The following abbreviations appear in the notes. Numbers immediately following manuscript and repository information denote reelframe or box:folder.
BR |
Bayard T. Rustin Papers. Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division, Washington, D.C. |
BU |
Boston University, Mugar Memorial Library, Department of Special Collections, Boston |
CD |
Chicago Defender |
CR |
Cleveland Robinson Papers. Tamiment Institute Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University |
CUMD |
Columbia University, Butler Library, Rare Book and Manuscript Division, New York |
CUOH |
Columbia University Oral History Collection, Butler Library, New York |
FBI Jones Logs |
Clarence B. Jones New York File—Surveillance Logs, David Garrow, FOIA Accession. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library |
FBI Levison Logs |
Stanley Levison New York File—Surveillance Logs, David Garrow, FOIA Accession. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York |
HL |
Highlander Research and Education Center Papers. State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Social Action Collections, Madison |
JFKL |
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston |
KC |
Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Inc. King Library and Archives, Atlanta |
KPBU |
Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers. Mugar Memorial Library, Department of Special Collections, Boston University |
KPKC |
Papers of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Inc., King Library and Archives, Atlanta |
KPKC(3) |
Papers of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Series III. Speeches, Sermons, Articles, Statements. Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Inc., King Library and Archives, Atlanta |
LAT |
Los Angeles Times |
LBJL |
Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library, Austin, Texas |
LBJT |
LBJ Presidential Telephone Tapes. Miller Center for Public Affairs, University of Virginia, accessed via http://www.millercenter.org, 2003–5 |
LC |
Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division, Washington, D.C. |
LID |
League for Industrial Democracy Records, 1920–70. Tamiment Institute Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University |
MLK-FBI File, ed. |
Michael Friedly and David Gallen, eds. Martin |
Friedly and Gallen |
Luther King, Jr.: The FBI File. New York: Carroll and Graf, 1993. |
MLK FBI Micro |
The Martin Luther King, Jr., FBI File [Microfilm]. Ed. David J. Garrow. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1984. |
MLK-Levison FBI Micro |
The Martin Luther King, Jr., FBI File. Part 2. The King-Levison File [Microfilm]. Ed. David J. Garrow. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1984. |
MSRC |
Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Manuscript Department, Howard University, Washington, D.C. |
NAACP |
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Records. Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division, Washington, D.C. |
NAACP Micro |
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. August Meier, John H. Bracey, and L. Lee Yanike. Papers of the NAACP [Microform]. Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1987. |
NUL |
Records of the National Urban League, 1910–86. Library of Congress, Manuscripts Division, Washington, D.C. |
NYAN |
New York Amsterdam News |
NYT |
New York Times |
NYU |
New York University, Tamiment Institute Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives |
Papers 1 |
The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. Vol. 1., ed. Clayborne Carson, Ralph Luker, and Penny A. Russell. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. |
Papers 2 |
The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. Vol. 2., ed. Clayborne Carson, Ralph E. Luker, Penny A. Russell, and Peter Holloran. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. |
Papers 3 |
The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. Vol. 3., ed. Clayborne Carson, Stewart Burns, and Susan Carson. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. |
Papers 4 |
The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. Vol. 4., ed. Clayborne Carson, Susan Carson, Adrienne Clay, Virginia Shadron, and Kiernan Taylor. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. |
Papers 5 |
The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. Vol. 5., ed. Clayborne Carson, Tenisha Armstrong, Susan Carson, Adrienne Clay, and Kiernan Taylor. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. |
PC |
Pittsburgh Courier |
POLL |
Roper Center for Public Opinion Research. University of Connecticut, iPoll Data Base, accessed via Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 2003–5. |
RJB |
Ralph J. Bunche Oral History Collection. Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Manuscript Department, Howard University, Washington, D.C. |
Schomburg |
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library |
SCLC |
Records of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Inc., King Library and Archives, Atlanta |
SCLC Micro |
Records of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1954–1970 [Microfilm]. Part 1, Records of the President’s Office. Ed. Randolph Boehm. Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1995. |
SHSW |
State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Social Action Collections, Madison |
SOHP |
Southern Oral History Program, Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Library. |
SPC |
Septima Poinsette Clark Papers. Avery Institute for Afro-American History and Culture, College of Charleston, Charleston, South Carolina |
WMY |
Whitney M. Young, Jr. Papers. Columbia University. Butler Library, Rare Book and Manuscript Division, Columbia University |
WP |
Washington Post |
1. King, “I Have a Dream,” 28 Aug. 1963, in A Call to Conscience, ed. Carson and Shepard, 81–82.
2. King, “The American Dream,” 4 July 1965, in A Knock at Midnight, ed. Carson and Holloran, 98–99; King, “Address to the Hungry Club,” 15 Dec. 1965, KPKC(3), 12–13.
3. King, “The Birth of a New Age,” 11 Aug. 1956, in Papers 3:346.
4. Harding, “Beyond Amnesia,” 468–69; Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr., 213; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 214; David Garrow, “Martin Luther King Jr., and the Spirit of Leadership,” in We Shall Overcome, ed. Albert and Hoffman, 29; Jose Yglesias, “Dr. King’s March on Washington Part II,” NYT, 21 Mar. 1967.
5. Ted Poston, “Negroes of Montgomery,” New York Post, 15 and 19 June 1956, in Reporting Civil Rights, ed. Carson, 271. King, “The Non-Violence Of Dr. M. L. King,” NYAN, 30 July 1966.
6. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 197–99; Dyson, I May Not Get There with You, 37, 82; Lischer, Preacher King, 189; Cone, Martin & Malcolm & America, 282; Lewis Harlan, “Thoughts on the Leadership of Martin Luther King Jr.,” in We Shall Overcome, ed. Albert and Hoffman, 67.
7. King modified one of his self-help set pieces in an address to high school students in 1964, adding “one extreme” to the recommendation: “And so if it falls your lot to be a street sweeper, to carry it to one extreme, set out to sweep streets like Michelangelo painted pictures.” King, “Addison Jr. High School,” 22 Oct. 1964, KPKC(3). In 1965, King had deleted this phrase originally taken from the sermons of Benjamin Mays, King, “A Great Challenge Derived from a Serious Dilemma,” 15 Dec. 1965, KPKC(3).
8. Gerald Early, “Martin Luther King and the Middle Way,” Christian Century, 113: 25 (28 Aug. 1996), 816, argues that King’s sudden radicalization undermined his moral authority. J. Mills Thornton argues that the movement abandoned its early “consensus” goals of liberty to embrace collectivism, which hastened its decline. William Chafe counters that there was a continuity and an organic development between economic goals in the early and later phases of an ongoing black freedom struggle, but he credits only King’s later radicalism. Thornton, “Comment,” and Chafe, “The End of One Struggle, the Beginning of Another,” in The Civil Rights Movement in America, ed. Eagles, 136–37, 150–51. On white resistance, see Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, and Lassiter, The Silent Majority.
9. Biondi, To Stand and Fight; Ransby, Ella Baker; Self, American Babylon; Korstad and Lichtenstein, “Opportunities Found and Lost”; Hamilton and Hamilton, “Social Policies, Civil Rights and Poverty,” 287.
10. Biographers perpetuated this left critique of King. Ling, Martin Luther King Jr., 257, draws on white leftist Andrew Kopkind’s critique to present King’s last book; Lewis, King, 396–97, wrote in 1970 that King’s own “bourgeois reflexes” limited his ability to formulate an “appropriate politics.” But see Lewis review of Garrow, Bearing the Cross, in Journal of American History 74: 2 (Sept. 1987): 483–84.
11. See King, “NAACP Legal Defense,” 28 May 1964, KPKC(3); King, “Illinois AFL-CIO,” 7 Oct. 1965, insert b, KPKC(3).
12. Carson, In Struggle, and Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, discuss these concepts in depth.
13. Robert Moses, “Commentary,” and Nathan Huggins, “Commentary,” in We Shall Overcome, ed. Albert and Hoffman, 72–75, 87–89.
14. According to August Meier in 1965, King’s most important function was “effectively communicating Negro aspirations to white people.” Meier, “On the Role of Martin Luther King,” New Politics 4 (Winter 1965): 52–59; Clayborne Carson, “Reconstructing the King Legacy,” and Aldon Morris, “A Man Prepared for His Times,” in We Shall Overcome, ed. Albert and Hoffman, 243–45, 35–58.
15. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 135–36.
16. Smith and Zepp, Search for the Beloved Community, 114–18, note King’s persistent Hegelianism, as have many others.
17. Watters and Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, 73.
18. King, “Facing the Challenge of a New Age,” Dec. 1956, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 141–43.
19. King, Stride Toward Freedom, ch. 11.
20. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 357, 289; Brink and Harris, Black and White, 54.
1. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 90–91; King, “Autobiography of Religious Development,” 22 Nov. 1950, in Papers 1:359; King, Sr., Daddy King, 89; King later recalled visiting Atlanta’s impoverished Buttermilk Bottom neighborhood, where an old man sang “Been Down So Long That Down Don’t Bother Me.” Spiritual acquiescence to oppression troubled him, but he wrapped the memory in a communitarian imperative: “we are our brother’s keeper.” King, “Address Delivered at Rally,” 21 June 1966, Yazoo City, Miss., KPKC(3).
2. Fluker, They Looked for a City, 5–19, 111–12, 238n19; H. Thurman, With Head and Heart; Vincent Harding, introduction to For the Inward Journey, ed. A. Thurman, ix–xv; Baldwin, Balm in Gilead, 300; K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance, 120–21; Bennett, What Manner of Man, claims King “read or reread” Jesus and the Disinherited during the Montgomery bus boycott, but the words in King’s 1950 essay “You—You Are Not Slaves” correspond exactly to Thurman’s: compare King, “Six Talks Based on Beliefs That Matter,” 29 Nov. 1949, in Papers 1:281, and A. Thurman, For the Inward Journey, 147,125; King, “The Meaning of Hope,” 10 Dec. 1967, KPKC(3).
3. King, Stride Toward Freedom, ch. 6; Clayborne Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:1–57.
4. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 22; King, Sr., Daddy King, 23–26, 37, 40–48 (King, Sr.’s emphasis is on racism, not capitalism, as the fundamental evil); King, “Testimony,” 15 Dec. 1966, Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2996.
5. King, Sr., Daddy King, 25, 32, 51–53.
6. Ibid., 10, 57, 71, 82; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:7–18; Meier and Lewis, “History of the Negro Upper Class in Atlanta,” 128–33.
7. King, Sr., Daddy King, 94, 101, 104–5, 111–12, 125; Branch, Parting the Waters, 41–43; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 19, 22; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:10.
8. Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:3, 31. King, “Autobiography of Religious Development,” in Papers 1:360; C. King, My Life, 90.
9. Christine King Farris, “The Young Martin: From Childhood Through College,” Ebony, January 1986, 58; C. King, My Life, 82–88; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 19; King, “Autobiography of Religious Development,” 360. On Alberta Williams King, see Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:1, 29, 30; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 464–65; King, “Address Delivered During ‘A Salute to Dr. and Mrs. Martin Luther King,’” 31 Jan. 1960, in Papers 5:353; Alberta King quoted in Baldwin, Balm in Gilead, 122–23.
10. King, Sr. quoted in Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:34; King, “Drum Major Instinct,” 4 Feb. 1968, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 267; King, “Application for Admission to Crozer Theological Seminary,” Feb. 1948, in Papers 1:144.
11. King, “The Negro and the Constitution,” May 1944, in Papers 1:109–10; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:35; King, “Interview by John Freeman on ‘Face to Face,’” 29 Oct. 1961, KPKC; King, “Autobiography of Religious Development,” 362.
12. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 91, 145; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:38; Benjamin Mays, Born to Rebel (New York: Scribner, 1971), 172; Stephen B. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 8; K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance, 36–37; Branch, Parting the Waters, 54–55.
13. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 46; King, “Kick up Dust,” 6 Aug. 1946, in Papers 1:121; King, “The Purpose of Education,” Jan.–Feb. 1947, in Papers 1:123–24.
14. A. Philip Randolph, “Address,” June 1945, in The Papers of A. Philip Randolph [Microfilm], ed. John H. Bracey and August Meier (Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1990), 28:197.
15. Bennett, What Manner of Man, 28; C. King, My Life, 84–85. Biographer L. D. Reddick, working from 1958 interviews, reported King learned that “the problems of workingmen were about the same, irrespective of superficial differences between them.” Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 74; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 90–91.
16. Charles V. Willie, “Walter R. Chivers—An Advocate of Situation Sociology,” Phylon 9 (1982): 242–48; Bennett, What Manner of Man, 28; Walter Chivers, “Teaching Social Anthropology in a Negro College,” Phylon 4 (1943): 354; Walter Chivers, “Negro Church Leadership,” Southern Frontier 3, no. 12 (Dec. 1942): 1, and Southern Frontier 4, no. 1 (Jan. 1943):4.
17. Walter Chivers, “Northward Migration and the Health of the Negro,” Journal of Negro Education 8 (Jan. 1939): 41–42. O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 48–49, 64–65, 198–99. Chivers was writing in the tradition of E. Franklin Frazier and Kenneth B. Clark in blaming the “pathologies” of the “City of Destruction” on class and racial structures.
18. King, “The Significant Contributions of Jeremiah to Religious Thought,” 24 Nov. 1948, in Papers 1:184–85, 194; King, “The Ethics of Late Judaism as Evidenced in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” 16 Feb. 1949, in Papers 1:201–5; King, “The Chief Characteristics and Doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism,” 28 Apr. 1950, in Papers 1:322; King, “An Appraisal of the Great Awakening,” 17 Nov. 1950, in Papers 1:342–53.
19. Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 79; Smith and Zepp, Search for the Beloved Community, 24; King, “How Modern Christians Should Think of Man,” 15 Feb. 1950, in Papers 1:274; King, “How to Use the Bible in Modern Theological Construction,” 1949, in Papers 1:255; King, “A View of the Cross Possessing Biblical and Spiritual Justification,” 1949–50, in Papers 1:267; King, “The Christian Pertinence of Eschatological Hope,” 1949–50, in Papers 1:273.
20. King, “Examination Answers,” 15 Feb. 1950, in Papers 1:290–94; King, “Religion’s Answer to the Problem of Evil,” 27 Apr. 1951, in Papers 1:428–30.
21. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 91. K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance, 46–47, 56–57, downplays Rauschenbusch’s influence on King because he did not deal with racism. King, Strength to Love, 69, 80–81; Walter Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis (New York: Macmillan, 1907), 284, 350.
22. K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance; Fluker, They Looked for a City; Lischer, Preacher King, 6. Carson recognizes the false dichotomy between King’s academic training and inherited values but claims the latter gave the former coherence. See Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:57.
23. King, “To Martin Luther King, Sr.,” 15 June 1944, in Papers 1:112; The “colored patrons … while they admit that the gun was not pointed at them … seemed to think that it was a threat,” the proprietor testified. W. Thomas McGann, “Statement on Behalf of Ernest Nichols,” in Papers 1:328; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 40.
24. For King even before Johnson’s speech, Gandhi was one of four humans exhibiting the “spirit of God.” King, “Six Talks in Outline,” 24 Nov. 1949, in Papers 1:249; W. Miller, Martin Luther King, Jr., 19–20; K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance, 53; Kapur, Raising up a Prophet, 11,17, 38–39, 55–56, 64–66, 86; Mays, Born to Rebel, 156–57; H. Thurman, With Head and Heart, 133–34.
25. Johnson in P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 284; Mordecai Johnson, “A Pathway to World Peace,” Washington Afro American, 9 June 1951, Mordecai Johnson Papers, MSRC.
26. In South Africa, Indian miners were taxed for simply working and their non-Christian marriages had been declared illegal. When masses of women went to prison and two died there, “strike followed strike as mine after mine joined the ranks.” Fisher, That Strange Little Brown Man Gandhi, 15, 33, 26–27,149–212; Smith and Zepp, Search for the Beloved Community, 48; Branch, Parting the Waters, 609. King often referred to India’s “little brown saint”: see King, Stride Toward Freedom, 85. Indian author Ved Mehta commented profoundly on King and Gandhi’s praxis in “Gandhism Is Not Easily Copied,” NYT, 9 July 1961, SM8.
27. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 94; Barbour quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 43; King “To Alberta Williams King,” October 1948, in Papers 1:161; King, “Notes on American Capitalism,” 20 Feb.–4 May 1951, in Papers 1:435–36.
28. Lichtenstein, State of the Union; Marable, Race, Reform and Rebellion, 27–28; Von Eschen, Race Against Empire. After scoring his remarkable upset over Republican Thomas Dewey in 1948, Truman simply declared, “Labor did it.” But labor and Truman sowed the seeds of their own destruction by joining the anticommunist crusade. Attacked from the right, Truman established the Federal Loyalty Security Program in 1947 and prevailed in the 1948 election by denouncing “Henry Wallace and his Communists” in the Progressive Party. See Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes.
29. Weir, Politics and Jobs, 41–58; Katznelson, “Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?” 189–92; On the FEPC, see P. Sullivan, Days of Hope, 224.
30. Niebuhr quoted in Brinkley, Liberalism and Its Discontents, 100; Wright, Old South, New South; Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; on depredations of anticommunism in New York City, see Biondi, To Stand and Fight.
31. W. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 276, 258–60, 294.
32. Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 24–25; James Carey, “Speech at the 45th NAACP Annual Convention,” NAACP Micro, part 1, 10:583–88.
33. Eugene M. Austin, “The Peril of Conformity,” The Pulpit, Oct. 1952, 13–15; King, “Transformed Nonconformist,” in Strength to Love, 10–11; K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance, 107–8.
34. Coretta King in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 46; C. King, My Life, 57–58; King to Coretta Scott, 18 July 1952, in Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr., ed. Carson, 36; Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1915), ch. 26.
35. King, “Jacques Maritain,” 20 Feb. 1951, in Papers 1:437; K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance, 101–2; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 92–95; King, Strength to Love, 97–100; McCracken, Questions People Ask, 166–70.
36. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 94; King, “Paul’s Letter to American Christians,” 4 Nov. 1956, in Papers 3:414–20. Garrow quotes King as saying privately to friends late in the 1960s that “economically speaking he considered himself what he termed a Marxist.” Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr., 214.
37. “From Melvin Watson,” 14 Aug. 1952, in Papers 2:157; McCracken, Questions People Ask, 165; K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance, 103.
38. Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 291. Scholars stress Niebuhr’s theology and pacifism: see K. Miller, Voice of Deliverance, 53–59, 104; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:55; Lasch, True and Only Heaven, 386–90; Branch, Parting the Waters, 80–87. Only Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 42, touches on political economy. King, “Reinhold Niebuhr’s Ethical Dualism,” 9 May 1952, in Papers 2:142–43,150; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 97, 99.
39. Niebuhr, Moral Man, 252–53,163, 201. King cited Niebuhr on the immorality of nations and social groups, and the efficacy of consumer boycotts for the black freedom struggle. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 80; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 143.
40. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 93; King, “Reinhold Niebuhr’s Ethical Dualism,” in Papers 2:147.
41. Niebuhr, Moral Man, 206–7, 219.
42. Ibid., 221. King, Strength to Love, 87–92; King, “Unfulfilled Dreams,” 3 Mar. 1968, in A Knock at Midnight, ed. Carson and Holloran, 192.
43. King, “The Theology of Reinhold Niebuhr,” Apr. 1953-June 1954, in Papers 2:271–79.
44. Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 1:23; King, “A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman,” 5 Apr. 1955, in Papers 2:442, 508, 517.
45. “Paul Tillich,” Dictionary of American Biography, 1981, reproduced in Biography Resource Center (Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale, 2006); “Henry Nelson Wieman,” Encyclopedia of World Biography, 1998, reproduced in Biography Resource Center (Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale, 2006); King, “A Comparison of the Conceptions of God,” in Papers 2:500, 487.
46. Sue Cronk, “She Feels Left Out—of Jail,” NYT, 4 Nov. 1963, B3; C. King, My Life, 60, 90–91, 97, 102. Olson, Freedom’s Daughters, chs. 20–22, and Honey, Black Workers Remember, ch. 11, present black women’s antiracist valuation of masculinity. On King’s “sexism” and purported belief in “separate spheres,” see Cone, Martin & Malcolm & America, 274.
47. Transcriptions of audiotapes will be published in 2007 as volume 6 of the Papers. King, “The Three Dimensions of a Complete Life,” 11 Dec. 1960, in Papers 5:574; Luke 10:29; King, The Measure of a Man, 27; King, Strength to Love, 27–30; King, “Address to the Hungry Club,” 15 Dec. 1965, 6–7, KPKC(3); King, “Sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church: Good Samaritan,” 28 Aug. 1966, KPKC(3); King, “I See the Promised Land,” 3 Apr. 1968, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 285; Lischer, Preacher King, 109.
48. King, “Rediscovering Lost Values,” 28 Feb. 1954 in Papers 2:248–55. “Dives and Lazarus” will be published by the King Papers Project in volume 6 of the Papers of King in January 2007. The parable is in Luke 16:19–31. King, “Remaining Awake Through a Great Revolution,” 31 Mar. 1968, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 274.
49. King, “A Knock at Midnight,” in Strength to Love, 56–66.
50. William Gardner, “Rating Sheet for Martin Luther King, Jr.,” 1 Dec. 1950, in Papers 1:380–81; Baldwin, Balm in Gilead, 39.
51. Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr., ed. Carson, 46; King, “Recommendations to the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church,” 5 Sept. 1954, in Papers 2:287–94. For positive responses, see Papers 2:307, 549; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 25. King, “To Dexter Avenue Church Members,” 27 Oct. 1955, and “Annual Report, Dexter Avenue Baptist Church,” 31 Oct. 1955, in Papers 2:577; “From J. Pious Barbour,” 21 July 1955, in Papers 2:565.
1. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 59–60.
2. King, “MIA Mass Meeting at Holt Street Baptist Church,” 5 Dec. 1955, in Papers 3:71–79.
3. Kelley, Race Rebels, 55–61; Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 18–25, 51–68.
4. Thornton, “Challenge and Response”; Braden, “The Southern Freedom Movement in Perspective,” 18.
5. Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 114; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 27–28; Thornton, “Challenge and Response,” 325; Millner, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 433; Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 11–13, 17–20.
6. “Testimony of Thelma Glass,” March 1956, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 60–61; King in PC, 31 Mar. 1956, 2; “Interview with Store Maid,” in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 125.
7. Thornton, “Challenge and Response,” 330; Branch, Parting the Waters, 131–32; Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, xii–xiii, 23–25; Jo Ann Robinson to W. A. Gayle, 21 May 1954, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 58.
8. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 38–39; Branch, Parting the Waters, ch. 1; Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 100–111, 142–43.
