1
1 Enoch
Introduction
First Enoch, also known as the Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch, is a collection of five originally independent writings dating from the fourth century BCE to the first century CE (see table 1.1). As a whole 1 Enoch represents the oldest of three works associated with the biblical Enoch, who was born in the seventh generation from Adam (Gen. 5:21–24). Aramaic fragments of all portions of 1 Enoch—except the Similitudes—discovered in Qumran Cave 4 confirm Aramaic as the original language.1 Today the work is extant in full only in Ethiopic, which was translated from Greek between the fourth and sixth centuries. The oldest of the about ninety surviving Ethiopic manuscripts are from the fifteenth century. The first component of 1 Enoch is the Book of Watchers (chaps. 1–36). It describes righteous Enoch’s reception of heavenly visions; the rebellion of angels, or Watchers; and the work of Azazel, the rebellion’s leader. Enoch ascends to the heavenly throne room and is commissioned as a prophet of judgment. Accompanied by an angelic entourage, he travels throughout the earth and receives visions of judgment. The second component of 1 Enoch is called the Similitudes of Enoch, or Book of Parables (chaps. 37–71). It, like the Book of Watchers, is a record of Enochic visions and angelic interpretations as the prophet travels through God’s throne room and the universe. Aside from Enoch, the main figure here is an eschatological judge, mostly called “Chosen One” but also “Son of Man” and other titles. The Astronomical Book, or Book of the Heavenly Luminaries (chaps. 72–82), describes the role and structure of heavenly and earthly bodies and addresses the importance of the solar calendar of 364 days. This is followed by the Book of Dreams (chaps. 83–90), which contains two visions: the first (chaps. 83–84) is a vision of the coming flood, followed by a prayer; the second (chaps. 85–90), also called the Animal Apocalypse, recounts an apocalyptic vision of human history, using animals to represent people and people to represent angels. The Epistle of Enoch (chaps. 91–108) is a compilation of several writings, only one of which is a letter (Epistle of Enoch [92:1–5; 93:11–105:2]). It is preceded by an Exhortation (91:1–10, 18–19) and followed by the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10; 91:11–17), which gives a visionary account of human history from the time of Enoch to the end of days. The Birth of Noah (106:1–107:3) provides a fictitious account of that biblical figure and is followed by the Eschatological Admonition (108:1–15).
Table 1.1
Components of 1 Enoch
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Book of Watchers (1 En. 1–36) Book of Parables (1 En. 37–71) Astronomical Book (1 En. 72–82) Book of Dreams (1 En. 83–90) • Dream Visions (1 En. 83–84) • Animal Apocalypse (1 En. 85–90) Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 91–108) • Exhortation (1 En. 91:1–10, 18–19) • Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 92:1–5; 93:11–105:2). • Apocalypse of Weeks (1 En. 93:1–10; 91:11–17) • Birth of Noah (1 En. 106:1–107:3) • Eschatological Admonition (1 En. 108:1–15) |
The Book of Watchers (1 En. 1–36)
Introduction
The Book of Watchers (1 En. 1–36) is among the oldest writings that together make up 1 Enoch and may serve as an introduction to the whole work. On its own, the Book of Watchers is an expansion of the biblical account from Genesis 6. The vaguely referenced “sons of God” (בְנֵי־הָאְֶלֹהִם, bənê-hāʾĕlōhîm) who take human wives in the Hebrew Bible (Gen. 6:2) are given names in the Book of Watchers (e.g., Shemihazah; 1 En. 7:1–2). The enigmatic description of their activities in seemingly neutral tones in the Hebrew Bible (Gen. 6:2) gives way to explicit condemnation of the Watchers for their sin (e.g., 1 En. 6:1–10:16a). Where the ensuing narratives of Genesis depict God’s judgment against humans in the flood (Gen. 6:6–7), the Book of Watchers lays blame elsewhere. In the Shemihazah narrative (1 En. 7–8) the flood is in response to the violence against humans enacted by the children of the Watchers. The Azazel2 account (chaps. 10–13) includes this but adds human sin as part of the occasion as well. Despite its present form as a single unit, the Book of Watchers is a composite document often studied in its constituent parts (chaps. 1–5, 6–16, and 17–36). Yet there is some debate among scholars about whether the component parts in their current form can be adequately identified, as well as the profitability of examining these parts for their respective dates and provenances. First Enoch 1:1–12:6 is extant as a unified whole in the earliest fragment of the Book of Watchers (4QEna). Furthermore, the entirety of the Book of Watchers (chaps. 1–36) seems to be established as a whole by the time the book of Jubilees is written mid-second century BCE.3
