–64
self-deception, 141–61
author’s personal experience of, 143–44
cheating on IQ-like tests and, 145–49, 151, 153–54, 156–57
“I knew it all along” feeling and, 149
Kubrick imitator and, 150–51
negative aspects of, 158–59
people with higher tendency for, 151
positive aspects of, 158
reducing tendency for, 156–57
reminders of made-up achievements and, 153–54, 238
repeating lies over and over and, 142–43
selfishness of Austen characters and, 154–55
in sports, 155–56
veterans’ false claims and, 152
white lies and, 159–61
self-flagellation, 250–52
self-image:
amount of cheating and, 23, 27
fudge factor and, 27–29
self-indulgence, rational, 115–16
selfishness, see rationalization of selfish desires
self-justification:
creation of logical-sounding explanations and, 163–65
link between creativity and dishonesty and, 172
mulligans and, 60–61
repositioning golf ball and, 61
see also rationalization of selfish desires
self-signaling, 122–26
basic idea of, 122
charitable acts and, 122–23
fake products and, 123–26, 135
what-the-hell effect and, 127–31
Sense and Sensibility (Austen), 154–55
service providers, long-term relationships with, 228–31
service records, exaggerated, 152–53
Sessions, Pete, 209
Sex and the City, 103–4
Shakespeare, William, 184
shareholder value, maximizing of, 208n
Shiv, Baba, 99–100
shopping malls, susceptibility to temptation in, 113
Shu, Lisa, 45, 259
signing forms at top vs. bottom, 46–51
insurance claims and, 49–51
tax reporting and, 46–49
Silverman, Dan, 114–15
Simple Model of Rational Crime (SMORC), 4–6, 11–29, 53, 201, 238, 248
author’s alternative theory to, 27–28; see also fudge factor theory
guest lecturer’s satirical presentation on, 11–14
life in hypothetical world based on, 5–6
matrix task and, 15–23
tested in real-life situations, 23–26
sincerity, principle of, 220n
Skilling, Jeffrey, 2
social norms, infectious nature of cheating and, 195, 201–3, 205–7, 209
social utility, collaborative cheating and, 222–23
South Africa, Truth and Reconciliation Commission in, 253–54
split-brain patients, 164
sports, self-deception in, 155–56
stealing:
Coca-Cola vs. money, 32–33
joke about, 31
resetting mechanisms and, 252–53
from workplace, 31, 33, 193
steroids, in sports, 155–56
storytelling:
creation of logical-sounding explanations and, 163–65
reinterpreting information in self-serving way in, 187–88
self-deception and, 142–43
Stroop task, 109–12
opportunity to cheat on, 111–12
Suckers, Swindlers, and an Ambivalent State (Balleisen), 188
sumptuary laws, 120
sunshine policies, 88, 91–92
suspiciousness of others:
fake products and, 131–34
self-deception and, 158–59
Tali (research assistant), 21, 24–26
Taliban, 152
Talmud, 45
Tang, Thomas, 44
tax returns, 45–49
IRS reaction to author’s findings on, 47–49
rationalization of exaggerated deductions in, 27–28
signing at top vs. bottom, 46–49
technological frontiers, potential for dishonesty and, 188
temptation, resisting of:
cognitive load and, 99–100
dieting and, 98, 109, 112–13, 114–15
ego depletion and, 100–116
evenings as difficult time for, 102
physical exhaustion and, 97–98
removing oneself from tempting situations and, 108–11, 115–16
in shopping malls, 113
Ten Commandments, 39–40, 41, 44, 204, 250
This American Life, 6–7
Three Men in a Boat (to Say Nothing of the Dog) (Jerome), 28
Time, 215
token experiment, 33–34
Tolkien, J. R. R., 223
Tour de France, 155
tragedy-of-the-commons situations, 40–41
travel reimbursements, 46, 47
Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 253–54
Turkey, cheating in, 242
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 39–40
University of Newcastle, 224
University of Pittsburgh, 204–7
University of Waterloo, Canada, 155
Upside of Irrationality, The (Ariely), 177
U.S. Open (1925), 56
vending machine study, 194–95
veterans, exaggerated service records and, 152–53
Wall Street Journal, 135
Wang, Shirley, 241–42
Warner Bros., 150
watching or monitoring, as disincentive to cheating, 223–25, 227–28, 234–35
Watkins, Sherron, 215
Weiss, Dan, 6–7
what-the-hell effect, 127–31
combating moral deterioration of, 140
dieting and, 127, 130
fake academic credentials and, 136
fake products and, 127–31, 135
honesty threshold and, 130–31
resetting rituals and, 249, 250–53
white lies, 159–61
white matter, in brain, 170
Wilde, Oscar, 28
willpower, see temptation, resisting of
Wilson, Duff, 82
Wilson, James, 214–15
Wilson, Wim, 163–64
wishful blindness, 2
work hours, viewing decisions in terms of, 86n
workplace, stealing at, 31, 33, 193
WorldCom, 13, 215
Yale, honor code experiment at, 41–42
Yang, Yaling, 168–70