9. White, “Nixon Was the One,” 46–49; Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 115–30; Wofford quoted in Children Coming On, ed. Leventhal, 237.
10. Clyde Sellers, Montgomery Advertiser, 20 Mar. 1955, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 78–80.
11. McMillen, The Citizens’ Council, 17–18, 43, 178, 198, 209; Thornton, “Challenge and Response,” 343.
12. King, “Testimony in State of Alabama v. M. L. King, Jr.,” 22 Mar. 1956, in Papers 3:186; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 35–37.
13. As a child, Parks read Is the Negro a Beast?, a pseudoscientific screed arguing blacks were animals “to be tamed and put to work for the white race.” Determined to prove herself otherwise, she became a voracious reader of black history. Parks, My Story, 51–66; Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 253–54, 261; Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, 20–21, 53–55; Leventhal, ed. Children Coming On,, 131.
14. Edgar N. French, “The Beginnings of a New Age,” in Walking City, ed. Garrow, 177; Abernathy, Walls Came Tumbling, 140; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 54.
15. Abernathy, Walls Came Tumbling, 143–48; Ted Poston, “Fighting Pastor: MLK,” New York Post, 14 Apr. 1957; Nixon quoted in My Soul Is Rested, ed. Raines, 48–49.
16. Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, 53, 60–64; Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 345–47.
17. “To the National City Lines, Inc.,” in Papers 3:80; Thornton, “Challenge and Response,” 347, 366–67; “To the Citizens of Montgomery,” 27 Jan. 1956, in Papers 3:107.
18. “Notes on MIA Executive Board Meeting,” 23 Jan. 1956, in Papers 3:103; Gilliam, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 239.
19. Gayle quoted in “Double Edged Blade in Montgomery,” Time, 16 Jan. 1956, 20; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 113; see also Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 181.
20. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 134–35; King, “Interview by Martin Agronsky,” 27 Oct. 1957, in Papers 4:298 (emphasis added); King, “Why Jesus Called a Man a Fool,” 27 Aug. 1967, in A Knock at Midnight, ed. Carson and Holloran, 141–64. Various interpretations of King’s “epiphany in the kitchen” stress its religious rather than social implications. See Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 57–58; West, “The Religious Foundations of the Thought of Martin Luther King Jr,” in We Shall Overcome, ed. Albert and Hoffman, 118–19.
21. Notes of Donald T. Ferron, MIA Executive Board, 23 Jan. 1956, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 121–23; “Notes on MIA Executive Board Meeting,” 30 Jan. 1956, in Papers 3:110; “Notes on MIA Mass Meeting,” 30 Jan. 1956, in Papers 3:113; King, Strength to Love, 125–26; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 135.
22. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 137; Reddick, “The Bus Boycott in Montgomery,” 115; King and maid quoted in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 127, 126, 134; King, interview by Donald T. Ferron, 4 Feb. 1956, in Papers 3:125.
23. J. Pious Barbour to King, 21 Dec. 1954, KPBU, 63:VIII; Barbour to King, March 1956, in Papers 3:17m; “From St. Clair Drake,” 21 Mar. 1956, in Papers 3:181–82.
24. “Battle Against Tradition: Martin Luther King, Jr.,” NYT, 21 Mar. 1956, 28; Wayne Phillips, “Negro Preachers Press Bus Boycott,” NYT, 27 Feb. 1956; Lentz, Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King, 26–33.
25. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 80; Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, 68–71, 94; Bayard Rustin, “Montgomery Diary,” in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 166; “Report on MIA Mass Meeting, March 22, by Anna Holden,” in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 213.
26. “From Lillian Eugenia Smith,” 10 Mar. 1956, in Papers 3:169–70; Smith to King, 3 Apr. 1956, KPBU, 64:VIII; “From Harris Wofford,” 25 Apr. 1956, in Papers 3:226; King to Wofford, 10 May 1956, KPBU, 67:VIII, 33.
27. Rustin quoted in D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, 231, 237; Levine, Bayard Rustin, 78–81; see also Burns, Daybreak of Freedom, 20–22, 159, 165–70.
28. Smiley supported Rustin, writing FOR on February 29 that the “Red issue” tragically undermined Rustin’s “good influence on King.” Glenn Smiley to John Swomley, 29 Feb. 1956, BR, 46:5; Smiley to Neil Salinger, 29 Feb. 1956, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 163–64; Watters, Down to Now, 265. Abernathy quoted in Warren, Who Speaks for the Negro? 409.
29. King, “To Bayard Rustin,” 20 Sept. 1956, in Papers 3:376–77; Rustin, “Notes of a Conference: How Outsiders Can Strengthen the Montgomery Nonviolent Protest,” BR, 46:5.
30. George Barrett, “’Jim Crow, He’s Real Tired,’” New York Times Magazine, 3 Mar. 1957, 67–69; Ted Poston, “Negroes of Montgomery,” New York Post, 15 and 19 June 1956, in Reporting Civil Rights, ed. Carson et al., 271.
31. Hall quoted in Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 444–45; Hill Lindsay, “Negroes Look Around You,” in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 115; McMillan, The Citizens’ Council, 44; Anna Holden, “Interview with a Prominent Local Attorney,” 8 Feb. 1956, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 190–92.
32. U.S. News & World Report, 3 Aug. 1956, 84–86. See folders of general correspondence labeled “adverse” in president’s papers, KPBU, SCLC, KC.
33. King, interview by Ferron, 4 Feb. 1956, in Papers 3:125; King, “Statement,” 20 Dec. 1956, in Papers 3:486; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 50–51.
34. King, “Our Struggle,” Mar. 1956, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington,, 77, 81; “From Bayard Rustin,” 8 Mar. 1956, in Papers 3:164; King, “To William Peters,” 25 Apr. 1956, in Papers 3:224–25.
35. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 76–84; Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 383, 389–98, 462–63; Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 130; Leventhal, Children Coming On, 178; Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, 97; Lewis quoted in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 138; Mrs. Myron Lobman, Montgomery Advertiser, 2 Jan. 1956, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 112.
36. Poston, “Negroes of Montgomery,” 270; Thornton, “Challenge and Response,” 338–41, 360, 366. The bus company figures are from Gilliam, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 254.
37. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 78; Poston, “Negroes of Montgomery,” 266–69; “Interview with Maid by Willie M. Lee,” 20 Jan. 1956, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 224; Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, 102–3.
38. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 80; Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, 71; Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 371–73; Cohen, Consumer’s Republic, 189.
39. “Notes on MIA Executive Board Meeting,” 30 Jan. 1956, in Papers 3:111.
40. Erna Dungee Allen, interview by Steven M. Milner, in Walking City, ed. Garrow, 524–25. On the Welfare Committee, see Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 379; Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, 98; Virginia Durr to Myles Horton, 18 and 24 Feb. 1956, and Rosa Parks to Horton, 25 Feb. 1956, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 155–57; Parks, My Story, 142; King to Maxine Young, KPBU, 75:IX. On the Parks’ hardships, see Papers 4:261, 5:389. Septima Clark remembered that Highlander supported Rosa Parks for a year, but the MIA only gave her $382 when she departed: “They didn’t help her too much down in Montgomery,” Clark recalled. Clark, interview by Jacquelyn Hall, 25 July 1976, p. 83, SOHP.
41. King, “To Arthur R. James,” 1 June 1956, in Papers 3:287. See also Papers 3:370–71.
42. “From Ella J. Baker,” 2 Feb. 1956, in Papers 3:139. Moore lost his postal service job in 1958, but he was among the first to welcome student organizers into Mississippi in 1960. See his correspondence with the NAACP and the National Sharecroppers Fund, Moore Papers, 1:1–3, SHSW; Ransby, Ella Baker, 176; Dittmer, Local People, 46–53.
43. King, “Testimony to the Democratic National Convention,” 11 Aug. 1956, in Papers 3:335–38; King correspondence with Ernest Morgan, in Papers 3:345–46, 355; King, “To Ruth Bunche and Aminda Wilkins,” 23 Nov. 1956, in Papers 3:437.
44. King, “To Rae Bradstein,” 1 Aug. 1956, in Papers 3:332–33; King, “Desegregation and the Future,” 15 Dec. 1956, in Papers 3:471–79; Stetson and Fleming in Tearing down the Color Bar, ed. Wilson, 285–86, 289–90.
45. “From Helen M. Hiller,” 4 June 1956, and King, “To Helen M. Hiller,” 6 July 1956, in Papers 3:293, 315; Yeakey, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 512–13, 547, 550–66; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 154.
46. King, “To Archibald James Carey, Jr.,” 27 Dec. 1955, in Papers 3:94; Horowitz, Negro and White, Unite and Fight! 207; “From Archibald James Carey, Jr.,” 24 Feb. 1956, in Papers 3:139–40.
47. Gilliam, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 230, estimates the boycott drew $225,000 in donations in 1956; King to Claude Sanders, 9 Mar. 1956, and ILGWU Local 10 to King, 19 Mar. 1956, KPBU, 1:I-5.
48. Warren, Who Speaks for the Negro? 213, 221.
49. “Notes on MIA Mass Meeting,” 27 Feb. 1956, in Papers 3:144; Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 22; Keith Brown to King, 23 Mar. 1956, KPBU, 91:XII; King, “To Homer Greene,” 19 July 1956, in Papers 3:318.
50. “King Speaks at Big Rally in Brooklyn,” Montgomery Advertiser, 26 Mar. 1956, in Papers 3:210; King, “The New Negro of the South,” June 1956, in Papers 3:280–86; King, “Address to MIA Mass Meeting,” 22 Mar. 1956, in Papers 3:200; Chester Bowles to King, 28 Jan. 1957, KPBU, 89:IX; In 1961, an eighty-one-year-old black woman from Alaska sent King $1,000 and two bear hides, rejoicing at all the attention King and civil rights had received “since our Government has become so concerned about Russia getting ahead of us in Africa.” Ada B. H. Murray to King, 6 Sept. 1961, KPBU, 55:VII-26.
51. “Notes on MIA Mass Meeting,” 1 Mar. 1956, in Papers 3:151; King, “When Peace Becomes Obnoxious,” 18 Mar. 1956, in Papers 3:207–8; King, “The Death of Evil upon the Seashore,” 17 May 1956, in Papers 3:259; King, “Non-Aggression Procedures to Interracial Harmony,” 23 July 1956, in Papers 3:321–28.
52. Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott, 60–64; Preston Valien, “The Montgomery Bus Protest as a Social Movement,” Aug. 1957, in Walking City, ed. Garrow, 89; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 86, 187; C. King, My Life, 121; King, “Birth of a New Age,” 11 Aug. 1956, in Papers 3:346; King, “The Montgomery Story,” NAACP Convention, 27 June 1956, in Papers 3:309 (emphasis added).
53. King to J. A. Hanson, 27 Mar. 1957, KPBU, 60:VIII; King, “To Jewelle Taylor,” May 1956, in Papers 3:242; Almena Lomax, “Mother’s Day in Montgomery,” 18 May 1956, in Papers 3:263–67; Vernon Johns to King, 8 May 1960, KPBU, 28A:IV.
54. “Notes on MIA Mass Meeting,” 1 Jan. 1956, in Papers 3:113; King, “The New Negro of the South,” June 1956, in Papers 3:280–86; King, “The Montgomery Story,” 27 June 1956, in Papers 3:300, 308.
55. A. Philip Randolph, “Address at the 47th NAACP Annual Convention,” NAACP Micro, supplement to part 1, 4:694–700.
56. King, “Paul’s Letter to American Christians,” 4 Nov. 1956, in Papers 3:414–20, is a later version of the NBC address.
57. “From Charles W. Kelly,” 8 Sept. 1956, and J. Pious Barbour, National Baptist Voice, Sept. 1956, in Papers 3:365–66; John Hannum to King, 8 Apr. 1957, 6 July 1957, and King to Hannum, 30 Apr. 1957, KPBU, 60:VIII. Among over 1,000 news stories consulted for this study, I found one reference to this sermon, “King Warns Against Misuse of Capitalism,” Indianapolis News, 5 Sept. 1960.
58. King, “Desegregation and the Future,” 15 Dec. 1956, in Papers 3:474–77. On the social science “damage tradition,” see Scott, Contempt and Pity, 122–29.
59. Gilliam, “Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 274–76; King, “Address to MIA Mass Meeting,” 14 Nov. 1956, in Papers 3:428–31.
60. King, “Statement on Ending the Bus Boycott,” 20 Dec. 1956, in Papers 3:485–87.
61. “From Bayard Rustin,” 23 Dec. 1956, in Papers 3:491–93; “New Fields Await Negroes, King Tells Mass Meeting,” Montgomery Advertiser, 24 Dec. 1956, in Papers 3:494–95.
62. George Barrett, “Shot Hits Home of Bus Bias Foe,” NYT, 24 Dec. 1956, 6; “From J. Pious Barbour,” 11 Jan. 1957, in Papers 4:107.
1. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, ch. 2; Eskew, But for Birmingham 27, 32. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 92, is more appreciative of King’s inspirational leadership of local southern activists.
2. Benjamin Davis to King, 19 June 1960, KPBU, 23A:III-20; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 4:19; Myles Horton to King, 20 Mar. 1959, KPBU, 28:IV-4; FBI Report, 22 May 1961, in MLK-FBI File, ed. Friedly and Gallen, 118.
3. Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 211.
4. Rustin quoted in Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 4:2; Rustin to King, “Memo on the Montgomery Bus Boycott,” 23 Dec. 1956, in Daybreak of Freedom, ed. Burns, 329–30; Southern Negro Leaders Conference on Transportation and Nonviolent Integration, “Working Papers,” Ebenezer Baptist Church, 10–11 Jan. 1957, SCLC, 71:IX.
5. Southern Negro Leaders Conference on Transportation and Non-violent Integration, “Statement to the South and the Nation,” 10–11 Jan. 1957, KPBU, 2:I-11. For a different assessment of Rustin’s capacities to shape the agenda through King, see Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 85–86.
6. Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 183–85; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 31–38, 47–48, 53; Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 84–91, 117–19.
7. Branch, Parting the Waters, 208–9; Kotz, Judgment Days, 71; Stanley Levison to King, 19 Oct. 1957, 17 and 24 Jan. 1958, and 8 Jan. 1959, King to Levison, 15 Dec. 1958, KPBU, 2:I-10; Rustin quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 649n21; Bradford Laws to King, 11 Feb. 1958, King to Laws, 24 May 1958, KPBU, 29.A-IV; Levison to King, 8 Jan. 1959, KPBU, 2:I-10.
8. MIA Future Planning Committee, 14 Mar. 1957, KPBU, 2:I-11; King, “To Galal Kernahan,” 29 Apr. 1957, in Papers 4:193. Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 178–79; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 88, 96, 101; Abel Plenn, “Report on Montgomery a Year After,” New York Times Magazine, 29 Dec. 1957, 36.
9. Dr. Francis Townshend to King, 5 Dec. 1956, and King to Townshend, 9 Dec. 1956, KPBU, 66:VII-28T; King, “To Galal Kernahan.”
10. King, “Address at Public Meeting of the Southern Christian Ministers Conference of Mississippi,” 23 Sept. 1959, in Papers 5:285, 287. King’s figures on comparable levels of black and Canadian income and the phrase “profit and loss,” are traceable to the Southern Regional Council Report, “Negro Buying Power,” KPBU, 68:IX.
11. King, “Advice for Living,” in Papers 4:269, 280, 306, 326, 348–49, 392, 374; Reddick, Crusader Without Violence, 5.
12. Jessie Henry to King, 27 Dec. 1959, KPBU, 27a:IV; Barbara White to King, 5 Dec. 1960, and James Woods to White, 22 Dec. 1960, KPBU, 73A:IX; “Public Welfare Found Slighted,” NYT, 21 May 1957, 30.
13. King, “The Birth of a New Nation,” 7 Apr. 1957, in Papers 4:155–64; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 191; “Interview by Etta Moen Barnett,” Accra, Ghana, 6 Mar. 1967, in Papers 4:145–47; C. King, My Life, 154–55.
14. Gold Coast Legislative Assembly Debates, 5 Mar. 1957, KPBU, 26A:VE; King, “Birth of a New Nation,” 160–66.
15. James in Carson, “Rethinking African-American Political Thought,” 115–16; C. L. R. James, Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution (London: Allison and Busby, 1977), 58; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 717n19 Stanley Levison to King, 28 Apr. 1958, KPBU, 2:I-10.
16. King, “A Realistic Look at the Question of Progress in the Area of Race Relations,” St. Louis Freedom Rally, 10 Apr. 1957, in Papers 4:171–72; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 4:10; James Pike and King to Chester Bowles, 8 Nov. 1957, in Papers 4:313.
17. King, “A Look to the Future,” 2 Sept. 1957, in Papers 4:272; King, The Measure of a Man, 13–17, v.
18. King, “A Realistic Look,” in Papers 4:172; King, “The Role of the Church in Facing the Nation’s Chief Moral Dilemma,” 25 Apr. 1957, in Papers 4:189; Fairclough, Martin Luther King, Jr., 55.
19. King, “A Statement to the President of the United States,” 23 June 1958, in Papers 4:427–29.
20. “Interview by Richard D. Heffner for The Open Mind,” 10 Feb. 1957, in Papers 4:127; “Interview by Martin Agronsky for Look Here,” 27 Oct. 1957, in Papers 4:292–99; see also Papers 4:119,11; Wright, Old South, New South.
21. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 29–30, 77; King, “Call to a Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom,” 5 Apr. 1957, in Papers 4:151; Bayard Rustin to King, 10 May 1957, KPBU, 34:IV.
22. King to Robert Wagner, 13 May 1957, KPBU, 73:IX; “Pilgrimage Girds for Rights Cause,” NYT, 4 May 1957; King, “Address at the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom,” 17 May 1957, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 199; Bayard Rustin to King, 19 June 1957, KPBU, 64A:VIII-22.
23. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 143–46. King joined the NAACP in praising the legislative compromise that sacrificed Title III in favor of the voting rights provisions, while Randolph denounced it. King, “To Richard Nixon,” 30 Aug. 1957, in Papers 4:263–64; “From Richard M. Nixon,” 17 Sept. 1957, in Papers 4:277; Sundquist, Politics and Policy, 226–38.
24. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 44–45; Ella Baker, interview by John Britton, 19 June 1968, p. 18, RJB; King to J. H. Jackson, 17 Dec. 1957, KPBU, 61A:VIII-9; Horowitz, Negro and White, Unite and Fight! 207.
25. King, “Address Delivered at a Meeting Launching the SCLC Crusade for Citizenship,” 12 Feb. 1958, in Papers 4:367–71, and King’s directive to affiliates, 358–59.
26. Marshall quoted in Branch, Parting the Waters, 217; Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 31, 33, 121–25; Ella Baker, interview by Eugene Walker, 4 Sept. 1974, p. 26, SOHP; Aaron Henry to King, 24 June 1958, and King to Henry, 29 May 1958, KPBU, 28:IV-4; “Mississippi Delegates Set Pace at Dixie Leadership Meeting,” 29 May 1958, KPBU, 48:IV-154; Dittmer, Local People, 71–78.
27. Ella Baker to Stanley Levison and Bayard Rustin, 16 July 1958, BR, 46:1; Simpkins quoted in Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 111; “Report of the Director,” 15 May 1959, KPBU, 68:IX; King, “To Conrad J. Lynn,” 9 Aug. 1957, in Papers 4:247; Moore to American Friends Service Committee, 23 May 1958, and Father John LaBauve to “Friends,” 22 May 1959, Amzie Moore Papers, SHSW, 1:1–3; Dittmer, Local People, 72–73.
28. King, “Remarks … NAACP Convention,” 28 June 1957, in Papers 4:233; King, “To Ramona Garrett,” 16 July 1957, in Papers 4:235–36; King, interview by Mike Wallace, 25 June 1958, in Papers 4:433; SCLC, “Plan of Action,” Feb. 1959, quoted in Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 106.
29. Returning to New York, Baker insisted that racism and poverty were national problems, and she criticized the NAACP for ignoring Harlem’s “poor children.” Cantarow and O’Malley, “Ella Baker,” 58–64, 70–72; Ella Baker, interview by Sue Thrasher and Casey Hayden, 19 Apr. 1977, pp. 19, 20, 35, 44–49, SOHP.
30. Baker interview by Walker, 14, 51, 65, 76–7, 91–95; Baker interview by Thrasher and Hayden, 61; Baker interview by Britton, 37; Lerner, “Developing Community Leadership,” 351; Cantarow and O’Malley, “Ella Baker,” 53.
31. Alfred Duckett to King, 4 Apr. 1957, KPBU, 117:XVI-1; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 4:32; King, “Draft, Chapter XI, Where Do We Go from Here, part 2, Stride Toward Freedom,” KPBU, 94:17B; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 94–95; “From Melvin Arnold,” 5 May 1958, in Papers 4:404–5.
32. King also tried to strike a balance between individual leadership and collective action. Rustin and Levison both criticized King’s original “egocentric” narrative. King apologized for any self-preoccupation in his preface, crediting “poor and untutored” blacks for the Montgomery victory. In the end, only the middle chapters neglected Montgomery’s collective leadership, but often King brought the story back to his own experience or influence. A woman “refused to retaliate” when a white man slapped her. She could have “broken that little fellow’s neck,” she said, but was “determined to do what Reverend King asked.” King, Stride Toward Freedom, 9, 33–34, 102, 174, 191, 207, 213; Harris Wofford to King, 2 Apr. 1958, KPBU, 73:IX; Bayard Rustin’s comments, n.d., KPBU, 71:IX; Stanley Levison to King, 1 Apr. 1958, KPBU, 29A:IV.
33. King, “Some Things We Must Do,” 5 Dec. 1957, in Papers 4:334–40; Stanley Levison to King, 1 Apr. 1958, KPBU, 29A:IV-10; Levison to King, 5 Apr. 1958, KPBU, 2:I-10; E. G. Morris to King, 2 Mar. 1957, KPBU, 62:VIII-10; Theodore Shields to King, 24 Feb. 1957, KPBU, 68:IX.
34. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 37, 187, 194, 211, 222–24, 233–34; Scott, Contempt and Pity, chs. 6–7; King, “The Negro Is Part of That Huge Community,” 2 Feb. 1959, in Papers 5:120.
35. Coverage of King and Curry: NYT, 22 Sept., 18 Oct., and 18 Nov. 1958; King, “Statement upon Return from Montgomery,” 24 Oct. 1958, in Papers 4:513.
36. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 211, 218, 222–24; J. Pious Barbour wrote to King in October 1957 about a sermon in which he “gave the Bourgeoisie hell, especially the Negro Bourgeoisie and their Ranch homes.” J. Pious Barbour to King, 3 Oct. 1957, in Papers 4:282–83.
37. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 28, 195–99, 202, 223–24. Eisenhower would never countenance any move toward “a structural change in the architecture of American society,” King later wrote (Why We Can’t Wait, 143).
38. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 106, 200–201; Beals quoted in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 39.
39. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 192; Stanley Levison to King, 1 Apr. 1958, KPBU, 29-A:IV. King pulled his discussion of white economic anxieties from an earlier address to the Highlander Folk School. King, “A Look to the Future,” 2 Sept. 1957, in Papers 4:272–73.
40. Lichtenstein, State of the Union, 103–5, 112–13; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 204; Lillian Smith to King, 14 Aug. 1958, KPBU, 84:XI.
41. King, Stride Toward Freedom, 203–4; Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph; P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Negro Worker.
42. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 166–73, 141–57; Lichtenstein, State of the Union, 164.
43. Horowitz, Negro and White, Unite and Fight! 210, 223–26.
44. King to Cleveland Robinson, 15 Nov. 1958, KPBU, 68:IX-1; King to David Dubinski, 31 Dec. 1958, KPBU, 23:111–20; King, Stride Toward Freedom, 189, 199–200.
45. A. Philip Randolph to King, 19 Nov. 1958, and Reinhold Niebuhr to King, 6 Jan. 1959, KPBU, 2:I-7; Harris Wofford to King, 5 Sept. 1958, and Wofford to Stanley Levison, 5 Sept. 1958, KPBU, 73A:IX; Chief Justice Earl Warren to King, 27 Jan. 1959, KPBU, 73:IX; Robert B. Carter to King, 24 Sept. 1959, KPBU, 22a:2a.
46. Eugene Davidson to King, 10 Oct. 1958, NAACP Micro, 21:12; “Address at Youth March for Integrated Schools in Washington, D.C., Delivered by Coretta Scott King,” 25 Oct. 1958, in Papers 4:514–15. “From Stanley Levison,” 3 Nov. 1958, in Papers 4:525.
1. Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 5:2–3; “Account of Press Conference in New Delhi on 10 February 1959 by Lawrence D. Reddick,” in Papers 5:128.
2. “From R. S. Hukkerikar,” 24 Feb. 1959, in Papers 5:133; C. King, My Life, 173; King, “My Trip to the Land of Gandhi,” July 1959, in Papers 5:235; King, “Palm Sunday Sermon on Mohandas K. Gandhi,” 22 Mar. 1959, in Papers 5:148.
3. W. Miller, Martin Luther King, Jr., 85–93; C. King, My Life, 177; King, “My Trip to the Land of Gandhi,” in Papers 5:237. For Quaker and Indian skepticism of Vinoba Bhave’s capacity to dent Indian mass poverty, see Corrine Johnson to King, 26 Jan. 1959, and enclosed Times of India editorial, 8 Jan. 1959, KPBU, 19:111–9; King, “To Jayaprakash Narayan,” 19 May 1959, in Papers 5:209–10; Durr quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 114.
4. King, “The American Dream,” 4 July 1965, in Call to Conscience, ed. Carson and Shepard, 89; Reddick quoted in Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 5:11n54.
5. King, “My Trip to the Land of Gandhi,” in Papers 5:236; King, “Statement upon Return from India,” 20 Mar. 1959, in Papers 5:143; King, “Equality Now,” 2 Feb. 1961, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 158; C. King, My Life, 176. King never mentioned the feminist Gandhi.
6. King, “Farewell Statement for All India Radio,” 9 Mar. 1959, in Papers 5:135–36; editor’s note in Papers 5:107n1.
7. King, “Palm Sunday Sermon on Mohandas K. Gandhi,” in Papers 5:152–55.
8. C. King, My Life, 61–62, 161, 178–80; Levison quoted in American Journey, ed. Stein and Plimpton, eds., 108–9.
9. King, “A Walk Through the Holy Land,” 29 Mar. 1959, in Papers 5:164–75.
10. King, “Remaining Awake Through a Great Revolution,” 2 June 1959, in Papers 5:224–25; Clare Wofford and Harris Wofford, India Afire (New York: J. Day Co., 1951), 250–42, 333–34.
11. King, “Address at the Religious Leaders Conference,” 11 May 1959, KPBU, 2:I-11; “Fight on Jobs Bias Spurred by Nixon,” NYT, 12 May 1959, 19.
12. King, “The Negro Is Part of That Huge Community,” 1 Feb. 1959, in Papers 5:116–20. On the Schactmanite circle, see Isserman, The Other American, 116–69.
13. Lichtenstein, Most Dangerous Man in Detroit, 349–54; Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 134–35.
14. Ella Baker to Bayard Rustin and Stanley Levison, 16 July 1958, BR, 46:1; Levison to King, 28 Nov. 1958, KPBU, 2:I-10; King to President Eisenhower, 25 Jan. 1959, in Papers 5:111–12; “From Ella J. Baker,” 26 Mar. 1959, in Papers 5:162–63.
15. King, “To Jesse Hill,” 28 Jan. 1959, in Papers 5:114–15; Baker gave King “the devil” for accepting too many speaking invitations and neglecting SCLC. But preaching was his “art,” King protested. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 115–16; King, “Statement Adopted at Spring Session,” 15 May 1959, in Papers 5:205–8; L. D. Reddick, “Notes on SCLC Administrative Committee Meetings,” Apr. 1959, in Papers 5:177–79.
16. King, “Recommendations to the Board, Meeting of the SCLC,” 1 Oct. 1959, KPBU, 48:VI; King, “Recommendations to Committee on Future Program,” 27 Oct. 1959, in Papers 5:315–18; King, “To Paul Landis,” 17 Nov. 1959, in Papers 5:322.
17. Walker quoted in Powledge, Free at Last? 108–9; Wyatt T. Walker to King, 16 Jan. 1959, in Papers 5:108–11; King, “Address at the Thirty-Sixth Annual Dinner of the War Resisters League,” 2 Feb. 1959, in Papers 5:121; King, “To George Meany,” 12 Jan. 1959, in Papers 5:106. On the Petersburg Improvement Association, see Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 183–88.
18. SCLC Press Release, “Dr. King Leaves Montgomery for Atlanta,” 1 Dec. 1959, in Papers 5:330–31; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 122–24; King, “Address at the Fourth Annual Institute on Nonviolence and Social Change,” 3 Dec. 1959, in Papers 5:333–43.
19. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 148–53; “NAACP Leader Urges ‘Violence,’” NYT, 7 May 1959, 22, 5; Reddick, “Notes on SCLC Administrative Committee Meetings,” in Papers 5:178.
20. “NAACP Leader Urges ‘Violence,’” NYT, 18 July 1959, 5; King, “Address at the Fiftieth Annual NAACP Convention,” 17 July 1959, in Papers 5:245–50; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 162–64.
21. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, ch. 5; Dittmer, Local People; King, “The Social Organization of Nonviolence,” Oct. 1959, in Papers 5:299–304; Braden quoted in Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 216–17; see Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 159, for his critique of Williams and defense of tactical nonviolence in 1959.
22. The Crusader, 11 July and 10 Oct. 1959, 5 Mar. 1960, in The Black Power Movement, Part 2: Papers of Robert F. Williams, ed. Timothy Tyson (Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 2001), 10:263–68, 380–89, 581–90.
23. Ella Baker to Committee on Administration, 23 Oct. 1959, KPBU, 48:VI, and fragment, 68-IX; Baker, Report of Executive Director, 16 May-29 Sept. 1959, KPBU, 48:VI.
24. On black women’s welfare work, see Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled; S. Clark and Blythe, Echo in My Soul, 37–40, 52, 61, 83, 112–14, 117–18, 176; S. Clark and Brown, Ready from Within, 38–39, 105–10; “Septima” to “Biddie,” 17 May 1955, and Clark to Myles Horton, 8 Mar. 1955, HL 9:12..
25. Septima Clark to Myles Horton, 8 Mar. 1955, HL, 9:12; S. Clark and Blythe, Echo in My Soul, 137, 140–41; Horton, The Long Haul, 87, 96–97, 99–103; Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 141–53; S. Clark and Brown, Ready from Within, 32–33; Clark notes, “Extending Highlander,” 3 Sept. 1955, HL, 9:12.
26. S. Clark and Blythe, Echo in My Soul, 142, 150; S. Clark and Brown, Ready from Within, 42–54; Bernice Robinson to Septima Clark, 20 Jan. 1957, quoted in Myles Horton to Carl Tjerandsen, 16 Feb. 1957, HL, 67:3; Horton, The Long Haul, 102–3; Wigginton, Refuse to Stand, 172, 179, 185–89, 244–51, 300–301.
27. Horton, The Long Haul, 100–105; S. Clark and Blythe, Echo in My Soul, 45–46, 162, 166; Septima Clark to Myles Horton, ca. Aug. 1956, HL, 9:12; Wigginton, Refuse to Stand, 246; Septima Poinsette Clark, “The Movement… I Remember,” n.d., SPC, 1:52. References to reprisals and economic survival saturate the detailed audiotape notes of the Highlander Workshops Inventory, pp. 65–70, 91–105, HL.
28. Septima Clark, “Report: Workshop on Social Needs and Social Resources,” 27–28 Nov. 1959, HL, 9:12; King to Clark, 21 Dec. 1959, KPBU, 27a:IV-3; S. Clark and Blythe, Echo in My Soul, 134, 178; S. Clark and Brown, Ready from Within, 59; Wigginton, Refuse to Stand, 245.
29. McCain quoted in My Soul Is Rested, ed. Raines, 76–79; Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights, 85–91.
30. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights, 93–97; Halberstam, The Children, 93; Oppenheimer, The Sit-in Movement, 40–44.
31. Laue, Direct Action and Desegregation, 71; Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights, 79–81; Kelly Miller Smith, interview by John Britton, 22 Dec. 1967, p. 41, RJB.
32. William Gray to King, 24 Mar. 1960, and King to Gray, 6 Apr. 1960, KPBU, 27:IV-1; King to C. K. Steele, 19 Mar. 1960, in Papers 5:391n2; King, “Revolt Without Violence,” U.S. News & World Report, 21 Mar. 1960, in Papers 5:392–94; “Integration: ‘Full Scale Assault,’” Newsweek, 29 Feb. 1960, 24.
33. Claude Sitton, “Negro Sitdowns Stir Fear of Wider Unrest,” NYT, 15 Feb. 1960, 1; Watters, Down to Now, 70–84, 110; King, “Debate with James J. Kilpatrick on The Nation’s Future,” 26 Nov. 1960, in Papers 5:556–64; James M. Lawson, Jr., “We Are Trying to Raise the ‘Moral Issue,’” Apr. 1960, in Negro Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century, ed. Francis Broderick and August Meier (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965), 273–81.
34. King, “Interview on Meet the Press,” 17 Apr. 1960, in Papers 5:429; “Dr. King Sees Gain by Negro Sit-ins,” NYT, 18 Apr. 1960; “Truman Is Asked to Prove Charge,” NYT, 20 Apr. 1960, 24; Harris Wofford to President Truman, and Wofford to King, 20 Apr. 1960, KPBU, 73A:IX; King to Truman, 19 Apr. 1960, KPBU, 90:XI.
35. Oppenheimer, The Sit-in Movement, 162–67; King, “To Dwight D. Eisenhower,” 9 Mar. 1960, in Papers 5:386–87; “Alabama Forming Race-Riot Posses,” NYT, 10 Apr. 1960; King, “To Patrick Murphy Malin, Roy Wilkins, and Carl L. Megel,” 16 June 1960, in Papers 5:471–72. See also Papers 5:407, 425, 496; King, “Interview by Les Margolies,” 22 Mar. 1961, KPKC, tape 88–5.
36. Oppenheimer, The Sit-in Movement, 134–36.
37. Bond quoted in My Soul Is Rested, ed. Raines, 85, and Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 63; Oppenheimer, The Sit-in Movement, 132–34; “An Appeal for Human Rights,” Atlanta Constitution, 9 Mar. 1960; Weiss, Whitney M. Young, Jr., 66–67.
38. King, “Keep Moving from This Mountain,” Spelman Messenger, May 1960, 6–17.
39. King, “To Female Inmates,” 24 Oct. 1960, in Papers 5:528; King, “Speech Re Influence of African Movements on U.S. Students,” May 1962, KPKC(3); Thomas Patton to King, 7 Feb. 1961, and James Wood to Patton, 9 Mar. 1961, KPBU, 56:VII-35A. Wood promised to use the money for “Leadership Training.”
40. “From Ella J. Baker,” 23 Mar. 1960, in Papers 5:397; King, “Statement to the Press at the Beginning of the Youth Leadership Conference,” 15 Apr. 1960, in Papers 5:427; Guy Munger, “Students Begin Strategy Talks,” Greensboro Daily News, 16 Apr. 1960; Claude Sitton, “Dr. King Favors Buyer’s Boycott,” NYT, 16 Apr. 1960.
41. Lawson, “We Are Trying to Raise the ‘Moral Issue,’” 273–81; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 5:29–30.
42. Ella Baker, “Bigger Than a Hamburger,” June 1960, in Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader, ed. Carson, 87–88; Sitton, “Negro Sitdowns.”
43. Carson, In Struggle, 10–17; Jane Stembridge quoted in Stoper, “The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee,” 251; Lewis and D’Orso, Walking with the Wind, 40–43, 49, 56; Lewis quoted in My Soul Is Rested, ed. Raines, 71–73; Halberstam, The Children, 98–101.
44. Powledge, Free at Last? 110; Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 12–13, 47, 107.
45. C. King, My Life, 161, 186; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 129–30, 136–37; King, “Interview on Arrest Following Indictment,” 17 Feb. 1960, in Papers 5:370–72; King to Benjamin Mays, 4 May 1960, KPBU, 31:IV-18A; “From Harris Wofford,” 1 Apr. 1960, in Papers 5:403; King, “To Jackie Robinson,” 19 June 1960, in Papers 5:476–78.
46. King, “To Friend of Freedom,” 18 July 1960, in Papers 5:488; Bond in My Soul Is Rested, ed. Raines, 214; Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 244–45; Branch, Parting the Waters, 578–79.
47. King, “Outline: The Philosophy of Nonviolence,” 14 Oct. 1960, in Papers 5:520–21; Oppenheimer, The Sit-in Movement, 136; Carson, In Struggle, 26–29.
48. Oppenheimer, The Sit-in Movement, 136; Carson, “Introduction,” in Papers 5:36–40; King, interview by Zena Sears on For Your Information, 6 Nov. 1960, in Papers 5:549–51; “550 Negro Convicts Go on Hunger Strike,” AC, 6 Dec. 1960, 6.
49. My Soul Is Rested, ed. Raines, 90–92; Walker, “Protest and Negotiation,”, 40–41.
50. “Statement Announcing the March on the Conventions Movement,” 9 June 1960, in Papers 5:467–68; Norman Hill to King, 15 Jan. 1960, KPBU, 68:IX; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 139–40; Harrington, Fragments of the Century, 110–16.
51. Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 51–52; King and A. Philip Randolph, “Joint Platform Proposals to the 1960 Democratic Platform Committee,” in Papers 5:482–85; “Text of the Democratic Rights Plank,” NYT, 12 July 1960.
52. Lichtenstein, State of the Union, 166–200; Anthony Lewis, “The Civil Rights Plank,” NYT, 13 July 1960, 20; Joseph Loftus, “Right to Work Is Major Target,” NYT, 13 July 1960, 23.
53. Harrington, Fragments of the Century, 113–15; King, “Address at NAACP Mass Rally,” 10 July 1960, in Papers 5:486.
54. King, “Three Dimensions,” 11 Dec. 1960, in Papers 5:575; Willard E. Crawford to King, 20 Nov. 1960, and James Wood to Crawford, 6 Dec. 1960, KPBU, 22:III-16.
55. King to James F. Estes, Dec. 1960, in Papers 5:567; James Wood to Viola Knap-ton, 7 Nov. 1960, KPBU, 29:IV-8; Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 127–33; Ransby, Ella Baker, 277–78.
1. Matusow, Unraveling of America, chs. 2–3.
2. Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White; for my own early synthesis, see T. Jackson, “The State, the Movement, and the Urban Poor”; Quadagno, Color of Welfare, ch. 1; Patterson, America’s Struggle Against Poverty; Branch, Parting the Waters, 383–84, 398.
3. King, “Interview by Les Margolies,” 22 Mar. 1961, KPKC, tape 88–5; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis; Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto; Irene Alexander to King, 17 Apr. 1961, KPBU, 7:I-43.
4. King, “Equality Now: The President Has the Power,” Nation, 4 Feb. 1961, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 156. King copied paragraphs from a Southern Regional Council report written by law professor Daniel Pollitt. The SRC remains an Atlanta-based organization devoted to research and education on civil rights. Atlanta’s Urban League director rebuked the plagiarism, but SRC director Howard Fleming informed King he was glad Pollitt’s study “proved so useful.” R. A. Thompson to King, 27 Feb. 1961, and Fleming to King, 17 Feb. 1961, KPBU, 58a:VII.
5. On the academic mystique of presidential power, see Wills, Nixon Agonistes, 210–11; King, “Appeal to the Honorable John F. Kennedy,” 17 May 1962, 29–32, 10–13, BR, 46:2; King, “Equality Now,” 153–55; Mike Wallace, “TV Interview with the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.,” Afro Magazine (Baltimore Afro American), 11 Mar. 1961, 4.
6. Graham, Civil Rights Era, 34, 40–42; L. D. Reddick to King, 9 May 1961, KPBU, 56A; King, “The President’s Record,” NYAN, 17 Feb. 1962; Matusow, Unraveling of America, 64–65.
7. Oscar Hammerstein to King, 21 Apr. 1960, KPBU, 33:IV; Saul Alinsky to King, 3 Jan. 1961, KPBU, 7:I-43; John Wagner to King, 7 Dec. 1960, and King to Wagner, 15 Dec. 1960, KPBU, 73A:IX.
8. King, “Appeal,” 14–17; King, “Equality Now,” 156–57; Wallace, “TV Interview,” 5; King, “The Future of Race Relations in the United States,” 23 May 1962, Dartmouth College Library, Hanover, N.H. Self, American Babylon; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis.
9. P. L. Prattis to King, 17 Feb. 1961, and King to Prattis, 26 Apr. 1961, KPBU, 56:VII; Whitney Young to King, 24 Feb. 1961, KPBU, 59:VII; Whitney Young, “Address to the Negro American Labor Council,” Nov. 1962, WMY.
10. King, “The President’s Record”; King, “Appeal,” 18; King, “Fumbling on the New Frontier,” Nation, 3 Mar. 1962, 191–93.
11. Matusow, Unraveling of America, 68–69; King, “JFK’s Executive Order,” NYAN, 22 Dec. 1962; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 20; P. L. Prattis editorial, PC, 1 Dec. 1962.
12. King, “The Negro and the American Dream,” 25 Sept. 1960, KPKC(3); King, “My Talk with Ben Bella,” NYAN, 27 Oct. 1962; King, “Question and Answer Period Following Address at National Press Club,” 19 July 1962, KPKC(3); King, “Fumbling on the New Frontier,” 190–91; Florence Luscomb to King, 31 Oct. 1960, KPBU, 29A:I; King, “The Future of Race Relations.”
13. L. Howard DeWolf to King, 1 Apr. 1960, and King to DeWolf, 10 May 1960, KPBU, 23A:III-20; King, “Q & A,” 119; In 1964 as a Nobel Laureate, King called on the world to “understand” ANC president Nelson Mandela’s argument that nonviolent resistance was ineffective against a totalitarian regime. Fredrickson, “Non-Violent Resistance to White Supremacy,” 216, 224–25; King, “Address to the American Negro Leadership Conference on Africa,” 24 Nov. 1962, KPKC; King, “The Negro Looks at America,” NYAN, 8 Dec. 1962.
14. King, Strength to Love, 32.
15. King quoted in Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 167.
16. King, “Reply to Communist Charges, Nashville Tennessean,” 14 Dec. 1961, KPKC(3); “Copy of Letter of W.E.B. Du Bois Applying for Membership in the Communist Party of the U.S.A.,” 1 Oct. 1961, KPKC, 8:36. Du Bois’s stark claim that “Capitalism cannot reform itself; it is doomed to self-destruction,” recalled King’s notes to himself on capitalism as a student.
17. FBI Memo, 18 Apr. 1960, in MLK-FBI File, ed. Friedly and Gallen, 114–16; Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr., 22–26, 37–44, 49, 54, 59; King, “Question and Answer Period.”
18. “Statement by MLK, June 11, 1959, HUAC hearings,” KPBU, 29A:IV; Ralph Helstein to George Meany in “Report of Public Review Advisory Commission,” 11 Feb. 1961, 42, KPBU, 56:VII-37. Levison saw the rhetorical connection: Levison and O’Dell, 2 June 1962, Levison Logs.
19. The sit-ins and King’s tax trial in 1960 had elicited unprecedented labor support. Retail workers from District 65 and hospital workers from Local 1199 showed up to picket Woolworth’s in Times Square. A May 17 New York benefit pulled in $85,000 to defend King and the students. Levison proclaimed it “a new stage of the struggle,” because individuals ponied up thousands of dollars in addition to contributions from union treasuries. “Unions Here Support Dr. King,” NYT, 12 May 1960, 28; Stanley Levison to King, Mar. 1960, KPBU, 2:I; Fink and Greenberg, Upheaval in the Quiet Zone, 78–79, 103, 113–14.
20. King, “Address to UAW Convention,” 27 Apr. 1961, KPKC(3).
21. Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, 219–25; A. Philip Randolph to King, 27 Apr. 1960, KPBU, 64a:VIII; Bayard Rustin to King, 19 May 1960, KPBU, 71:IX; NALC Program, 17 Feb. 1961, KPBU, 44:VI-34.
22. King, “If the Negro Wins, Labor Wins,” 11 Dec. 1961, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 203–5; George Meany to King, 22 Dec. 1961, KPBU 36:V; “SCLC’s President: Report on AFL-CIO Convention,” SCLC Newsletter, Feb. 1962.
23. King, “Address to UAW Convention”; King, Strength to Love, 21, 28.
24. King, Trumpet of Conscience, 12; Horowitz, Negro and White, Unite and Fight, 254–55; Stein, Running Steel, Running America, 117; Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 143–44.
25. Charles Killingsworth, “Automation, Jobs and Manpower” (20 Sept. 1963), in Poverty in America, ed. Ferman, Kornbluh, and Haber, 139–52; Tom Kahn, “The Economics of Equality” (1964), in Poverty in America, ed. Ferman, Kornbluh, and Haber, 153–72.
26. King, “If the Negro Wins, Labor Wins,” 203–6; King, “Address Prepared for Nat’l Convention, United Electrical Workers,” Aug. 1962, KPKC(3).