Language and Manuscripts
The Book of Watchers is widely held to be composed originally in Aramaic and then rendered into Greek and then Ethiopic (Ge’ez). Like the remainder of 1 Enoch, the Book of Watchers is found complete only in the Ethiopic version but is attested in fragmentary form in other languages as well.4 The earliest manuscripts of the Book of Watchers are found among the Dead Sea Scrolls and are written in Aramaic. These include five manuscripts: 4Q201 (also referenced as 4QEna) contains 1 Enoch 1–10 and possibly chapter 12. The manuscript dates from early in the second century BCE but may have been copied from an older manuscript.5 4Q202 (4QEnb) contains a number of very small, indistinct fragments, but it can be seen to contain 1 Enoch 5–10 and 14 and dates from perhaps the middle of the second century BCE.6 4Q204 (4QEnc) is also fragmentary and contains portions of the Book of Watchers from chapters 1–6, 10, 13–15, 31–32, and 35–36. It dates from the end of the first century BCE.7 4Q205 (4QEnd) seems to date from the same period as 4Q204 and contains fragmentary portions of chapters 22 and 25–27.8 4Q206 (4QEne) dates from early in the first century BCE and contains fragmentary portions from chapters 20–22, 28–29, and 31–34 of the Book of Watchers.9 In full the manuscript evidence from Qumran provides compelling evidence for both an early date for the Book of Watchers (prior to 175 BCE) and Aramaic as the original language.10
Perhaps before the turn of the era, the Book of Watchers was rendered into Greek. The principal manuscripts include Codex Panopolitanus, which dates from the fifth or sixth century CE and contains, among other things, 1 Enoch 19:3–21:9 followed by a wording that is nearly identical to the fuller Ethiopic version—where they overlap—of 1 Enoch 1:1–32:6a. The ninth-century Chronography of George Syncellus contains excerpts from the Book of Watchers (6:1–9:4; 8:4–10:14; 15:8–16:1). And so, though only about 28 percent of the entirety of 1 Enoch survives in Greek (n. 10), the majority of the Book of Watchers is preserved in that language.11 A portion of the Book of Watchers (6:1–6) is preserved in Syriac in a twelfth-century Chronicle of Michael the Syrian.12 Of the forty-nine Ethiopic manuscripts, however, none date earlier than the fifteenth century. The diversity of manuscripts means that translators follow different traditions. Some utilize a single Ethiopic manuscript as a basis,13 whereas others utilize an eclectic text informed by the best evidence of Ethiopic, Greek, and Aramaic.14
Provenance
The provenance of the Book of Watchers is simplified by its attestation at Qumran—an unambiguously pre-Christian Jewish context. Like other works, the Book of Watchers depicts Jerusalem as singularly important (1 En. 25:4–6; 26:1–2; cf. 89:50; 90:20–36). But additional attention to regions in Galilee, specifically Dan and the region of Mount Hermon, suggests that area as the likely origin of the work.15
Date
Manuscript evidence from Qumran indicates the Book of Watchers should be dated to prior to 175 BCE,16 though there is general agreement that it probably took shape as early as the third century BCE.17 The Book of Watchers is a composite document sometimes dated according to its constituent parts, which may be arranged as follows:
• Chapters 1–5: Presumably these chapters form the first segment, as they function as an introduction, foreshadowing the message of the remainder of the book. Manuscript evidence from Qumran (4QEnab, see below) dating from the first half of the second century BCE contains at least 1 Enoch 1–11, indicating a date from around 200 to 150 BCE.