27. King, “If the Negro Wins, Labor Wins,” 201–3; King to Walter Reuther et al., 23 May 1962, SCLC, 4:24, including the steel, auto, electrical, maritime, transport, and packinghouse workers.
28. King, “Address Delivered at the Thirteenth Constitutional Convention of the United Packinghouse, Food and Allied Workers,” 21 May 1962, UPWA Papers, Box 21, SHSW; King, “Address to the Transport Workers Union, AFL-CIO,” 2–6 Oct. 1961, KPKC(3). Before the rise of the CIO, the NAACP pursued such an alliance in the 1920s, when first- and second-generation southern and eastern European immigrants—“in-between” ethnics not yet treated or fully self-identified as “white”—battled the KKK and WASP Republican political machines. For a vivid portrait of ethnic politics in the 1920s, see Boyle, Arc of Justice.
29. Horwitt, Let Them Call Me Rebel, 402–3; Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below,” 149–59; Self, American Babylon, 175–91; on urban movements, see T. Jackson, “The State, the Movement, and the Urban Poor,” 422–29.
30. Whitney Young, “Address Before the Sixth Annual Convention of the SCLC,” 27 Sept. 1962, and Young, “Speech to Alpha Phi Alpha,” 27 Dec. 1962, WMY, IV:122; Weiss, Whitney M. Young, Jr., chs. 6–7.
31. L. Sullivan, Build Brother Build, 46, 64–68, 70–79; Leon H. Sullivan interview with John Britton, 25 Sept. 1967, pp. 6, 11, 13, RJB; Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below,” 151–53.
32. King, invitation to Leon Sullivan, 24 Oct. 1962, and flyer for “The Philadelphia Story,” SCLC, 172:41; “Negro Ministers Unfold ‘Operation Breadbasket’ in Atlanta,” SCLC Newsletter, Dec. 1962; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 223.
33. Branch, Parting the Waters, 335–39, 500–507; J. H. Jackson, A Story of Christian Activism (Nashville: Townshend Press, 1980), 445–46; J. H. Jackson, Unholy Shadows and Freedom’s Holy Light (Nashville: Townshend Press, 1967), 195–96; Charles H. King, “Quest and Conflict,” Negro Digest, May 1967, 7, 78–79.
34. Alfred Duckett to King, 13 Dec. 1959, KPBU, 23A:III-20; Duckett to Wyatt Walker, 5 Aug. 1962, and Duckett to King, 16 Sept. and 19 Dec. 1962, 9 Jan. and 7 Mar. 1963, KPKC, 8:37.
35. Harrington, Fragments of the Century, 93; O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 150–51; Isserman, The Other American, 180; Harrington, The Other America, 16–17, 21–25, 168–81.
36. Harrington, The Other America, 6, 11, 42, 75, 151, 155–56. See O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, 134–36, for a critique of the Ford Foundation’s assimilationist Chicago School assumptions.
37. King, “After the Bill Is Passed,” NYAN, 20 June 1964; Harrington, The Other America, 75, 84, 177. Negroes found “pro-social” means of “self-assertion” in cities with sustained boycotts and protests. The study concluded that community organization and protest were effective antipoverty and anticrime tools, recommending their use in the War on Poverty. Fredric Solomon et al., “Civil Rights Activity and Reduction in Crime Among Negroes,” Archives of General Psychology 12 (March 1965), 227–36.
38. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 157–58; Lewis and D’Orso, Walking with the Wind, 166–67; Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 172.
39. “Excerpts of Dr. King’s Address to Oslo Students,” NYT, 12 Dec. 1964, 18; Watters and Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, 52–55, 69, 116–20; Powledge, Free at Last? 299, 301, 371; Lawson, Running for Freedom, 80–81.
40. Guyot quoted in Powledge, Free at Last? 305, 319; Watters and Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, 51.
41. Guyot quoted in Lawson, Running for Freedom, 82–83; Watters and Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, 54, 121–39; Annel Ponder, “Miss. Negroes Denied Vote Protest on Election Day,” SCLC Newsletter, Aug. 1963, and “Citizenship Education in the ‘Heart of the Iceberg,’” n.d., KPKC, 29:13.
42. Charles Cobb and Charles McLaurin, memo, 19 Nov. 1962, Amzie Moore Papers, SHSW, 7:1; Moses quoted in Watters and Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, 16, 131–33; Dittmer, Local People, 144–46; Mills, This Little Light of Mine, 45–52; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 151–52; Cobb, “‘Somebody Done Nailed Us on the Cross,’” 917.
43. Charles Sherrod, “From Sherrod,” n.d., Charles Sherrod Papers, KC, 1:11; Tom Hayden to Al Haber, in Lyon, Memories of the Southern Civil Rights Movement, 21; J. Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 56–61.
44. King, “Draft, Address at 53rd Annual Convention of the NAACP,” 5 July 1962, KPKC, 8:6; “King’s People to People Tour Sweeps Delta,” SCLC Newsletter, Mar. 1962.
45. King, “Virginia’s Black Belt,” NYAN, 14 Apr. 1962; King, “The Future of Race Relations,” 5–6; King, “Literacy Bill Dies,” NYAN, 26 May 1962; King, “Draft, Address at 53rd Annual Convention of the NAACP,” 7.
46. James Wood to King, ca. Apr. 1961, KPBU, 58:VIII-44; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 149, 151.
47. Andrew Young to King, 24 Mar. 1961, KPBU, 59:VII-56; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 8–9, 85–87, 131–44; R. Elizabeth Johns, “Refinement by Fire” (SCLC CEP, n.d.), HL, 9:12.
48. King, “Interview by Les Margolies”; King, “Unknown Heroes,” NYAN, 12 May 1962; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 139; Septima Clark to King, 12 Dec. 1963, SPC, 3:122; Robnett, How Long? How Long? 90–94; Septima Clark, interview by Jacquelyn Hall, 25 July 1976, pp. 80–91, SOHP; Wigginton, Refuse to Stand, 312–13.
49. Wigginton, Refuse to Stand, 289; S. Clark and Brown, Ready from Within, 63–83, 143; “Citizenship Training Progresses,” SCLC Newsletter, Feb. 1962. At Dorchester workshops, Jack O’Dell taught that under Reconstruction, blacks had held office and enjoyed civil and political rights: A. Young, An Easy Burden, 146–48. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 238; Septima Clark, “Success of SCLC Citizenship School Seen in 50,000 New Registered Voters,” SCLC Newsletter, Sept. 1963, 11. See also McFadden, “Septima P. Clark,” 91–92.
50. S. Clark and Blythe, Echo in My Soul, 201, 218–19, 235–38; King to Peggy Brooks, 22 July 1962, SPC, 3:122. Clark was a mother with a son who lived with his grandparents in Ohio, which may be why in praising her King described her activist role as “forced.” Clark to Myles Horton, 24 Sept. 1963, HL, 9:12.
51. King, “Statement Re Wage and Hour Violations in Shrimp Industry,” 15 Mar. 1962, KPKC(3); Andrew Young to Clarence Lundquist, Department of Labor, 2 Mar. 1962, KPKC, 15:54.
52. A. Young, An Easy Burden, 166; Claude Sitton, “Profile of Albany, Ga.,” NYT, 22 July 1962, 117; Powledge, Free at Last? 340, 346, 360.
53. Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 249–59; Watters, Down to Now, 152–56; Powledge, Free at Last? 347; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 174–76, 181; Carson, In Struggle, 58; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 177.
54. Anderson quoted in, Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 114; Watters, Down to Now, 14–15, 147, 160; Hansen quoted in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 101–2; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 185–90; Claude Sitton, “Dr. King Among 265 Negroes Seized in March,” NYT, 17 Dec. 1961, 1; Branch, Parting the Waters, 558; Claude Sitton, “Negro Groups Split on Georgia Protest,” NYT, 18 Dec. 1961, 1; Tribune quoted in Lewis, King, 151.
55. Claude Sitton, “202 More Negroes Seized in Georgia,” NYT, 14 Dec. 1961, 47; Sitton, “Guard Called out in Racial Unrest,” NYT, 15 Dec. 1961, 29; Watters, Down to Now, 146, 78–85, 97, 109; Lentz, Symbols, the News Magazines, and Martin Luther King, 60–62.
56. “Letter from the Albany Movement to the Albany City Commission,” 23 Jan. 1962, in Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader, ed. Carson, 106–7.
57. Claude Sitton, “Negroes Defy Ban, March in Georgia,” NYT, 22 Jan. 1962, 1; Watters, Down to Now, 174–75, 210–11, 214–18; Powledge, Free at Last? 380–86, 407–8; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 208–9; Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 273; Claude Sitton, “Dr. King Sets a Day of Penance,” NYT, 26 July 1962, 1.
58. King, “Why It’s Albany,” NYAN, 18 Aug. 1962; Watters, Down to Now, 196–200.
59. Powledge, Free at Last? 382–84; Hedrick Smith, “Albany, Ga., Closes Parks and Libraries to Balk Integration,” NYT, 12 Aug. 1962, 1; King, “Who Is Their God?” Nation, 13 Oct. 1962, 210.
60. Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 276–77; Watters and Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, 3–4, 139, 164–68; King, “The Terrible Cost of the Ballot,” NYAN, 1 Sept. 1962.
61. King quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 220; Abernathy, Walls Came Tumbling, 218–29; Wyatt Walker, “The Congo, U.S.A.: Albany, Georgia,” SCLC Newsletter, Sept. 1962; “Interview with Bernice Reagon,” in Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader, ed. Carson, 143–45; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 44–45; Sherrod quoted in Powledge, Free at Last? 417–19; Watters, Down to Now, 131.
62. King, “Why It’s Albany”; Powledge, Free at Last? 416; Abernathy, Walls Came Tumbling, 225–26.
1. King, “Negroes and Political Maturity,” NYAN, 2 Mar. 1963; King, “Sit In, Stand In, Wade In, Kneel In,” NYAN, 25 May 1963.
2. King cited approvingly Governor Terry Sanford’s promise to eliminate employment discrimination in North Carolina. King, “Bold Design for a New South,” Nation, 30 Mar. 1963.
3. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 36, 39, 102–3; King, “Let Justice Roll Down,” Nation, 15 Mar. 1965, 270.
4. Levison quoted in American Journey, ed. Stein and Plimpton, 114–15; Eskew, But for Birmingham, 91; Thornton, Dividing Lines, 140–54, 164–65; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 49; Kelley, “The Black Poor and the Politics of Opposition,” 311–13, 318.
5. Thornton, Dividing Lines, 162–260; Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out, 85. Kelley, “The Black Poor and the Politics of Opposition,” 317, criticizes Shuttlesworth’s middle-class agenda, but Shuttlesworth spoke about how important the hiring of black policemen was to working-class blacks. “They Challenge Segregation at Its Core!” (SCEF, 1959), KPBU, 71A:IX; King, “Birmingham Part II Project ‘C,’” NYAN, 17 Aug. 1963; “Business in Dixie,” Wall Street Journal, 26 May 1961.
6. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 194–205; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 50–53; “Negroes’ Boycott Fought in South,” NYT, 4 Apr. 1962; King, “Birmingham Part II Project ‘C’”; Thornton, Dividing Lines, 268–69.
7. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 250–60; Eskew, But for Birmingham, 211, 216; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 54; Walker recalled thinking Connor might do something rash to help the cause. He was clearly more ready for headline catching confrontation then King. Wyatt T. Walker, interview by John Britton 11 Oct. 1967, p. 54, RJB. Shuttlesworth recalled thinking if they could crack Birmingham, “we could crack any city”: Shuttlesworth interview by James M. Mosby, Jr., Sept. 1968, p. 52, RJB. Thornton, Dividing Lines, 271–73.
8. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 288, 229–31, downplays King’s achievement in recruiting these men, who purportedly co-opted King. Thornton, Dividing Lines, 297–302; Abernathy, Walls Came Tumbling, 238–40.
9. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 214–15, 222; Fred Shuttlesworth, “The Birmingham Manifesto,” in Documentary History of the Modern Civil Rights Movement, ed. Peter Levy, (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992) 108–9; Abernathy, Walls Came Tumbling, 242–43.
10. On Greenwood, see Watters and Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, 59–63; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 112, 206–8; Foster Hailey, “15 Birmingham Negroes Seized,” NYT, 18 Apr. 1963; “Birmingham Curb Asked in U.S. Suit,” NYT, 20 Apr. 1963.
11. Walker interview by Britton, pp. 54, 62, RJB; “Alabama Riot Broken up by Police Dogs,” LAT, 8 Apr. 1963; Thornton, Dividing Lines, 291; Foster Hailey, “Dr. King Arrested at Birmingham,” NYT, 13 Apr. 1963, 1, 15; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 225; Foster Hailey, “Fighting Erupts at Birmingham,” NYT, 15 May 1963, 1; Hailey, “New Birmingham Regime Sworn,” NYT, 16 Apr. 1963, 1; King, “Civil Disobedience Should Be Employed” (“Letter from a Birmingham City Jail”), 16 Apr. 1963, in Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader, ed. Carson, 153–58.
12. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 236–38; Natalie Jaffe, “9 Shops Picketed in Racial Protest,” NYT, 21 Apr. 1963, 70; “4 Chain Stores Targets,” PC, 27 Apr. 1963,1; contribution letters in SCLC Micro, 5:43–48, 207, 262; “10-Year Racial Problem Seen by Bobby Kennedy,” LAT, 22 Apr. 1963.
13. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 247; Bevel in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 131; Shuttlesworth interview with Mosby, 60–61, RJB; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 236; “Fire Hoses, Dogs Quell Alabama Racial Protest,” LAT, 4 May 1963; Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out, 368–70; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 99.
14. McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 373–76; Eskew, But for Birmingham, 268; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 100; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 240; “Bob Kennedy Warns City on Negro Rights,” LAT, 4 May 1963; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 250.
15. Foster Hailey, “U.S. Seeking a Truce in Birmingham,” NYT, 5 May 1963; Thornton, Dividing Lines, 314; Foster Hailey, “Birmingham Talks Pushed; Negroes March Peacefully,” NYT, 6 May 1963; Walker quoted in Powledge, Free at Last? 506; “Reminiscences of Bayard Rustin,” 1987, p. 95, CUOH; Shuttlesworth interview by Mosby, p. 51, RJB.
16. SCLC Micro: Joan Blocker, 6 May 1963, 5:790; Anon., 3 May 1963, 5:694; Roselyn Greenleaf, 6 May 1963, 5:315; Robert Lowery, 5:476,10 May 1963.
17. Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out, 376–78; Claude Sitton, “Rioting Negroes Routed by Police at Birmingham,” NYT, 8 May 1963, 1, 28; Kelley, “The Black Poor and the Politics of Opposition,” 318; McWhorter, Carry Me Home, 414, 417. On Lingo’s addictions and the undisciplined state police, see Birmingham police officer Ben Allen, quoted in My Soul is Rested, ed. Raines, 175–77.
18. Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out, 373–73, 380; Thornton, Dividing Lines, 315–17; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 102–4; Smyer quoted in My Soul Is Rested, ed. Raines, 163; Philip Benjamin, “Negroes’ Boycott in Birmingham Cuts Heavily into Retail Sales,” NYT, 11 May 1963, 9.
19. Eskew, But for Birmingham, 288–89; Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out, 386–90.
20. Thornton, Dividing Lines, 318–23; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 245–48.
21. Shuttlesworth interview by Mosby, pp. 39, 66, 88, RJB; Thornton, Dividing Lines, 322–25; Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out, 380–88; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 247; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 104; My Soul Is Rested, ed. Raines, 158–61.
22. Claude Sitton, “Birmingham Pact Sets Timetable for Integration,” NYT, 11 May 1963, 1; “Negro Leaders’ Statements on Birmingham Accord,” NYT, 11 May 1963, 8; Stanley Levison and King, 10 May 1963, FBI Levison Logs; Thornton, Dividing Lines, 330; David Cort, “The Voices of Birmingham,” Nation, 23 July 1963.
23. Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out, 393; Claude Sitton, “50 Hurt in Negro Rioting After Birmingham Blasts,” NYT, 13 May 1963, 1.
24. For Robert Kennedy’s account of the riot, John F. Kennedy’s tougher approach, and relevant Oval Office conversations of 12 and 21 May, see Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice, ed. Rosenberg and Karabell, 96–99, 102–3, 109–10; Anthony Lewis, “U.S. Sends Troops to Alabama,” NYT, 13 May 1963; Stanley Levison and Jack O’Dell, 14 May 1963, FBI Levison Logs; Philip Benjamin, “Dr. King Visits Pool Halls,” NYT, 14 May 1963; A. Young, An Easy Burden, 250.
25. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 112.
26. Bayard Rustin, “Birmingham Leads to New Stage of Struggle,” New America, 18 June 1963.
27. King, “Address at Wrigley Field Freedom Rally,” 26 May 1963, KPKC, tape T-33; King, “Address at the Freedom Rally at Cobo Hall,” 23 June 1963, in Call to Conscience, ed. Carson and Shepard, 69–70.
28. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 143–49.
29. Gloria Richardson, “Cambridge, Maryland, ‘City of Progress’ for Rich,” New America, 31 Aug. 1963, 4; Robnett, How Long? How Long? 161–65.
30. Velma Hill, “Harlem Pickets Force City to Halt Project,” New America, 10 July 1963, 8; Martin Oppenheimer, “Race Conflicts Stir City of Brotherly Love,” New America, 10 Aug. 1963, 5; Gentile, March on Washington, 24–26, 95–98, 104; Kotz, Passion for Equality, 106–10; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 73–77.
31. John D. Pomfret, “President Voices Birmingham Hope,” NYT, 8 May 1963; M. S. Handler, “Assertive Spirit Stirs Negroes,” NYT, 23 Apr. 1963.
32. King, telegram to John F. Kennedy, 11 June 1963, White House Central File, Martin Luther King Letters JFKL, http://www.jfklibrary.org (accessed May 2006); “Transcript of the President’s Address,” NYT, 12 June 1963, 20; “Text of the President’s Message to Congress Calling for Civil Rights Legislation,” NYT, 20 June 1963, 16–17.
33. Oval Office Meetings, Presidential Recordings, 20 May 1963, tape 88.4, and 1 June 1963, tape 90.3, JFKL; Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice, ed. Rosenberg and Karabell, 116–20. Title VI promised to cut off federal dollars to any government agency or contractor that practiced discrimination. Titles IV and V allowed the Community Relations Service to mediate disputes and extended the tenure of the Civil Rights Commission. Sundquist, Politics and Policy, 263.
34. Richard Russell, “The South States Its Case,” U.S. News & World Report, 24 June 1963, 78; “Text of the President’s Message to Congress”; meeting on Birmingham, 23 Sept. 1963, in Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice, ed. Rosenberg and Karabell, 164–65.
35. Brink and Harris, Negro Revolution in America, 190; Sundquist, Politics and Policy, 263; “Text of the President’s Message to Congress.”
36. Labor economists, union representatives, and manpower and training experts testified about the challenges of expanding employment and incorporating the least skilled workers into a newly automated economy, but they almost never mentioned race. Charles Killingsworth, Leon Keyserling, and Gunnar Myrdal all testified. U.S. Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Nation’s Manpower Revolution, parts 1–10, Hearings, May 1963-June 1964 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964); Stein, Running Steel, Running America, 69–88; Brown, Race, Money, and the American Welfare State, 210–13.
37. U.S. Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Equal Employment Opportunity (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1963): A. Philip Randolph and Roy Wilkins, 25 July 1963, 174–75, 199–200; Andrew Young, 26 July 1963, 178.
38. Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, 266–67; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 265–81; Fairclough, Martin Luther King, 89.
39. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 123–25; Malcolm X, “Message to the Grass Roots,” Nov. 1963, in Malcolm X Speaks, ed. Breitman, 16; Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 332–36.
40. “Reminiscences of Bayard Rustin,” 190; Norman Hill interview by James M. Mosby, Jr., 12 Mar. 1970, p. 28, RJB.
41. A. Philip Randolph to John F. Kennedy, 4 May 1962, JFKL, White House Central File, Martin Luther King Letters JFKL, http://www.jfklibrary.org (accessed May 2006); D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, 328; Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, 249–50.
42. A. Philip Randolph to CORE, SNCC, SCLC, NAACP, SNCC, and the National Council of Negro Women, 26 Mar. 1963 BR, 27:10; Randolph to Hobson Reynolds, 25 Apr. 1963, BR, 27:10; D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, 329–30; NALC Press Release, 22 May 1963, BR, 31:4.
43. Stanley Levison and Alice Loewi, 3 June 1963, FBI Levison Logs; New York FBI memo, 4 June 1963, in MLK-FBI File, ed. Friedly and Gallen, 161–63.
44. Conference call between Levison, Jones, King, Abernathy, and Andrew Young, MLK-Levison FBI Micro, 10 June 1963, 4:147–52. By stressing the resiliency of the economic agenda, I differ with Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 150–52, Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, 266–67, and D’Emilio, Lost Prophet.
45. “Dr. King Denounces President on Rights,” NYT, 10 June 1963; Lawrence quoted in “Massive Protest in Capital Seen If Congress Fails to Aid Negroes,” NYT, 12 June 1963; Levison quoted in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 152; “Rights Plea Made at City College,” NYT, 13 June 1963, 22; John Maffre, “Senator Cites the Rules against a Capitol Sit-in,” WP, 14 June 1963, A9.
46. Sellers, River of No Return, 62–63; Lewis and D’Orso, Walking with the Wind, 202–3.
47. Reese Cleghorn, “The Angels Are White,” New Republic, 17 Aug. 1963; D’Emilio, Lost Prophet, 337–39; Hill interview by Mosby; “7 Negro Groups Unite,” NYT, 3 July 1963; Bayard Rustin, “Organizing Manual No. 1,” “Organizing Manual No. 2,” BR, 30:1. CUCRL became the major force behind strengthening the employment provisions of the Kennedy bill in the next year.
48. Gentile, March on Washington, 65–71, 259; Abner Willoughby to A. Philip Randolph, 28 June 1963, BR, 27:10; King, “March on Washington,” NYAN, 24 Aug. 1963; The Justice Department insisted on a sound system large enough to keep the whole crowd drawn close around the Lincoln Memorial, where behind Lincoln’s statue sat Kennedy emissary Jerry Bruno holding “the cutoff switch in his hand,” in case the crowd turned too militant. Lichtenstein, Most Dangerous Man in Detroit, 536n47.
49. Gentile, March on Washington, 138–39; Walter Fauntroy to “Fellow Citizen,” 25 July 1963, BR, 27:11; “Rights Leaders Reaffirm Belief,” WP, 26 Aug. 1963; Whitney Young, interview by Albert Gollin, 26 July 1967, WMY, I:9.
50. “NAACP Assails Rights Measures,” NYT, 3 July 1963; “Kennedy Chided on Racial Crisis,” NYT, 1 July 1963; Minutes, NUL National Board of Trustees, 16 May 1963, WMY, IV:12; Whitney Young, “National Conference on Religion and Race,” 14 Jan. 1963, and “New Challenges in Today’s Race Relations,” 23 Sept. 1963, WMY, IV:127; Whitney Young, “Domestic Marshall Plan,” NYT, 3 Aug. 1963.
51. Rustin, “Organizing Manual No. 1”; “The Time Is Now: A Call to Americans,” n.d., NUL, Part II, series 1, box 26.
52. King et al., “What the Marchers Really Want,” New York Times Magazine, 25 Aug. 1963; King et al., “Transcript of N.E.T. ‘For Freedom Now,’” 23 July 1963, KPKC(3).
53. Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, 245; A. Philip Randolph to labor leaders, 18 July 1963, BR, 30:18.
54. Rustin, “Organizing Manual No. 2”; “Marchers Widen Rights Demands,” NYT, 21 Aug. 1963; Barbara Moffett to A. Philip Randolph, 2 Aug. 1963, BR, 28:2; John Arnold to Cleveland Robinson, 4 Aug. 1963, and Bayard Rustin to Arnold, 7 Aug. 1963, BR, 28:4; Rustin to Andrew and Barbara Spadanuta, 15 Aug. 1963, BR, 28:8; Thomas Kilgore to Eugene Blake, 25 July 1963, BR, 31:1.
55. Stanley Aronowitz to A. Philip Randolph, 13 Aug. 1963, BR, 28:7, 29:2; Marion Jones to Cleveland Robinson, 26 Aug. 1963, Hamish Sinclair to Randolph, 22 July 1963, and Bayard Rustin to Sinclair, 1 Aug. 1963, BR 28:2.
56. Frances Fox Piven, interview by Noel Cazenave, War on Poverty Oral History Project, CUOH; Richard Cloward and Frances Fox Piven, personal communication with the author, 4 Apr. 2000.
57. A. Philip Randolph to Stephen Currier, 20 July 1963, BR, 27:11; Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, 254–60; Jane Stembridge to Tom Kahn, 16 Aug. 1963, BR, 28:10; Young, interview by Gollin; Gentile, March on Washington, 134.
58. Bayard Rustin to Jack Conway, 20 Aug. 1963, BR, 28:11.
59. “Excerpts from Addresses,” NYT, 29 Aug. 1963, 21; “Address by Rabbi Joachim Prinz,” 28 Aug. 1963, BR, 31:4; Gentile, March on Washington, 223–41.
60. A. Philip Randolph, Walter Reuther, and James Farmer (delivered by Floyd B. McKissick), “Excerpts from Addresses,” NYT, 29 Aug. 1963, 21; Lichtenstein, Most Dangerous Man in Detroit, 386–87.
61. Lewis and D’Orso, Walking with the Wind, 216–23; text as delivered in Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 336–37; “Original text of speech by John Lewis,” 28 Aug. 1963, in Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader, ed. Carson, 122–23; “Restrained Militancy,” WP, 29 Aug. 1963.
62. King, “I Have a Dream,” in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 217; Thelwell, “The August 28th March on Washington,” 73.
63. Height, “We Wanted the Voice of a Woman to Be Heard,” 88–90; Olson, Freedom’s Daughters, 285–89; Bernice Kelly to John F. Kennedy, 13 Oct. 1963, NUL, part II, series 1, box 24K; Anna Arnold Hedgeman interview by Katherine Shannon, 25 July 1967, RJB.
64. Meeting between Kennedy and civil rights leaders, 28 Aug. 1963, in Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice, ed. Rosenberg and Karabell, 131–40.
65. Hubert Humphrey to Troy Bailey, 14 Apr. 1964, BR, 30:14; Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 216–17; John F. Kennedy in NAACP press release, 31 Aug. 1963, BR, 31:4; Edward Folliard, “Kennedy Says March Advanced Negro Cause,” WP, 29 Aug. 1963, A21; Thelwell, “The August 28th March on Washington,” 72.
66. “Gentle Army,” NYT, 29 Aug. 1963, 20; “Marcher from Alabama,” NYT, 29 Aug. 1963, 17; Powledge, Free at Last? 539–40; “The Quiet Freedom,” WSJ, 30 Aug. 1963, 6; Harold Keith, “Demonstration’s Marchers Leave Legacy in Wake,” PC, 7 Sept. 1963, 3.
67. Tom Kahn, “March’s Radical Demands Point Way for Struggle,” New America, 24 Sept. 1963, 1, 4.
68. Reg Murphy, “President Reassures 10 Leaders,” Atlanta Constitution, 29 Aug. 1963; Eugene Patterson, “Long Way from the Slave Cabin,” and “In the Shadow of Abe Lincoln,” Atlanta Constitution, 29 Aug. 1963; Patterson, “I Have a Dream,” Atlanta Constitution, 30 Aug. 1963.
69. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 121–23; Brink and Harris, Negro Revolution in America, 140–42; Anon., 8 May 1963, SCLC Micro, 5:623.
70. Oval Office Meetings, 19 Sept. and 23 Sept. 1963, Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice, ed., Rosenberg and Karabell, 144–48, 172–73; King and Clarence Jones, 16 Sept. 1963, and Jones and Bayard Rustin, 17 Sept. 1963, FBI Jones Logs; Thornton, Dividing Lines, 351–59.
71. King, “Address Delivered at the Seventh Annual Convention,” 27 Sept. 1963, KPKC; King, “Sharing of Twin Needs,” NYAN, 28 Sept. 1963; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 113–14; Ed Clayton, “Birmingham Bombing Points Up a City with a Sick Soul,” SCLC Newsletter, Oct. 1963.
72. King, “Demonstrating Our Unity,” 15 Dec. 1963, KPKC, 3:20; King, “The Danger of a Little Progress,” NYAN, 15 Feb. 1964; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 175–77.
73. King and Clarence Jones, 29 Oct. 1963, and Stanley Levison and Jones, 4 Nov. 1963, FBI Jones Logs; see also MLK-FBI File, ed. Friedly and Gallen, 174.
74. King, “What Killed JFK?” NYAN, 21 Dec. 1963; King and Lyndon Johnson, 25 Nov. 1963, in Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice, ed., Rosenberg and Karabell, 198, 204; conference call between King, Clarence Jones, and Ralph Abernathy, 22 Nov. 1963, FBI Jones Logs.
1. “Man of the Year,” Time, 3 Jan. 1964, 14; King, Why We Can’t Wait, 112, 132.
2. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 178–79; Levison was furious at King’s rambling speculations and “complete lack of leadership ability.” King had become too obsessed with raising money from rich folks, Levison griped, to figure out his strategy and act consistently. Stanley Levison and Clarence Jones, 28 Feb. 1964, FBI Jones Logs.
3. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 286–93; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 324–27; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 181–91; Robert Hayling interview by John Britton, 16 Aug. 1967, p. 26 RJB.
4. King, “A Plan for New York,” NYAN, 18 July 1964.
5. Zarevsky, President Johnson’s War on Poverty, 21–36. On the tax cut, see Lyndon Johnson and Ted Sorensen in Taking Charge, ed. Beschloss, 38–41; Rev. Lynwood Stevenson quoted in Matusow, Unraveling of America, 249.
6. King, “Annual Report to the SCLC,” 11 Aug. 1965, KPKC(3); Harrington, Fragments of the Century, 94.
7. “President Johnson’s Message on Poverty to the Congress,” 16 Mar. 1964, in Poverty in America, ed. Ferman, Kornbluh, and Haber, 421–28; T. Jackson, “The State, the Movement, and the Urban Poor,” 411–16. Though most planners and historians minimize the impact of black protest on the origins (not the implementation) of the program, at least one key architect of Community Action, Richard Boone, who is credited with keeping “maximum feasible participation” in the final draft of the Economic Opportunity Act, later acknowledged his own debt to black activism. SNCC and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party impressed upon Boone that poor people themselves “had a dramatic and deep understanding of their circumstances and very well knew what it would take for them to move out of poverty.” “The Federal Government and Urban Poverty,” transcript of a conference held 16–17 June 1973, Brandeis University, p. 352, JFKL.
8. Brauer, “Kennedy, Johnson, and the War on Poverty,” 105–9.
9. Lyndon Johnson and Walker Stone, 6 Jan. 1964, WH640.06, LBJT; Nick Kotz regards the conversation as unreflective of Johnson’s core beliefs, but I see it as revelatory. See Kotz, Judgment Days, 94; Richard Daley and Johnson, 20 Jan. 1964, in Taking Charge, ed. Beschloss, 168.
10. Robert Thompson, “Negro Leaders Agree to a Poverty Fight,” WP, 19 Jan. 1964, A2; “Johnson Is Hopeful House Will Debate Rights This Month,” NYT, 19 Jan. 1964, 1. In their first meeting, 3 Dec. 1963, Johnson and King reportedly agreed on the need for jobs and training, and Johnson thought he secured King’s promise not to press on with demonstrations. He was perturbed to read in the press King’s promise to continue “demonstrations until the injustices that have caused them are eliminated.” Kotz, Judgment Days, 67, 92–93. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 145–46; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 310.
11. Matusow, Unraveling of America, 122–26; Brown, Race, Money, and the American Welfare State, 222–34.
12. Brauer, “Kennedy, Johnson, and the War on Poverty,” 105, 108–13; Matusow, Unraveling of America, 110–11, 262–65.
13. Hacker quoted in Hentoff, The New Equality, 231; Kahn, “The Economics of Equality” (1964), in Poverty in America, ed. Ferman, Kornbluh, and Haber, 156–58, 164–66; John Pomfret, “Economic Factors Underlie Negro Discontent,” NYT, 18 Aug. 1963, 154.
14. Ad Hoc Committee, “The Triple Revolution,” in Poverty in America, ed. Ferman, Kornbluh, and Haber, 443–56.
15. Michael Harrington to Robert Pickus, 9 Dec. 1964, LID, 29; Harrington, Fragments of the Century, 198; Hentoff, The New Equality, 13–20.
16. J. Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 189–90; Harrington, Fragments of the Century, 154–56; Gitlin, The Sixties, 165, 226, 336; Evans, Personal Politics, 131, 140–45; Bob Ross to Tom Kahn, 27 July 1964, LID, 29.
17. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 249, 263, 286; Stanley Levison, Bayard Rustin, Clarence Jones, and ghostwriters Nat Lamar, Hermine Popper, and Al Duckett assisted King over the fall and winter of 1963–64. King was anxious the team effort be kept secret lest it “hurt his national image,” he confided to Levison. King and Levison, 13 Dec. 1963, FBI Levison Logs.
18. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 22, 135–36,117, 31, 23–28.
19. Ibid., ix–x, 81, 113.
20. Ibid., 119–20; History may have given King some hope, at least in 1963. Slavery’s origins lay in “the economic factor,” King preached in a sermon titled “Love in Action.” Ideologies of white supremacy had grown out of the “tragic attempt to give moral sanction to an economically profitable system.” But when slavery became less profitable, it grew more dependent on ideology and custom than economics, and was perpetuated by “sincere though spiritually ignorant persons.” By implication, perhaps the ideological racism of whites might yet yield to moral appeals. King, Strength to Love, 40–43.
21. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 119; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 199–200.
22. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 23–25, 48–49, 129–30.
23. Ibid., 24–25, 142.
24. Ibid., 132–38; Weiss, Whitney M. Young, Jr., 152.
25. Stanley Levison and Alice Loewi, 2 Dec. 1963, and Popper and Stanley Levison, 27 Jan. 1964, FBI Levison Logs; King to Hermine Popper, 3 Feb. 1964, KPKC, 19:44; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 311–12; Branch, Pillar of Fire, 211.
26. King, Why We Can’t Wait, 137–38.
27. Ibid., 139.
28. Ibid., 147–51,141–42.
29. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 170–71.
30. Clarence Jones to King, 15 Apr. 1964, KPKC, 13:20; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 322–23; King, “The Stall-In in Review,” NYAN, 9 May 1964.
31. King, “The School Boycott Concept,” NYAN, 11 Apr. 1964; King, “‘White Backlash’ A Myth—Dr. King,” NYAN, 23 May 1964; conference call between King, Jones, Wachtel, Fauntroy, and Walker 10 May 1964, FBI Jones Logs.
32. D. T. Carter, Politics of Rage, 211–17.
33. L. D. Reddick to King, “Lessons from the Wallace ‘Victory,’” 19 June 1964, KPKC, 20:5.
34. Clarence Jones to King, 15 May 1964, enclosing draft “Remarks,” KPKC(3); King, “Remarks at the Convocation on Equal Justice Under Law of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund,” 28 May 1964, p. 3, KPKC(3); King, “Recognition and Opportunity,” NYAN, 6 June 1964; King, “After the Bill Is Passed,” NYAN, 20 June 1964.
35. King and Clarence Jones, 14 May 1964, and Harry Wachtel and Jones, 21 May 1964, FBI Jones Logs; Wachtel to King, 14 Aug. 1964, KPKC, 25:26; Jones to King, 11 Aug. 1964, “Re: Draft Article Outline,” KPKC, 13:22.
36. King, “Statement Before the Platform Committee,” Republican National Committee, 7 July 1964, CR, 24; King, “Bill of Rights for the Disadvantaged,” Democratic National Committee, 22 Aug. 1964, 5–6, 9–12, KPKC(3). the Washington Post mentioned only King’s call for federal protection for southern civil rights workers: Robert Albright, “Kennedy Calls for Plank,” WP, 20 Aug. 1964, A1.
37. Annell Ponder, “90,000 Negroes Vote in Mississippi Mock Election,” SCLC Newsletter, Nov.–Dec. 1963.
38. King, “Ready in Mississippi,” NYAN, 29 Aug. 1964; King, “Statement in Support of MFDP,” 22 July 1964, KPKC, 16:3.
39. King, “Address Delivered to Mississippi Summer Project Participants,” 25 July 1964, KPKC.
40. “Freedom School Curriculum,” SNCC Papers Microfilm, 67:815, 68:0093, reprinted in http://www.educationanddemocracy.org; McAdam, Freedom Summer, 85; Alice Lake, “Last Summer in Mississippi,” Redbook (Nov. 1964), in Reporting Civil Rights, ed. Carson et al., vol. 2, 244–45.
41. King, “Statement Re: Mississippi, Credentials Committee Democratic National Committee,” 22 Aug. 1964, KPKC(3); Lyndon Johnson and Richard Russell, and Johnson and Walter Reuther, 24 Aug. 1964, in Taking Charge, ed. Beschloss, 524–27: Johnson and Hubert Humphrey, 14 Aug. 1964, quoted in Kotz, Judgment Days, 196.
42. Hampton and Fayer, Voices of Freedom, 199, 202–3; Dittmer, Local People, 285–302; Unita Blackwell, interview by Mike Garvey, Apr. and May. 1977, University of Southern Mississippi Oral History Program, Civil Rights in Mississippi Digital Archive, available at http://www.lib.usm.edu; Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 195; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 349; King, “Mighty Army of Love,” NYAN, 7 Nov. 1964; Charles Sherrod, “Mississippi in Atlantic City,” in Reporting Civil Rights, ed. Carson et al, vol. 2, 184–85.
43. “Position Papers for Use in Preparing Statements,” 27 July 1964, KPKC(3); Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 342–44; King and Clarence Jones, 25 July 1964, FBI Jones Logs; Ruby Dee and Ossie Davis to King, 28 July 1964, BR, 46:1.
44. King and Clarence Jones, 25 July 1964, FBI Jones Logs; King, “Statement on NY Riots,” 27 July 1964, KPKC(3).
45. “Wagner Rejects Demands for Civilian Police Board,” and “Text of Wagner’s Statement on Harlem,” NYT, 1 Aug. 1964; Button, Black Violence, 29–37; see Gilens, Why Americans Hate Welfare, on the dramatic racialization of poverty images in the media starting in 1964.
46. Andrew Young, “SCLC Dispatches Anti-Riot Team North,” SCLC Newsletter, July–Aug. 1964.
47. King, “Negros-Whites Together,” NYAN, 15 Aug. 1964. See also King, “A Knock at Midnight,” 9 Aug. 1964, KPKC(3).
48. King, “Negroes Are Not Moving Too Fast,” Saturday Evening Post, 4 Nov. 1964, and “Playboy Interview” (January 1965), in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 179, 359–60.
49. King, “Speech to Southern Assn. of Political Scientists,” 13 Nov. 1964, KPKC(3).
50. Andrew Young, “Keynote Address,” and Joseph Lowery, “Address,” 30 Sept. 1964, KPKC, 31:8; King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 28 Sept. 1964, 10, KPKC(3).
51. King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 28 Sept. 1964, 8; Anne Braden, “SCLC Convention,” SCLC Newsletter, Oct. 1964.
52. Charles Sherrod, “From Sherrod,” n.d., Charles Sherrod Papers, KC; Graham, Civil Rights Era, 163.
53. King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 28 Sept. 1964, 9, 12; King, “1199 Rally,” Oct. 1964, National Union of Hospital and Health Care Employees Records, Catherwood Library, Cornell University; Charles Levy, “Scripto on Strike,” Nation, 11 Jan. 1965, 31; King, “The American Dream,” 4 July 1965, in A Knock at Midnight, ed. Carson and Holloran, 94; C. T. Vivian to Affiliates, 10 Dec. 1964, SCLC, 172:39; P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 360–61.
54. King, “Address Delivered at the John F. Kennedy Annual Award Dinner of the Catholic Interracial Council of Chicago,” 9 Oct. 1964, Catholic Interracial Council Papers, Chicago Historical Society, 95; McGreevy, Parish Boundaries.
55. King, “Negroes Are Not Moving Too Fast,” 180–81.
56. King, “Statement on Relationship of Poverty and War,” 6 Nov. 1964, KPKC(3).
57. “Excerpts of Dr. King’s Address to Oslo Students,” 12 Dec. 1964, NYT, 18; “Dr. King, Johnson Discuss Poverty,” NYT, 19 Dec. 1964, 32; King, “Remarks on Accepting the NYC Medallion,” 17 Dec. 1964, KPKC(3); “Dr. King Awarded a City Medallion,” NYT, 18 Dec. 1964; “City Showers Honors,” New York Herald Tribune, 18 Dec. 1964.
58. Clarence Jones and Jesse Gray, 30 Sept. 1964, and Jones and Ossie Davis, 13 June 1964, FBI Jones Logs; Jesse Gray, “The Black Revolution A Struggle for Political Power,” 19 Dec. 1964, 1–3, 5, and Jones to King, 22 Dec. 1964, both in KPKC, 13:26; Jesse Gray, interview by Katherine Shannon, 26 July 1967, p. 12, RJB.
59. Malcolm X and Breitman, Malcolm X Speaks, 20–21, 31–35, 55, 38–39, 42, 128.
60. Ibid., 69, 74–77, 121–22, 129. Materials on the Armory salute are in “Salute to MLK,” CR, box 24.
61. King, “A Choice and a Promise,” NYAN, 5 Dec. 1964.
1. King, “Northern Problems More Complex,” SCLC Newsletter, June-July 1965; King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 11 Aug. 1965, 6–7, KPKC(3).
2. King, “Civil Right No. 1,” New York Times Magazine, 27 Mar. 1965; Matusow, Unraveling of America, 181–87; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 228; “Selma,” PC, 27 Mar. 1965; “Excerpts of Dr. King’s Address,” NYT, 12 Dec. 1964, 18.
3. “One Man—One Vote,” SCLC Newsletter, Mar. 1964; King, “Selma and Right to Vote,” NYAN, 30 Jan. 1965; King, “More Negroes in Jail Than on Voting Rolls,” NYAN, 27 Feb. 1965; “Mass Arrests Fail to Halt Selma Drive,” PC, 13 Feb. 1965.
4. Lyndon Johnson and A. Philip Randolph, 5 Nov. 1964, WH6411.09, LBJT; Johnson and King, 15 Jan. 1965, in Reaching for Glory, ed. Beschloss, 119, 160–63.
5. USGALLUP.63–674, Q008, 21 June 1963; USGALLUP.64–691, R11, 22 May 1964; USHARRIS.101066, R3, Oct. 1966, all in POLL; Garrow, The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr., 168, 170; Lyndon Johnson and Cartha DeLoach, 20 Nov. 1964, in Reaching for Glory, ed. Beschloss, 149; USGALLUP.633POS, Q22, Sept. 1964, POLL.
6. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 232–41; Beschloss, ed., Reaching for Glory, 172, 217.
7. Garrow, Protest at Selma, 163; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 240; Lyndon Johnson and Bill Moyers, 8 Mar. 1965, in Reaching for Glory, ed. Beschloss, 221–23.
8. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 241–50; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 404; Wallace quoted in Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, 96.
9. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 345–49; King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 28 Sept. 1964, KPKC(3), 11; “Excerpts from Dr. King’s Montgomery Address,” NYT, 26 Mar. 1965, 22.
10. King, “Let Justice Roll Down,” Nation, 15 Mar. 1965, 272–73.
11. A. Philip Randolph, “Opening Remarks,” Whitney Young, “Help Wanted: New Jobs for Negroes,” Bayard Rustin, “The Influence of the Right and Left in the Civil Rights Movement,” and handwritten notes of George Wiley, all at the State of the Race Conference, National Council of Churches, New York, 30–31 Jan. 1965, George Wiley Papers, SHSW, 3:6; Kotz and Kotz, Passion for Equality, 136–37; “Statement to the Press,” Conference of Negro Leaders, 31 Jan. 1965, BR, 17:7; Bayard Rustin, “From Protest to Politics,” Commentary, Feb. 1965, 117–19.
12. Stanley Levison to King, 7 Apr. 1965, KPKC, 14:40; Levison to King, 27 June 1965, KPKC, 14:41.
13. Harry G. Boyte, “New Values—A National Imperative,” 19 May 1965, SCLC 173:23; Braden, “The Southern Freedom Movement in Perspective,” 86–91; Carson, In Struggle, 167–68.
14. Whitney Young, “The Negro and the Vote,” Institute for Policy Studies, 14 Apr. 1965, WMY, IV:131.
15. “SCLC Board Meeting Minutes,” 1–2 Apr. 1965, KPKC, 29:5.
16. P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 368–70.
17. Lichtenstein, State of the Union, 187–91.
18. Robinson asked him to talk about “economic freedom” as the culmination of the “civil rights revolution.” Cleveland Robinson to King, 13 Apr. 1965, CR, box 24; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 427; P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 361.
19. Max Greenberg, “Organizing in the South,” RWDSU Record, 9 Jan. 1966; “New Freedom March in Selma, Alabama,” RWDSU Record, 19 Sept. 1965, NYU.
20. Cleveland Robinson to King, 3 July 1965, CR, box 24; King to Walter Reuther, 19 July 1965, quoted in Honey, “Martin Luther King Jr., and the Memphis Sanitation Strike,” 148–49; Stanley Levison and King, 14 Feb. 1966, FBI Levison Logs; Draper, Conflict of Interests, 115–21. Eighty-three percent of all white union members in Alabama voted for Wallace for president in 1968.
21. “Telegram to Cesar Chavez from Martin Luther King,” n.d. [Sept. 1966], KPKC, 5:21; Levy, The New Left and Labor in the 1960s, 134–35.
22. King, “Illinois AFL-CIO,” Oct. 1965, KPKC(3), 2–4; King, “Speech to District 65,” 17 Sept. 1965, KPKC(3).
23. Cleveland Robinson to King, 14 July 1967, CR; Cleveland Robinson, “Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Labor,” in Robinson to Dorothy Cotton, 16 July 1968, CR, box 24.
24. Lawson, Black Ballots, 329–34.
25. King, “The Nightmare of Violence,” NYAN, 13 Mar. 1965; S. Clark and Brown, Ready from Within, 68–69; Elder Wm. Ezra Greer to participant in the Selma Freedom Movement, 18 Apr. 1965, and Greer to King, 14 Apr. 1965, SCLC, 148:13.
26. NBC, Meet the Press, 28 Mar. 1965, 2–4; Peter Khiss, “Dr. King Suggests Nation Boycott Alabama Goods,” NYT, 29 Mar. 1965; “Of the Call to Boycott in Alabama,” 1965, and King, “After the March: An Open Letter to the American People,” n.d., SCLC, 123:2; Stanley Levison and Clarence Jones, 6 Apr. 1965, FBI Jones Logs; The black president of the Mobile longshoremen’s local protested he had not been consulted. Thomas Buckley, “Dr. King to Press Plan for Boycott,” NYT, 31 Mar. 1965, 17; King, “The Boycott Explained,” NYAN, 10 Apr. 1965.
27. Randolph T. Blackwell, “A Report on Selma, Alabama,” 10 May 1965, KPKC, 28:21. Although SCLC did not follow up on Blackwell’s suggestions, Amelia Boynton wrote to Blackwell in November about her plans to start a garment factory to employ poor blacks. Boynton to King, c/o Blackwell, 13 Nov. 1965, SCLC, 146:12; Blackwell, “Summary Report,” 10 June 1965, KPKC, 28:22.
28. Matusow, Unraveling of America, 245–64; Lawson, Black Ballots, 336; T. Jackson, “The State, the Movement, and the Urban Poor,” 418–21.
29. Ashmore, “Carry It On,” 152, 164, 169, 266–67; SCLC, “Resolution of SCLC Board of Directors,” April-May 1965, SCLC, 122:27; Sargent Shriver to King, 6 May 1965, SCLC, 5:22.
30. Williams in SCLC Newsletter, Feb. 1964; At a training workshop, the historian C. Vann Woodward lectured on the nineteenth-century Readjuster and Populist movements, describing the challenges and achievements of insurgent biracial coalitions. SCOPE orientation materials, SCLC, 168:8–9; King, “Let My People Vote,” NYAN, 19 June 1965. See also King, “Meaning of Georgia Elections,” NYAN, 3 July 1965.
31. Randolph Blackwell, “Confidential Memorandum” to King, 28 Aug. 1965, KPKC, 28:23; Pierce Barker to King, 12 Sept. 1965, KPKC, 35:1, corroborates Blackwell; Hosea Williams, “Annual Report Voter Registration and Political Education,” n.d., SCLC, 144:25; Orange quoted in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 268–69; “There seems to be very little material improvement for Negroes despite the Movement’s accomplishments,” wrote a Georgia SCOPE volunteer, who recommended that SCLC start filling in potholes and teaching people how to care for children’s infected sores. See John Kricker’s and other SCOPE Student Questionnaires, KPKC, 35:3; Ashmore, “Carry It On,” 263–64.
32. Andrew Young, “Annual Report to the Field Foundation, 1963–1964,” KPKC, 29:13; S. Clark and Brown, Ready from Within, 69–70.
33. R. Elizabeth Johns, “Refinement by Fire” (SCLC CEP, n.d.), HL, 9:12; “Citizenship School Has Trained 1,400; Still Has Far to Go,” SCLC Newsletter, June-July 1965.
34. King, “Address Delivered at Rally,” 10 Oct. 1965, KPKC(3); King, press release, 10 Oct. 1965, SCLC, 28:9; Williams demanded the rehiring of all blacks fired during the crisis, an end to police brutality, and the implementation of OEO programs that might subsidize black people’s economic autonomy. Hosea Williams statements, 23 Sept. and 8 Oct. 1965, SCLC, 121:15–16; Robert L. Green, “Quarterly Report to the Board,” 8 Nov. 1965, KPKC, 29:14; Randolph Blackwell to King, KPKC, 28:23; Blackwell, “Press Release on Crawfordville Enterprises,” Feb. 1966, SCLC, 122:2; “Georgia Negroes Launch Business,” SCLC Newsletter, Jan.-Feb. 1966; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 450.
35. A letter from Randolph Blackwell to King of 14 Feb. 1966 complained that SCLC was not meeting its obligations to Crawfordville (KPKC, 28:23). King to Blackwell, 16 Aug. 1966, KPKC, 28:23; Reese Cleghorn, “Unskilled Men Find Magic in Dedication,” Atlanta Journal, 6 Mar. 1967; Randolph Blackwell, “Annual Report: Southern Rural Action Project,” 25 Aug. 1967, KPKC, 6:13; “SRA Final Report Submitted to OEO,” 28 Aug. 1969, in folder titled “Southern Rural Action, Inc. Randy Blackwell,” KC; Blackwell in “Minutes, Board of Directors Meeting, Urban Training Center,” Chicago, 1 Nov. 1968, SCLC, 48:15.
36. King, “Freedom’s Crisis,” Nation, 14 Mar. 1966, 289; King, “A Testament of Hope” (Jan. 1969), in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 320; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 447, 459, 471, 478.
37. King, “Let Justice Roll Down,” Nation, 15 Mar. 1965, 272.
38. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 422; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 274; Gloster Current to branch presidents, 15 Apr. 1965, NAACP, Part IV, box A58; King, “Interview on Face the Nation,” 29 Aug. 1965, KPKC(3); “King, Powell Unit May Both Visit Pittsburgh,” PC, 4 Sept. 1965.
39. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor Subcommittee on the War on Poverty Program, Antipoverty Program in New York City and Los Angeles, 24 July and 7 Aug. 1965 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1965), 145–46, 163, 183, 179–80; Augustus Hawkins, interview by Robert Wright, 28 Feb. 1969, RJB.
40. King, “Transcript of Interview, KNXT-TV, Los Angeles,” 10 July 1965, KPKC(3).
41. Lewis, King, 306–7; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 439–40. Garrow quotes Rustin’s bizarre claim that Watts was the “first time [King] really understood” the need for “more than a hamburger.”
42. As Gerald Horne has argued, after the suppression of the interracial left in the 1950s, rebellious blacks expressed intense racial resentments, since no “class discourse was available to explain to the black masses what was happening.” Home, Fire This Time, 109–10.
43. “Eisenhower, Kennedy View Riot Differently,” LAT, 18 Aug. 1965; “Leaders at Odds,” CD, 27 Aug. 1965; “McCone Heads Panel,” NYT, 20 Aug. 1965; for similar liberal statements disassociating civil rights from urban violence, see comments by former Community Relations Service director LeRoy Collins in Gladwin Hill, “Coast Riot Area Gets $1.7 Million,” NYT, 19 Aug. 1965; “Hawkins Likens Riot in L.A. to Selma Marches,” LAT, 19 Aug. 1965.
44. “Dr. King Arrives Here,” LAT, 18 Aug. 1965; King, “Statement on Arrival in Los Angeles,” 17 Aug. 1965, KPKC(3); “Curfew Lifted in Los Angeles,” NYT, 18 Aug. 1965; Mrs. Fred Coory to King, 25 Aug. 1965, 16:25; James Redford to King, 13 Aug. 1965, 16:28; O. O. Raab to King, 21 Aug. 1965, 16:31, all in SCLC Micro.
45. “Dr. King Hears Watts Protests over Heckling,” LAT, 19 Aug. 1965; Kotz, Judgment Days, 343; Home, Fire This Time, 183.
46. “King Assailed by Yorty,” LAT, 20 Aug. 1965; “L.A. Lacks Leadership on Rights,” LAT, 21 Aug. 1965.
47. King in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 440; King and Lyndon Johnson, 20 Aug. 1965, WH6508.07, LBJT; King, “Feeling Alone in the Struggle,” NYAN, 28 Aug. 1965.
48. “Yorty Raps Shriver over Poverty Funds,” LAT, 19 Aug. 1965; “The State,” LAT, 22 Aug. 1965; Home, Fire This Time, 290; Hawkins interview by Wright, 10–12.
49. Governor’s Commission on the Los Angeles Riots, Violence in the City, in The Politics of Riot Commissions, ed. Platt, 264–68; Rustin, “The Watts ‘Manifesto’ and the McCone Report,” Commentary, Mar. 1966, in Rustin, Down the Line, 140–47; Fogelson, Violence as Protest, ch. 1.
50. “Gun Loaded in Riot Kills Curious Boy,” LAT, 20 Aug. 1965.
51. King, “Speech to District 65,” 17 Sept. 1965, KPKC(3); King, “Illinois AFL-CIO,” 7 Oct. 1965, KPKC(3). King, “Seventh Annual Gandhi Memorial Lecture, Howard University,” 6 Nov. 1966, KPKC(3). See also King, Where Do We Go from Here? 130, and King, “Statement,” 15 Dec. 1966, in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2981–82.
1. Lyndon Johnson, “To Fulfill These Rights,” 4 June 1965, in The Moynihan Report, ed. Rainwater and Yancey, 125–31; Weiss, Whitney M. Young, Jr., 152; Carter, “‘Two Nations,’” 163–64.
2. King and Lyndon Johnson, 7 July 1965, in Reaching for Glory, ed. Beschloss, 389; Johnson and King, 20 Aug. 1965, WH6508.07, LBJT; King, Interview on Face the Nation, 29 Aug. 1965, KPKC (3).
3. King, “The American Dream,” 4 July 1965, in A Knock at Midnight, ed. Carson and Holloran, 91–92.
4. King, “Address, Syracuse University,” 15 July 1965, KPKC(3); King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 11 Aug. 1965, p. 9, KPKC(3); King, “A Great Challenge Derived from a Serious Dilemma,” address delivered to the Hungry Club, Atlanta, 15 Dec. 1965, 4, KPKC(3).
5. Whitney Young, “White House Conference on Education,” 21 July 1965, WMY, IV:134.
6. Robert L. Green, “Characteristics of Students at the Citizenship Education Program Workshop,” 22 Nov. 1965, KPKC, 29:14; SCLC press release, 15 Dec. 1965, SCLC, 121:19.
7. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, “The President and the Negro: The Moment Lost,” Commentary, Feb. 1967, 31–45; Harrington, Fragments of the Century, 204–5; Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 319; Matusow, Unraveling of America, 250–51; Carter, “‘Two Nations,’” 164; “Statement by the President on August Employment and Unemployment,” KPKC, 26:8.
8. King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 11 Aug. 1965, 8–9; King, “Illinois AFL-CIO,” 7 Oct. 1965, 4–5, KPKC(3); Brown and Erie, “Blacks and the Legacy of the Great Society,” 319.
9. King, “Freedom’s Crisis: The Last Steep Ascent,” Nation, 14 Mar. 1966, 291.
10. King, “Illinois AFL-CIO,” 5–6; Liebow, Tally’s Corner, 222–24. See also Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, for similar conclusions reached by grassroots activist Ivory Perry.
11. King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 11 Aug. 1965, 9; King, “The Violence Of Poverty,” NYAN, 1 Jan. 1966.
12. King, “Freedom’s Crisis,” 288–89.
13. Lee Rainwater and William Yancey, introduction, and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, “The Negro Family: The Case for National Action,” Mar. 1965, in The Moynihan Report, ed. Rainwater and Yancey, 1–15, 47–94; Moynihan, “The President and the Negro,” 41. See also Patterson, America’s Struggle Against Poverty, chs. 7, 10, 11. Until 1962, the program was called Aid to Dependent Children,
14. Office of Economic Opportunity, “The American Poor,” 1965, in Social Science and Urban Crisis, ed. Victor B. Ficker and Herbert S. Graves (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 198; K. Clark and Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, Youth in the Ghetto, 10–11; K. Clark, Dark Ghetto. Clark resigned before HARYOU was operational, claiming that it had been taken over, its purposes subverted, by Adam Clayton Powell’s Harlem political machine. See Matusow, Unraveling of America, 257–58. Clark was chastened later by the lack of sophistication among the ghetto poor with whom he worked, concluding that they could be “easily bought” by political entrepreneurs.
15. K. Clark and Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, Youth in the Ghetto, 19–20, 38–39; K. Clark, Dark Ghetto, 1–9; Silberman, Crisis in Black and White, 348.
16. See The Moynihan Report, ed. Rainwater and Yancey: Whitney Young, 415–16, James Farmer, 410, Bayard Rustin, 422; Anna Arnold Hedgeman, interview by Katherine Shannon, 25 July 1967, RJB; Whitney Young, “Address to North and South Jersey Chapters of the National Association of Social Workers,” 29 Mar. 1966, WMY, IV:137. The historian Stanley Elkins had traveled to Washington to explain how slave families had been so damaged that a nearly permanent matriarchal adaptation formed like an oyster’s shell around the humiliated and emasculated black father. Stanley Elkins, personal communication with the author, spring 1997.
17. Benjamin Payton, “A New Trend in Civil Rights,” in The Moynihan Report, ed. Rainwater and Yancey, 395–402, and the editors’ comments, 235–39. Allen Matusow argues that “thunderous denunciation” stemmed from wounded pride: Matusow, Unraveling of America, 197; George Wiley, “A CORE Challenge to the White House Conference,” 18 Nov. 1965, George Wiley Papers, SHSW, 7:1; Tom Kahn to Irving Howe, 4 Aug. 1965, LID, folder 30.
18. King, “The Dignity of Family Life,” 29 Oct. 1965, in The Moynihan Report, ed. Rainwater and Yancey, 402–9; see O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, ch. 8, for a useful summary of “poverty’s culture wars.”
19. King, “The Negro Family: A Challenge to National Action,” 27 Jan. 1966, SCLC, 28; King, “Freedom’s Crisis,” 291; King, “Sermon: Good Samaritan,” 28 Aug. 1966, 6, KPKC(3); Appy, Working-Class War, 31.
20. Moynihan, “The President and the Negro,” 41–43; King and Stanley Levison, 4 Feb. 1967, MLK-Levison FBI Micro, 6:699–702.
21. Carter, “‘Two Nations,’” 172–78; Hedgeman interview; Clarence Jones and King, 13 Nov. 1965, FBI Jones Logs; Lawson, In Pursuit of Power, 45–47; Kotz, Judgment Days, 359.
22. Carter, “‘Two Nations’”; D’Emilio, Lost Prophet; “A Freedom Budget for All Americans” and supporting testimony by Rustin and A. Philip Randolph can be found in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 1853–2013. For King’s marginal role in the White House conference, see Lewis, King, 308–12; Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 381. John Lewis, Ossie Davis, Ruby Dee, Whitney Young, Roy Wilkins, Pauli Murray, C. Vann Woodward, Kenneth Clark, Daniel Bell, Gunnar Myrdal, and I. W. Abel of the steelworkers all signed the Freedom Budget document.
23. “Text of President’s Special Message to Congress,” NYT, 27 Jan. 1966, 20; “Daley Says Johnson Will Need More Funds,” NYT, 5 Mar. 1966, 9; King, “Freedom’s Crisis,” 290.
24. Robert Coles, The South Goes North (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967), 200–201.
25. Robert Coles, “The White Northerner: Pride and Prejudice,” Atlantic Monthly, June 1966, 53–57.
26. “Disgusted citizen” to King, 10 Aug. 1966, SCLC Micro, 22:21; King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 11 Aug. 1965, p. 9. For a historical explanation of the correlation between hostility to welfare and racism, see Gilens, Why Americans Hate Welfare.
27. King, “Freedom’s Crisis,” 290.
28. Marris and Rein, Dilemmas of Social Reform; Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism. See collected news clippings and policy papers in folders “Poverty: Citizens Crusade Against,” Julius Bernstein Papers, NYU, and George Wiley Papers, SHSW, 3:1–2.
29. Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart, 203–5; “Policy Snags Literacy Project,” NYT, 5 Mar. 1966, 10; Matusow, Unraveling of America, 253–54.
30. Andrew Young, “Keynote Address,” 11 Aug. 1965, KPKC, 31:11; King and Stanley Levison, 1 July 1966, MLK-Levison FBI Micro, 6:1–6; Leon Sullivan, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, part 12, 2574–75, 2586–89.
31. Nancy J. Weiss, “Whitney M. Young, Jr.,” in Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century, ed. John Hope Franklin and August Meier (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 335–36; Young, “Address to North and South Jersey Chapters.”
32. T. Jackson, “The State, the Movement, and the Urban Poor,” 418–30, 430n49; King, “To Charter Our Course,” Frogmore, S.C., 29 May 1967, KPKC(3).
33. Clark and Hopkins, A Relevant War Against Poverty, 252; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, uses Gramsci to vividly illuminate Ivory Perry’s career; Kerstein and Judd, “Achieving Less Influence with More Democracy”; Kelley, “The Black Poor and the Politics of Opposition,” 325–27.
34. Leonard Mitchell to King, 24 Nov. 1965, KPKC, 28:5; Randolph Blackwell, “Wilcox County, New Structures Versus Old Problems—A Plea,” 11 Mar. 1966, SCLC, 144:25; Ashmore, “Carry It On,” 289–90.
35. “Program ‘First’ for SCLC,” Staff News, Dec. 1966, SCLC, 123:18; John Cook to King, 22 Nov. 1966, KPKC, 28:7; King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 10 Aug. 1966, KPKC(3).
36. Mayers quoted in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 272, 277; Stokely Carmichael, “We Are Going to Use the Term ‘Black Power,’” 28 July 1966, in Black Nationalism in America, ed. Bracey, Meier, and Rudwick, 475–76.
37. Charles Sherrod, “Report on the Benefits of Social Security,” 1966, Charles Sherrod Papers, KC, 3:7.
38. Shirley Mesher, “Selma—One Year Later—What?” SCLC, 144:25.
39. “Protest from the People of Dallas County Regarding the Community Action Program,” n.d., SCLC, 144:25.
40. King, “Statement,” 23 Oct. 1967, National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders [Kerner Commission], in Civil Rights During the Johnson Administration, ed. LBJL, reels 4–5:2815; Greenberg, The Devil Has Slippery Shoes, 736–37.
41. Dittmer, Local People, 374; “Delta Ministry Commission Report,” 1 Oct. 1965, Delta Ministry Papers, KC, 2:3.
42. “Press Conference,” Feb. 1966, Delta Ministry Papers, KC, 3:16.
43. King and SCLC board of directors to Lyndon Johnson et al., 10 Aug. 1966, KPKC, 13:9.
44. Hamer quoted in Dittmer, Local People, 381–82; King, “Statement,” 23 Oct. 1967, 2815; King, “Why We Must Go to Washington,” 15 Jan. 1968, 2–3, KPKC(3).
45. U.S. Senate, Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Examination of the War on Poverty, Hearings, Jackson, Mississippi, 10 Apr. 1967 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1967), 580–95, 642–57.
46. SCLC Board of Directors, “Resolution of Meeting,” 13 Apr. 1966, KPKC, 29:6.
47. See especially King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 28 Sept. 1964, KPKC(3); King, “Statement,” 15 Dec. 1966, in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs; King, “United Neighborhood Houses,” 6 Dec. 1966, KPKC(3); King, “New Politics Convention,” 31 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3); King, “Frogmore Retreat,” 14 Nov. 1966, 16, KPKC(3); and King, Where Do We Go from Here? ch. 5.
48. King, “Frogmore Retreat,” 21.
49. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2970–71; King, “United Neighborhood Houses,” 6–7; King, “Frogmore Retreat,” 16–18.
50. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2969; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 164.
51. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2792–93; King, “United Neighborhood Houses,” 4–5, 9–10; King, “Frogmore Retreat,” 21–22.
52. King, “United Neighborhood Houses,” 11–13; King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2968.
53. King, “United Neighborhood Houses,” 6–8; King, “Frogmore Retreat,” 23.
54. King, “Frogmore Retreat,” 21; King, “Why We Must Go to Washington,” 11; E. Foner, Story of American Freedom, 88.
55. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2971–72.
56. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 193. Johnson quoted in Kotz, Judgment Days, 332.
57. Helstein quoted in “Minutes of the Executive Board, A. Philip Randolph Institute,” 19 Sept. 1966, SCLC, 42:1.
1. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2974.
2. Ibid., 2968, 2983; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 201; Self, American Babylon is only one among a spate of recent studies to analyze these suburban structures. See especially Lassiter, The Silent Majority.
3. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, A Time to Listen, A Time to Act (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1967), 7, 21–26, 47–48, 52–53, 33–37.
4. King, “May 17—11 Years Later,” NYAN, 22 May 1965; King, “Address, Syracuse University,” 15 July 1965, KPKC(3); Warren, Who Speaks for the Negro? 215–16.
5. King, “July 1965 March on Chicago Speech,” SCLC, 28:4; Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 358.
6. King then led a march of 1,000 on the White House in support of D.C. home rule legislation. “King Shifts Emphasis to ‘Economic Freedom,’” PC, 14 Aug. 1965; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 436, 448; Matusow, Unraveling of America, 201–3. King quoted in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 286.
7. Young, “Political Power,” n.d., SCLC, 28:14; James Bevel, “The Sickness in America Today,” in Urban America: Crisis and Opportunity, ed. Jim Chard and Jon York (New York: Dickenson, 1969), 95; Bevel, “SCLC—Chicago Project,” 26 Oct. 1965, KPKC, 5:26; King, “Annual Report, SCLC,” 11 Aug. 1965, 6–7, KPKC(3).
8. Miller quoted in Kotz and Kotz, Passion for Equality, 166.
9. Clark quoted in Whitney M. Young, Jr., “White Status Symbol,” NYAN, 4 Dec. 1965.
10. King, “The Chicago Plan,” 7 Jan. 1966, 3–5, KPKC(3); King, “Why We Are in Chicago,” NYAN, 5 Feb. and 12 Mar. 1966.
11. King, “The Chicago Plan,” 5–7.
12. “Len O’Connor,” 7 Jan. 1966, KPKC, 5:27; King quoted in Ralph, Northern Protest, ch. 2; Bryant quoted in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 304–5; Anderson and Pickering, Confronting the Color Line, 170, 191.
13. “Dr. King Occupies a Flat in Slums,” 27 Jan. 1966, 35; “Dr. King Is Sued,” NYT, 5 Mar. 1966, 10; King, Bayard Rustin, and Stanley Levison, 1 Feb. 1966, Levison and Adelle Cantor, 14 Feb. 1966, and Levison and “Un,” 1 Mar. 1966, FBI Levison Logs.
14. King, “Chicago Freedom Festival,” 12 Mar. 1966, 1, KPKC(3); Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 466–67; Ralph, Northern Protest, 70–75; King, “Interview During Chicago Gathering with CCCO,” 18 Mar. 1966, KPKC(3); P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 362–63.
15. “Dr. King Stirs Chicago But Still Lacks a Program,” NYT, 24 Mar. 1966, 33; Stanley Levison and Clarence Jones, 23 Apr. 1966, FBI Levison Logs.
16. King, “Chicago Freedom Festival,” 3; King, “Freedom’s Crisis,” Nation, 14 Mar. 1966, 291.
17. Bevel in Mary Lou Finley, “The Open Housing Marches” (Spring 1967), in Chicago 1966, ed. Garrow, 66–68; James Bevel, King, and Andrew Young in Anderson and Pickering, Confronting the Color Line, 200–201; Jesse L. Jackson, “A Strategy to End Slums,” 31 May 1966, SCLC, 149:35; Alvin Pitcher, “The Chicago Freedom Movement: What Is It?” (November 1966), in Chicago, 1966, ed. Garrow, 176–77; Ralph, Northern Protest, 98–105.
18. “Leaders Climbing on Dr. King Bandwagon,” CD, 17 June 1966, 1; “Rally Drawing Many City Segments,” CD, 8 July 1966; “Ministers Miffed,” CD, 17 July 1966; “Chicago Archbishop,” NYT, 11 July 1966, 19; P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 364.
19. King, “Soldier Field Rally,” 10 July 1966, 1–5, KPKC(3).
20. Harold Baron of the Chicago Urban League, George Riddick of the Chicago Church Federation, and Alvin Pitcher co-authored the “Program of the Chicago Freedom Movement, July 1966,” pp. 1–5, SCLC, 150:13. Reprinted in Chicago, 1966, ed. Garrow, 97–109.
21. These demands included the equalization of school expenditures throughout the city, federal enforcement of Title VI against the Chicago Board of Education, and the hiring of minority teachers; better garbage collection, street cleaning, and building inspections in poor black neighborhoods; and democratic control of urban redevelopment projects. “Program of the Chicago Freedom Movement,” 7–12.
22. King, “I Need Victories,” address to rally, Chicago, 12 July 1966, KPKC(3); “Two Are Shot as Violence Erupts Again,” NYT, 14 July 1966; “Troops Restoring Order,” NYT, 16 July 1966.
23. “Chicago Calmer,” NYT, 17 July 1966, 60; Privately with Levison, Young doubted that SCLC could stop hostile local people from “encouraging the riots,” but Levison insisted that “it’s Daley’s riot, not your riot.” SCLC must aggressively put the onus on Daley’s “municipal apparatus” for ignoring “the whole body of grievances of the people” before King got blamed for failing to stop the violence. Stanley Levison and Andrew Young, 15 July 1966, MLK-FBI File, ed. Friedly and Gallen, 484–85; “Chicago Officials Voice Concern over Apparent Gang Alliance,” NYT, 20 July 1966, 23; “Chicago Names Police Panel,” NYT, 26 July 1966.
24. Ruth Smyte to King, 11 Aug. 1966, SCLC Micro 1, 22:18; King, “Annual Report,” 10 Aug. 1966, KPKC(3); King, “The Core of It,” NYAN, 30 July 1966.
25. King, “The Non-Violence of Dr. M. L. King,” NYAN, 30 July 1966; Fogelson, Violence as Protest, ch. 1; “Chicago Officials Voice Concern,” NYT, 20 July 1966, 23.
26. “Rights Chiefs,” NYT, 11 July 1966, 19; King, “Annual Report,” 10 Aug. 1966, 19–20.
27. King, “Annual Report,” 10 Aug. 1966, 5; “Chicago, Baltimore Marchers Mobbed,” PC, 13 Aug. 1966.
28. “Rock Hits Dr. King,” NYT, 8 Aug. 1966, 1; Karen Koko, “Chicago’s Race March,” National Catholic Reporter, 10 Aug. 1966; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 495–503; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 298–99; Finley, “Open Housing Marches,” 22–23.
29. John McKnight, “The Summit Negotiations: Chicago,” 17–26 Aug. 1966, in Chicago, 1966, ed. Garrow, 129–30.
30. McKnight, “The Summit Negotiations,” 131; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 503–25; “The ‘Summit Agreement,’” 26 Aug. 1966, in Chicago 1966, ed. Garrow, 147–54.
31. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 158; Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 400–404; Garrow, Protest at Selma, 165.
32. Matusow, Unraveling of America, 206–7; Sundquist, Politics and Policy, 279–81; “LBJ Accused of Surrender,” CD, 2 Sept. 1966, 36.
33. Young quoted in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 302; King, “Annual Report,” 10 Aug. 1966, 26; Bevel, “Sickness in America Today,” 95.
34. King, “Freedom’s Crisis,” 288–89; Donald Janson, “Dr. King and 500 Jeered,” NYT, 22 Aug. 1966, 1, 37; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 3–4; Mrs. Rich to King, 6 Aug. 1966, SCLC Micro 1, 22:18.
35. King, “Why I Must March: Address Delivered at Rally,” 18 Aug. 1966, KPKC(3); King, “Statement on the Electoral Returns and White Backlash,” Nov. 1966, KPKC(3); Califano, Triumph and Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson, 153; John Herbers, “Rights Backers Fear a Backlash,” NYT, 21 Sept. 1966. Low- and middle-income ethnic voters on the northwest and southwest sides where open housing marches had occurred overwhelmingly voted for Republican Charles Percy. Ralph, Northern Protest, 222. On the war and inflation, see Hodgson, America in Our Time, and Appy, Working-Class War. Gallup gave 2,417 Americans three reasons for expected Republican gains in the House: equal numbers gave primacy to “the administration’s handling of Vietnam, discontent over the high cost of living, [and] racial problems”: USGALLUP.736, Q20, 21 Oct. 1966, and USGALLUP.742, Q14B, 9 Mar. 1967, POLL.
36. P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 364; King, “Which Way Its Soul Shall Go,” voter registration rally, Louisville, 2 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3).
37. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 484–96, 533–34; King, “Statement,” 14 Oct. 1966, KPKC(3).
38. King, “Meredith March Rally Speech,” Memphis, Tenn., 7 June 1966; King, “Transcripts of Speeches and Statements Along the Meredith March, Grenada, Miss.,” 16 June 1966; King, “Address Delivered During the Meredith March,” West Marks, Miss., 12 June 1966; King, “Address Delivered at Rally,” Yazoo City, Miss., 21 June 1966, all in KPKC(3); Carson, In Struggle, ch. 14.
39. “Kennedy Clashes with CORE Chief,” NYT, 9 Dec. 1966, 1; Floyd McKissick, 11 Dec. 1966, in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, part 11, 2284–2315.
40. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 52–53.
41. Lawson, In Pursuit of Power, 92.
42. King, “Interview Following Address,” University of California-Berkeley, 17 May 1967, audiotape, Pacifica Radio Archives, Los Angeles; King, “Address to Ministers Leadership Training Program,” Miami, Fla., 19 Feb. 1968, SCLC, 26.
43. King, “Sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church: Good Samaritan,” 28 Aug. 1966, 8–9, KPKC(3).
44. King, “Judging Others,” Ebenezer Baptist Church, 4 June 1967, KPKC; King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2993.
45. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2989, 2992; King, “Sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church: Good Samaritan,” 7; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 131–32.
46. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2990–91.
47. Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 535; King, “Press Conference on Public Housing Agencies,” 25 Mar. 1967, KPKC(3).
48. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2985; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 201–2.
49. King, “Seventh Annual Gandhi Memorial Lecture, Howard University,” 6 Nov. 1966, KPKC(3); King, “Speech to Staff Retreat, Frogmore, South Carolina,” 14 Nov. 1966, 6–7, KPKC(3); King, “Sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church: Good Samaritan,” 5.
50. King “Statement on Voter Registration Drive,” 2 Dec. 1966, KPKC(3); King, “Press Conference at Liberty Baptist Church,” Chicago, 24 Mar. 1967, KPKC(3); King, “Chicago, One Year Later,” 1967, SCLC, 28:31.
51. Daley boosted his margin in the white ethnic wards from 52 percent in 1963 to 76 percent in 1967. Black voter turnout began a long-term slide that paralleled general declines in low-income voting, but Daley still held 70 percent of the black vote. Kleppner, Chicago Divided, 74–75; Ralph, Northern Protest, 223, 226.
52. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 154, 61–62. King and SCLC staff canvassed Cleveland neighborhoods for black mayoral candidate Carl Stokes that summer. (Stokes did not thank him, however, calculating that King and the city’s militants lost him more white votes than they mobilized black votes in a city with a black minority.) Stokes in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 417.
53. King, “To Charter Our Course for the Future,” SCLC retreat, Frogmore, S.C., 29 May 1967, KPKC(3); King, Where Do We Go from Here? 155–56.
54. King, “Press Conference,” 24 Mar. 1967, KPKC(3).
55. “Tenant Unions of the Union to End Slums to Coordinating Committee of the Chicago Freedom Movement,” 30 Nov. 1966, KPKC, 46:17; King, “Statement on the Establishment of a Housing Redevelopment Project,” 20 Dec. 1967, KPKC(3); King, “Interview by C. Johnson,” Chicago, 28 July 1967, KPKC(3).
56. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 156; King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2979, 2985, 2991–92; King, “Chicago, One Year Later”; King, “SCLC Convention,” 16 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3); Anderson and Pickering, Confronting the Color Line, 292.
57. Helen Jones to King, 13 July 1965, KPKC, 5:24; King, “Speech to Englewood Community, Chicago, Ill.,” 17 Nov. 1966, KPKC(3); King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2977; King, “Shaw Urban Renewal Public Meeting,” 27 Mar. 1967, KPKC(3).
58. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 157, 200; King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2975; King, “Annual Report,” 10 Aug. 1966.
59. King and Stanley Levison, 1 July 1966, MLK-Levison FBI Micro, 6:1–6; King quoted in SCLC press release, 17 July 1967, SCLC, 46:11; King, “Statement Re Chicago Adult Education Project,” 26 July 1967, KPKC(3); King, “New Politics Convention,” 31 Aug. 1967, 3–4, KPKC(3); Robert L. Green, “Progress Report, SCLC Chicago Adult Education Project,” 12 Sept. 1967, SCLC, 151:6.
60. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 200; T. Jackson, “The State, the Movement, and the Urban Poor,” 434–35; Kotz and Kotz, Passion for Equality; Francis Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, “Birth of a Movement” (1967), and “Dissensus Politics: A Strategy for Winning Economic Rights” (1968), in Politics of Turmoil, 127–40, 161–76. On Birmingham as a model, see “The Weight of the Poor: A Strategy to End Poverty,” Nation, 2 May 1966; Piven, personal communication with the author, Nov. 2000.
61. SCLC press release, “‘Green Power’ for Negroes,” 23 Nov. 1966, SCLC, 122:6; King, “Speech to Operation Breadbasket Meeting,” 25 Mar. 1967, KPKC(3); Jesse Jackson, “Strategy to End Slums,” 31 May 1966, SCLC, 139:45; P. Foner, Organized Labor and the Black Worker, 365.
62. King, “Speech to Operation Breadbasket Meeting,” 5–6; Young quoted in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 354; Fannie G. Perryman to King, 21 Sept. 1967, SCLC, 172:3.
63. King quoted in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 585, 569; King, “The Crisis in Civil Rights,” 12 July 1967, KPKC(3).
64. Walter Fauntroy, “Keynote Address,” SCLC convention, 9 Aug. 1966, KPKC, 31:13; Bayard Rustin, “A Way Out of the Exploding Ghetto,” New York Times Magazine, 13 Aug. 1967; “October 1966 Black Panther Party Platform and Program: What We Want, What We Believe,” in Philip S. Foner, ed., The Black Panthers Speak (New York: Lippincott, 1970), 2.
65. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 49–50.
66. King, “Which Way Its Soul Shall Go”; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 201–2.
67. King, “Statement,” in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2979; King, “The Role of the Behavioral Scientist in the Civil Rights Movement,” 1 Sept. 1967, in Journal of Social Issues 25, no. 1 (1968), p. 7. Lassiter, Silent Majority.
68. King, “Transforming a Neighborhood,” National Association of Real Estate Brokers, San Francisco, 10 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3).
69. King, “New Politics Convention,” 31 Aug. 1967, 8, KPKC(3). King, “Interview on the Arlene Francis Show,” 19 June 1967, KPKC(3).
70. Rustin, “A Way Out of the Exploding Ghetto”; “Reminiscences of Bayard Rustin,” 1987, p. 224, CUOH; Warren, Who Speaks for the Negro? 213; Bayard Rustin, “Draft of Statement on Guiding Principles of the Civil Rights Movement,” 12 Oct. 1966, KPKC(3).
1. M. Young, The Vietnam Wars, chs. 1–10; Lyndon Johnson and Richard Russell, 27 May 1964, in Taking Charge, ed. Beschloss, 366–68; Johnson and Robert McNamara, 21 June 1965, in Reaching for Glory, ed. Beschloss, 365.
2. Shapiro, “The Vietnam War,” 119; King, “Mighty Army of Love,” NYAN, 7 Nov. 1964; King, “Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech,” 10 Dec. 1964, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 226; King, “Nobel Lecture,” 11 Dec. 1964, KPKC, 4:36; “Excerpts of Dr. King’s Address,” NYT, 12 Dec. 1964, 18; King, “Selma and Right to Vote,” NYAN, 30 Jan. 1965.
3. Zaroulis and Sullivan, Who Spoke Up? 20, 26; Tracy, Direct Action, 128–33; King and Clarence Jones, 14 Feb. 1965, FBI Jones Logs; Jones to King, 7 May 1965, KPKC, 13:27.
4. Shapiro, “The Vietnam War,” 122; Dittmer, Local People, 351–52; John Herbers, “Civil Rights and War,” NYT, 5 July 1965, 4.
5. Lyndon Johnson and King, 7 July 1965, in Reaching for Glory, ed. Beschloss, 388–89.
6. “Text of the President’s Address on U.S. Policies in Vietnam,” NYT, 8 Apr. 1965, 16; “Dr. King to Send Appeal to Hanoi,” NYT, 13 Aug. 1965; Shapiro, “The Vietnam War,” 123.
7. King and Lyndon Johnson, 20 Aug. 1965, WH65o8.07_8578, LBJT. I differ with Taylor Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, 308, who interprets Johnson’s command as a reassurance that King did not “leave that impression.” M. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 151–60, 179.
8. Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 273; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 445; Levison Log, 25 Aug. 1965, in MLK-FBI File, ed. Friedly and Gallen, 434, 435; King quoted in CBS News, Face the Nation, 29 Aug. 1965, v. 8, 206–11; Gallup poll, 29 Oct. 1965, USGALLUP.719, Q019C, POLL.
9. King still wanted to make a strong moral condemnation of the war, but Stanley Levison firmly declared, “you’re not the person to do this.” Conference call between Levison and King, 28 Sept. 1965, Levison Log, in MLK-FBI File, ed. Friedly and Gallen, 436–38; King, “Address Delivered at the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom,” 15 Oct. 1965, KPKC(3); King, “Interview by Arnold Michaelis,” 1 Dec. 1965, Colgate-Rochester Divinity School, Rochester, New York; John Herbers, “Peace March Set in Capital Today,” NYT, 27 Nov. 1965, 12; C. King, My Life, 293.
10. Letters in SCLC Micro: Fred Peters, 12 June 1966, 15:430–32; Mrs. Fred Coory, 23 Aug. 1965, 12:100–102; Frank Lee, 15 Jan. 1966, 14:224–27; Paul Heany, 12 Jan. 1966, 14:423–24.
11. Letters in SCLC Micro: Yasuharo Shima to King, 4 Aug. 1965, 12:2–4; Everett Patrick to King, 29 Jan. 1966, 14:404; Mrs. James W. Donahue to King, 24 Sept. 1965, SCLC Micro, 13:94; Ruth Rosenwald to King, 26 Jan. 1966, SCLC Micro, 14:466–68; Martin Degan to King, 22 Sept. 1965, 13:201. Harris obtained identical results the month before with the wording slightly changed to a neutralist government “neither on our side nor on the side of the Communists.” In October and November, the neutralist option scored low (5–6 percent), because Harris included it among four options, which included total victory and a UN supervised withdrawal (57 percent favored in November). USHARRIS.012466, R2, USHARRIS.66FEB1,R1, USHARRIS.102566,R1, USHARRIS.66NOV2, R1, POLL. Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, 660.
12. King, “Address Delivered to the South Africa Benefit of the American Committee on Africa at Hunter College,” 10 Dec. 1965, KPKC(3).
13. Shapiro, “The Vietnam War,” 147; King, “Julian Bond and the Constitution,” NYAN, 5 Feb. 1966; Carson, In Struggle, 188–89.
14. King, “My Jewish Brother!” NYAN, 26 Feb. 1966; King, “Who Are We?” 5 Feb. 1966, KPKC(3); Shapiro, “The Vietnam War,” 129; King, Bayard Rustin, and Stanley Levison, 1 Feb. 1966, FBI Levison Logs.
15. Roy Reed, “Dr. King’s Group Scores Ky Junta,” NYT, 14 Apr. 1966; M. Young, The Vietnam Wars, 167–71; Stanley Levison and Clarence Jones, 23 Apr. 1966, FBI Levison Logs; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 470; Shapiro, “The Vietnam War,” 130; Levison, Bayard Rustin, and King conference call, 12 June 1966, FBI Levison Logs; “Dr. King Calls Draft Unfair,” NYT, 3 Nov. 1966. African American combat fatalities remained disproportionate through 1967, but by the end of the war black and white fatalities had become comparable to their proportions in the population. See Appy, Working-Class War.
16. King, “The Casualties of the War in Vietnam: Address Delivered to the Nation Institute,” 25 Feb. 1967, SCLC, 26.
17. King, “Beyond Vietnam,” 4 Apr. 1967, in A Call to Conscience, ed. Carson and Shepard, 160; Kotz, Judgment Days, 373; Stanley Levison and McWilliams, 3 Jan. 1967, and conference calls, 18 Feb. and 27 Mar. 1967, FBI Levison Logs.
18. King, “Beyond Vietnam,” 142, 159; King, “Statement,” 15 Dec. 1966, in U.S. Senate, Federal Role in Urban Affairs, 2970; “Dr. King to Weigh Civil Disobedience If War Intensifies; Interview by John Herbers,” NYT, 2 Apr. 1967.
19. King initially cited a figure of $322,000 per dead Vietnamese solider but revised it upward in April. King, “Casualties of the War in Vietnam,” 6; “Dr. King Leads Chicago Peace Rally,” NYT, 26 Mar. 1967, and excerpts in “Another Opinion,” NYT, 2 Apr. 1967; King, “Press Conference on Position on Vietnam,” 12 Apr. 1967, Los Angeles, KPKC(3); King, “The Domestic Impact of the War in Vietnam: Address Delivered at the National Labor Leadership Assembly for Peace,” 11 Nov. 1967, KPKC(3); King, “The Other America,” California Democratic Council, Los Angeles, 16 Mar. 1968, Pacifica Radio Archives, Los Angeles; King, “Why We Must Go to Washington,” 5 Jan. 1968, KPKC(3); King, Where Do We Go from Here? 36, 86.
20. Gladwin Hill, “Dr. King Advocates Quitting Vietnam,” NYT, 26 Feb. 1967, 1; King, “Beyond Vietnam,” 143. See also King, “America’s Chief Moral Dilemma,” University of California-Berkeley, 17 May 1967, Pacifica Radio Archives, Los Angeles.
21. Whitney Young, “Search for Liberals,” Fisk University, 6 July 1967, WMY, IV:155; “Vietnam Called ‘Excuse’ for Lag in Rights Fight,” WP, 21 Jan. 1967, C5; King, “Press Conference on Position on Vietnam”; King quoted in CBS News, Face the Nation, 16 Apr. 1967, v. 10, 117; King, “The Other America.” On Young’s growing doubts about guns and butter, and his persistent support for Johnson, see Weiss, Whitney M. Young Jr., 158–64.
22. King, “Casualties of the War in Vietnam,” 8; King, “Domestic Impact of the War.”
23. King quoted in Face the Nation, 16 Apr. 1967, v. 10, 116; King, “Interview on Issues and Answers,” 18 June 1967, Washington, D.C., KPKC(3); King, “Casualties of the War in Vietnam”; King, “Transforming a Neighborhood into a Brotherhood,” Annual Convention of the National Association of Radio Announcers, 11 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3).
24. King, “Domestic Impact of the War.”
25. King, “Casualties of the War in Vietnam,” stressed the violation of international law; King, “Beyond Vietnam,” 146–54; King, “Press Conference on Position on Vietnam.”
26. King, “Beyond Vietnam,” 146, 153.
27. Ibid., 143, 149; Harry Wachtel and Stanley Levison, 6 Apr. 1967, King and Levison, 8 and 12 Apr. 1967, and Levison and Dora McDonald, 11 Apr. 1967, all in FBI Levison Logs; Wilkins quoted in Hall, Peace and Freedom, 102. King may have concluded the ghostwritten text was too radical when his recorded speech omitted from the printed version a speculation that the covert purpose of U.S. intervention was to goad “China into a war so that we may bomb her military installations.” See King, “A Time to Break Silence,” 4 Apr. 1967, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 242.
28. King, “Beyond Vietnam,” 156–57; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 188; on Carmichael and the Panthers, see Hall, Peace and Freedom, 60; King, “America’s Chief Moral Dilemma.”
29. King, “SCLC Convention,” 16 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3); King, “Three Evils of Society,” National Conference for a New Politics, Chicago, 31 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3).
30. King, “Casualties of the War in Vietnam”; King, “Press Conference on Position in Vietnam”; King, “Transforming a Neighborhood into a Brotherhood,” 11 Aug. 1967; King, “America’s Chief Moral Dilemma.” In Where Do We Go from Here? King made a general indictment of economic neo-imperialism but did not directly associate it with the Vietnam War, which he criticized on moral grounds. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 7, 35, 36, 133, 188.
31. King, “Beyond Vietnam,” 154–55; King quoted in Face the Nation, 16 Apr. 1967, 116–17; “The People: Dilemma of Dissent,” Time, 21 Apr. 1967.
32. King, “Beyond Vietnam,” 155–56; Douglas Robinson, “Jewish War Veterans Attack,” NYT, 6 Apr. 1967, 10; King quoted in Face the Nation, 16 Apr. 1967, 113; King, “Interview on Issues and Answers”; King, “Address at Santa Rita Rehabilitation Center,” 14 Jan. 1968, Pacifica Radio Archives, Los Angeles; Burns, To the Mountaintop, 376–79.
33. Alfred Lewis, “Dr. King’s Stand,” NYT, 3 Apr. 1967, 32; John Sibley, “Bunche Disputes Dr. King,” NYT, 13 Apr. 1967, 1, 32; “Dr. King’s Error,” NYT, 7 Apr. 1967, 36.
34. Lawrence Davies, “Dr. King’s Response,” NYT, 13 Apr. 1967, 32; Paul Good, “On the March Again,” Nation, 1 May 1967, 551; Niebuhr quoted in Shapiro, “The Vietnam War,” 133.
35. Carl Rowan, “Martin Luther King’s Tragic Decision,” Readers Digest, Sept. 1967, in C. Eric Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr.: A Profile (New York, Hill and Wang, 1984), 212–18; Peter Kihss, “Rowan Terms Dr. King’s Stand on War a Peril to Rights Gains,” NYT, 28 Aug. 1967, 10; King, “America’s Chief Moral Dilemma.” On public opinion, see Kotz, Judgment Days, 378.
36. Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael), in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 34–48; King, Where Do We Go from Here? 173–76.
37. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 176–77.
38. Ibid., 179.
39. Ibid., 177–78.
40. King, “Statement on the Southern Christian Leadership Conference’s position on Israel and the Middle East,” Sept. 1967, KPKC, 122.
41. King, “To Charter Our Course for the Future,” 22 May 1967, KPKC(3); King, “Which Way Its Soul Shall Go,” voter registration rally, Louisville, Kentucky, 2 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3).
42. Hall, Peace and Freedom, 108–26, 145.
1. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 136–37.
2. King, “Ingratitude,” Ebenezer Baptist Church, 18 June 1967, KPKC(3); King, “Address to Mass Meeting,” 2 Feb. 1968, KPKC(3); King, “State of the Movement,” Frogmore, S.C., 28 Nov. 1967, KPKC(3).
3. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 180–81.
4. Ibid., 142–43; King, “Civil Rights at the Crossroads,” address to the New York Teamsters, 2 May 1967, KPKC(3).
5. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 6–8, 18–19, 69, 84–85, 132. King modified one of his self-help set pieces in an address to high school students in 1964, adding “one extreme” to the recommendation: “And so if it falls your lot to be a street sweeper, to carry it to one extreme, set out to sweep streets like Michelangelo painted pictures.” King, “Addison Jr. High School,” 22 Oct. 1964, KPKC(3). In 1965, King had completely deleted this reference to street sweepers originally taken from the sermons of Benjamin Mays; King, “A Great Challenge Derived from a Serious Dilemma,” 15 Dec. 1965, KPKC(3).
6. King, “To Charter Our Course for the Future,” Frogmore, S.C., 28 May 1967, KPKC(3); King, “Interview on the Arlene Francis Show,” 19 June 1967, KPKC(3); King, “The Other America,” Stanford University, 14 Apr. 1967, KPKC, Tape 34; King, “America’s Chief Moral Dilemma,” University of California-Berkeley, 17 May 1967, Pacifica Radio Archives, Los Angeles.
7. King, “Where Do We Go from Here?” Eleventh Annual Convention of the SCLC, 16 Aug. 1967, in A Call to Conscience, ed. Carson and Shepard, 193–94.
8. Andrew Young, “Socialism for the Rich,” SCLC press release, 1 Feb. 1967, SCLC, 122:1; King, “Three Evils of Society,” National Conference for a New Politics, Chicago, 31 Aug. 1967, 4, KPKC(3); King, “Press Conference on the PPC,” 5 Jan. 1968, 8, KPKC(3); King, Where Do We Go from Here? 186–87. See Katz and Thomas, “The Invention of ‘Welfare’ in America.”
9. King, “Statement on Nonviolence,” 14 Oct. 1966, KPKC(3); Tom Offenburger interview with Katherine Shannon, 2 July 1968, RJB; King and Stanley Levison, 27 Mar. 1967, FBI Levison Logs; Wright quoted in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 454.
10. Congressional Record, 20 July 1967, pp. 19548–55; Califano, Triumph and Tragedy, 212–13; King, “Statement,” 26 July 1967, KPKC(3).
11. U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Antiriot Bill, 1967, Hearings (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1967), 19, 163; U.S. Senate, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Riots, Civil and Criminal Disorders (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1967), part 1, p. 2.
12. “Johnson TV Talk on Troop Order,” NYT, 25 July 1967, 20; King, “Telegram to the President, Press Conference,” 24 July 1967, KPKC(3); Levison drafted much of the language of the telegram: Stanley Levison and Dora McDonald, 24 July 1967, and King and Levison, 29 July 1967, FBI Levison Logs; King, “Address Delivered at SCLC Staff Meeting,” 17 Jan. 1968, KPKC(3).
13. King, “Telegram to the President.”
14. Memo (unsigned), Harry McPherson to Lyndon Johnson, 28 July 1967, MLK Name File, White House Central Files, LBJL; “Rift Between King, LBJ Appears Beyond Repair,” PC, 2 Sept. 1967; Stanley Levison, King, and Harry Wachtel, 25 July 1967, FBI Levison Logs; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 571–74, 580.
15. NBC News, Meet the Press, 13 Aug. 1967, 7; King, “The Crisis in American Cities,” 15 Aug. 1967, KPKC(3); Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 231; King and Stanley Levison, 22 Aug. 1967, FBI Levison Logs; Weir, Politics and Jobs, 52; USHARRIS.081467, R1B, USHARRIS.112067, R1A, USHARRIS.012968.R3, all in POLL.
16. King, “The Crisis in America’s Cities,” address at the SCLC Convention, 15 Aug. 1967, in Gandhi Marg 12 (January 1968): 17; King, “Statement,” National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission), 23 Oct. 1967, in Civil Rights During the Johnson Administration, ed. LBJL, reels 4–5:2775, 2800; King, “Behavioral Scientist,” 1 Sept. 1967, 4, KPKC(3).
17. King, Stanley Levison, Harry Wachtel, Andrew Young and Walter Fauntroy, 12 Aug. 1967, MLK-Levison FBI Micro, 7:510–18. Stanley Levison suggested the riots led to concessions, but Young and Walter Fauntroy doubted it.
18. King, “Crisis in America’s Cities,” 18–19; King, “Statement,” Kerner Commission, 2776–78; King, “State of the Movement.” Andrew Kopkind, “White on Black: The Riot Commission and the Rhetoric of Reform,” in Cities Under Siege, ed. David Boesel and Peter Rossi (New York: Basic Books, 1971), 226–59.
19. King, “Statement,” Kerner Commission, 2776–77, 2819–21; King, “Crisis in America’s Cities,” 18; King, “State of the Movement,” 2–3; King, “The Other America.”
20. Stanley Levison and King, 29 July 1967, MLK-Levison FBI Micro, 7:477–81; King, Levison, Harry Wachtel, Andrew Young, and Walter Fauntroy, 12 Aug. 1967, MLK-Levison FBI Micro, 7:510–18. See Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement, 200–203, for a succinct summary of riot analysis.
21. King, “Statement,” Kerner Commission, 2825, 2803, 2808, 2997–99; King, Trumpet of Conscience, 56–57; William Ryan, Blaming the Victim (New York: Vintage, 1971) ch. 9, discusses official carnage.
22. King, Where Do We Go from Here? 111–12; King, “Statement,” Kerner Commission, 2812.
23. Graham, Civil Rights Era, 453; Andrew F. Brimmer, “Economic Developments in the Black Community,” in The Great Society: Lessons for the Future, ed. Eli Ginzberg and Robert M. Solow (New York: Basic Books, 1974), 148, 150; Jaynes, Williams, and National Research Council Committee on the Status of Black Americans, A Common Destiny, 278, 302. King explained the statistical undercounts to the SCLC staff in “Why We Must Go to Washington,” 15 Jan. 1968, 4–6, KPKC(3). See Patterson, Grand Expectations, 637–39.
24. National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission), Report (New York: New York Times Company, 1968), 143–44, 291–96.
25. Rustin quoted in McPherson, A Political Education, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), 376; King to Roy Wilkins, 4 Mar. 1968, NAACP, IV:A35.
26. Kerner Commission, Report, 127, 4–5; King, Andrew Young, and Stanley Levison, 12 Aug. 1967, MLK-Levison FBI Micro, 7:510–18.
27. When a minister complained that his congregation resisted his civil rights advocacy, King responded, “the members didn’t anoint you to preach.” King, “Guidelines for a Constructive Church,” Ebenezer Baptist Church, 5 June 1966, in A Knock at Midnight, ed. Carson and Holloran, 110; King, “Address at Santa Rita Rehabilitation Center,” 14 Jan. 1968, Pacifica Radio Archives, Los Angeles; King, “Interview on the Arlene Francis Show”; King, “Interview on Issues and Answers,” 18 June 1967, Washington, D.C., KPKC(3); King to “Friend,” Nov. 1967, MLK Name File, LBJL.
28. Rutherford, Young, Harrington, and Logan in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 454–59; L. Howard DeWolf to King, 11 Dec. 1967, KPKC, 8:24; “Dr. King Warns That Riots Might Bring Rightists’ Rule,” NYT, 18 Feb. 1968, 61; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 361–62; Reddick in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 575; “Reminiscences of Bayard Rustin,” 1987, p. 270, CUOH.
29. King, “Statement at Press Conference Announcing the Poor People’s Campaign,” 4 Dec. 1967, SCLC, 179:25.
30. Ibid.
31. King, “Why a Movement?” 28 Nov. 1967, 3, KPKC(3); King in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 591–93; King, “State of the Movement”; King, “Why We Must Go to Washington.”
32. King, “Press Conference on the PPC,” 5–6; Young in Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 583; King, “Why We Must Go to Washington.” At a press conference the following day, King called for a massive program on the scale of the Freedom Budget or his Bill of Rights for the Disadvantaged. SCLC had “real experts” figuring out the details, he reassured skeptics. King, “Press Conference—Need to Go to Washington,” Ebenezer Baptist Church, 16 Jan. 1968, KPKC(3); Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 595–96.
33. King, “Why We Must Go to Washington,” 11, 16, 19.
34. Sampson quoted in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 362–63; R. B. Cottonreader to Hosea Williams, 12 Feb. 1968, and Herbert Coulton to Williams, 20 and 24 Mar. 1968, SCLC, 178:19.
35. Albert Turner and Hosea Williams to Organizations in the State of Alabama, 2 Feb. 1968, SCLC, 177:43. Williams and Fred Bennette to Officers, Members, and Friends, 9 Mar. 1968, SCLC, 179:4. SCLC’s proposal to the Ford Foundation reflected Kenneth Clark’s assumption that “churches are the most pervasive social institutions in the Negro ghetto.” The training program was intended to radicalize the black church and give ministers skills in community organizing. “A Proposal for Renewal of the Negro Ministry in America, Submitted to the Ford Foundation, Urban Training Center for Christian Mission,” SCLC, 48:13; see materials in SCLC, 48:10, 50:16, 3:41.
36. Draft curricular materials, and James Bevel, “Address to Ministers Leadership Training Program,” 20 Feb. 1968, SCLC, 48:11; Dr. Archie Hargraves, “The New Mythology,” 21 Feb. 1968, SCLC, 50:16; King, “Address Delivered to Ministers Leader ship Training Program,” 19 Feb. 1968, SCLC, box 26; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 598–99.
37. King, “Press Conference,” 1 Jan. 1968; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 607; Harrington, Fragments of the Century, 129; Michael Harrington interview, Eyes on the Prize II research and development files, Blackside, Inc., Boston.
38. King, “Press Conference—Need to Go to Washington,” 16 Jan. 1968; Kotz and Kotz, Passion for Equality, 248–53; “NWRO Demands for the Poor People’s Campaign,” n.d., George Wiley Papers, SHSW, 33:1; Clark quoted in McFadden, “Septima P. Clark,” 93.
39. King, “Speech to Mass Meeting,” Edwards, Miss., 15 Feb. 1968, KPKC(3).
40. King, “Why a Movement?” 10–11; King, “Address at SCLC Staff Meeting,” 17 Jan. 1968, King, “Address at Poor People’s Campaign Rally,” Greenwood, Miss., 19 Mar. 1968, King, “Address,” Eutaw, Ala., 20 Mar. 1968 and Albany, Ga., 23 Mar. 1968, all in KPKC(3).
41. King, “Address at Mass Meeting,” Clarksdale, Miss., 19 Mar. 1968; King, “Address at Mass Meeting,” Waycross, Ga., 22 Mar. 1968, both in KPKC(3).
42. King, “Why We Must Go to Washington,” 7; King, “Address,” Eutaw, Ala.; King, “Speech to Mass Meeting,” Edwards, Miss.; King, “Address at Mass Meeting,” Clarksdale, Miss.
43. Registration forms, SCLC, 181:7, 181;15, 181:4.
44. Ibid., 181:4, 181;6. See the brochure, The Poor People’s Campaign (SCLC, n.d.), from which Mrs. Kendricks copied, “Poor people do not get decent jobs, decent incomes, decent housing, decent schools, decent health care, decent government, decent police. Poor people do not even get respect as human beings.” Poor People’s March Vertical file, folder 159–10, MSRC.
45. Poor People’s Campaign News, “Black and White Together,” 15 Mar. 1968, SCLC, 179:25; Eleanor Eaton, AFSC, to Andrew Young et al., 29 Feb. 1968, SCLC, 49:3; Horton quoted in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 369; Ben Franklin, “Dr. King Hints He’d Cancel March If Aid Is Offered,” NYT, 31 Mar. 1968; “All Minorities Supporting MLK,” PC, 30 Mar. 1968.
46. Schorr quoted in Hampton and Fayer, Voices of Freedom, 457; Whitney Young, “Conference on the Role of the Press in a Period of Social Crisis,” 6 May 1967, WMY, IV:154.
47. Letters to Lyndon Johnson from P. Case, 19 Feb. 1968, R. A. Cunningham, 30 Mar. 1968, E. L. Knox, 19 Feb. 1968, G. N. Boesinger, 14 Feb. 1968, G. Jacobson, 8 Feb. 1968, W. N. Powell, 23 Feb. 1968, and J. H. Nevins, 9 Feb. 1968, MLK Name File, White House Central Files, LBJL.
48. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, 452; Lucy quoted in Voices of Freedom, ed. Hampton and Fayer, 459–60.
49. Honey, Black Workers Remember, 290, 295, 304–5.
50. Beifuss, At the River I Stand, 38–40; Honey, Black Workers Remember, 287, 291, 300; H. Ralph Jackson interview by James Mosby, 10 July 1968, 10, RJB; Wilkins quoted in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 370; J. Edwin Stanfield, “In Memphis: More Than a Garbage Strike,” Southern Regional Council, 22 Mar. 1968, BR, 25:8.
51. King, “Address at Mason Temple Mass Meeting,” Memphis, 18 Mar. 1968, KPKC(3); Honey, Black Workers Remember, 300, 314–18. See also King, “Why We Must Go to Washington”; Steve Estes, “I AM A MAN! Race, Masculinity, and the 1968 Memphis Sanitation Strike,” Labor History 41, no. 2 (2000), 153–70.
52. Editorial, “Mini-Riot in Memphis,” NYT, 31 Mar. 1968, 32; “Wilkins Sees Violence During D.C. March,” CD, 4 Apr. 1968, 10; “The Real Martin Luther King,” St. Louis Globe Democrat, 31 Mar. 1968, in McKnight, The Last Crusade, 62.
53. Tom Offenburger to SCLC staff, 1 Apr. 1968, SCLC, 122:10; Garrow, Bearing the Cross, 614–15.
54. King, “I See the Promised Land,” 3 Apr. 1968, in A Testament of Hope, ed. Washington, 280–88.
55. Honey, Black Workers Remember, 300–301, 310, 316–17; Matusow, Unraveling of America, 207–8, 396; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 382; Charles Cabbage, interview by James Mosby, 1968, p. 22, RJB. “He gave life to the strike and the strike gave him warmth and excitement and involvement, the two came together in a very beautiful way,” Jerry Wurf, AFSCME International President, recalled in an interview by James Mosby, 21 Oct. 1968, RJB.
56. Bernard Lee interview by Paul Steckler, Eyes on the Prize II research and development files, Blackside Inc., Boston.
57. James Orange interview by Katherine Shannon, p. 31, RJB; Kotz, Judgment Days, 387; Offenburger interview, 66; Kotz, Let Them Eat Promises, 157. Uniformly negative accounts of the march can be found in Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, chs. 14 and 15, and in Fager, Uncertain Resurrection.
58. Katherine Shannon interview by Claudia Rawles, 12 Aug. 1968 p. 9, RJB; Ernest Austin interview by Katherine Shannon, 9 July 1968, pp. 11, 20, RJB; Fairclough, To Redeem the Soul of America, 386–90; see Hampton and Fayer, Voices of Freedom, ch. 25.
59. Shannon interview; Lafayette quoted in “Poor Campaign Isn’t in Trouble, Its Leaders Say,” PC, 25 Apr. 1968.
60. Harry McPherson Oral History, LBJL; Cabinet minutes, 3 Apr. and 1 May 1968, Cabinet Papers, White House Central Files, LBJL; see also the James Gaither collection, White House Central Files, box 36, LBJL. For my assessment of the economic consequences of the civil rights movement, see T. Jackson, “The Civil Rights Movement.”
61. See Marian Wright Edelman interview, 1988, Roger Wilkins interview, 1988, Eyes on the Prize II research and development files, Blackside, Inc., Boston; Kotz, Let Them Eat Promises, ch. 10, esp. 166–67. Califano blamed Abernathy for continuing to denounce the administration and Congress in equal terms for their “broken promises.” That “did it for LBJ.” Califano, Triumph and Tragedy, 287.
62. Bertha Johnson Luster, Oct. 1997, quoted in Freeman, Mule Train, 114.
63. Shannon interview, 20, 80; Austin interview, 19; Joseph Lowery interview by Robert Wright, 19 Oct. 1970, p. 40, RJB.
64. “Speech by Dr. George A. Wiley,” 29 Apr. 1968, Wiley Papers, SHSW, 33:1; “Statements of Demands for Rights of the Poor Presented to Agencies of the U.S. Government by the Poor People’s Campaign and Its Committee of 100, 29–30 April, 1 May 1968,” 3–7, 14–16, 18, 27, 34–35, 36, 40–41, 45, SCLC, box 177.
65. Coretta King quoted in NWRO pamphlet “Woman Power,” NWRO vertical file, MSRC; Fager, Uncertain Resurrection, 78.
66. Ralph David Abernathy, “Address,” 19 June 1968, SCLC, 177:2; See also Andrew Young, “A Sermon,” 19 June 1968, SCLC, 49:34.
1. Wofford, Of Kennedys and Kings, 117.
2. U.S. Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, Martin Luther King Jr., National Holiday, S. 25, Hearings, 27 Mar. and 21 June 1979 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1979), 20, 23, 27.
3. Public Papers of the Presidents, Ronald Reagan: 1986, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1988), 52–53, 60–61, 67; Robin Toner, “Saving a Dissenter from His Legend,” NYT, 20 Jan. 1986, A24.
4. Flyers, 27 Oct. and 12 Dec. 1988 in CR, 38.
5. Greensboro News and Record, 16 Jan. 1996.
6. “Clinton Makes Emotional Appeal for Blacks to Help Stop Violence,” NYT, 14 Nov. 1993.
7. U.S. Senate, Senate Committee on the Judiciary, The King Holiday and Service Act of 1993 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1995), 19; “King Holiday Is Linked to a Day of Service,” NYT, 24 Aug. 1994, B7.
8. Septima Clark, “The Occasion: Martin Luther King, Jr.,” n.d., SPC, 1:61; Clark, “The Vocation of Black Scholarship: Identifying the Enemy,” n.d., SPC, 1:74.
9. Septima Clark, “The Movement I Remember,” n.d., SPC, 1:52.
10. Shuttlesworth quoted in Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out, 441.
11. Dyson, I May Not Get There with You; Lasch, True and Only Heaven; Burns, To the Mountaintop; Branch, At Canaan’s Edge, xi–xiii; Cornel West, “The Religious Foundations of the Thought of Martin Luther King Jr.,” and Carson, “Reconstructing the King Legacy,” both in We Shall Overcome, ed. Albert and Hoffman, 128, 123, 247.
12. Self, American Babylon, 328–34, offers an excellent historiographical review of some of these issues. On racism in the war on poverty, see Quadagno, The Color of Welfare. Katznelson, “Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?” Burns, To the Mountaintop, offers a spirited defense of nonviolence, though different from mine. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, and many local studies show how armed self-defense actually created spaces in which nonviolence could occur, from Monroe, North Carolina, to Bogalusa, Louisiana.
13. Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement. Hodgson, America in Our Time, and Appy, Working-Class War, both stress the enormous effect Vietnam and Vietnam-induced inflation had on working-class disaffection, not only from liberalism, but the entire political process. Matusow, Unraveling of America, oddly ignores the political impact of Vietnam. Lassiter, The Silent Majority, presents the most comprehensive view of the southern and national politics of suburban sprawl.
14. Wright, “Economic Consequences,” 177–81, 183; Button, Blacks and Social Change, 143, 148–51, 186–87; T. Jackson, “The Civil Rights Movement”; see also Graham, Civil Rights Era, 453. See John J. Donohue, III, and James Heckman, “Continuous Versus Episodic Change: The Impact of Civil Rights Policy on the Economic Status of Blacks,” Journal of Economic Literature 29, no. 4 (Dec. 1991): 1641, 1629.
15. Cross, The Black Power Imperative, 431, 501; T. Jackson, “The Civil Rights Movement.” Overall trends are covered in Patterson, America’s Struggle Against Poverty; O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge, ch. 10; Katz, Improving Poor People, 77–98.
16. T. Jackson, “The State, the Movement, and the Urban Poor,” 438–39. Lassiter, The Silent Majority; Self, American Babylon.
17. See the still relevant and remarkable William Grieder, Who Will Tell the People? (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).