• Chapters 6–11: These chapters contain the account of the fallen angels, led by Shemihazah (1 En. 6:3–7), forming the nucleus for the remainder of the Book of Watchers. Therefore, the section’s date provides a key starting point for dating the entire book. Again manuscript evidence from Qumran (4QEnab) suggests a date from around 200 to 150 BCE.
• Chapters 12–16: These chapters presume chapters 6–11.
• Chapters 17–19: These chapters seem to have evolved over time, yet in their present form they are later than chapters 12–16 and presupposed by chapters 20–36. Furthermore, 1 Enoch 6–19 is known to the author of the Animal Apocalypse (1 En. 85–90), written by 165 BCE. Therefore, it is dated to the second half of the third century BCE.
• Chapters 20–36: These chapters presume chapters 17–19. The attestation of 1 Enoch 20–36 in 4QEna (late third century BCE), the book of Jubilees (4:18–20; 175–150 BCE), and perhaps Daniel 12:2 point to a late third-century-BCE date for chapters 20–36. Moreover, that 4QEna represents the end of a staged development pushes the date early within that window.
The tradition of the Shemihazah myth may date well before 200 BCE, at least from the early third century. This may suggest an earliest date of approximately 300 BCE for chapters 6–11, and chapters 12–16 thereafter, no later than 250 BCE.18 This leads to a date for the complete Book of Watchers in its present form somewhere by the mid to late third century BCE.
Contents
As a whole the Book of Watchers describes how rebellious fallen angels came to earth and introduced evil into the world and how God and his heavenly forces will bring about judgment against those angels and sinful humans. The book is typically divided into three large units: chapters 1–5 serve as an introduction to the Book of Watchers and perhaps the entirety of 1 Enoch; chapters 6–16 expand on the “sons of God” account from Genesis 6; finally, chapters 17–36 recount Enoch’s travels.
1 ENOCH 1–5
First Enoch 1–5 presents the book as the product of a revelation received by Enoch from God. The primary intent is to bless “the elect and the righteous who would be present on the day of tribulation at (the time of) the removal of all the ungodly ones” (1:1–2; cf. Deut. 33:1; Num. 24:3–4). The message is one of the coming of God to judge the wicked (1 En. 1:2b–7, 9) but preserve and bless the righteous (1:8). Enoch observes that nature follows its intended course in accord with the purposes of God (2:1–5:3), in stark contrast to the transgressions of the wicked (5:4). The wicked will experience God’s judgment for their iniquity (5:5–6), whereas the elect will be blessed and preserved (5:7–10; cf. Isa. 65).
1 ENOCH 6–16
The text of 1 Enoch 6–16 begins with an expanded account of the fall of disobedient angels (Gen. 6:1–4). It develops the cryptic narration of the “sons of God” (בְנֵי־הָֽאֱלֹהִים, bənê-hāʾĕlōhîm) taking the daughters of men for wives in order to describe how the (named) angelic figures—called Watchers—conspire together to sire children by human women (1 En. 6:1–8). Led by Shemihazah, the Watchers also teach their wives various magical crafts (7:1–2; 8:1–3) and sire giants who wreak havoc on the earth (7:2–5). The earth (7:6) and people (8:4) cry out and are heard by the angels Michael, Surafel, and Gabriel, who in turn report it to the Most High (9:1–11). The Most High sends angelic figures to act in response. First, Asuryal is to warn the son of Lamech (Noah) about the coming deluge (10:1–3). Second, Raphael is to bind Azazel and imprison him until the final judgment (10:4–8). Third, Gabriel is instructed to destroy the wicked, including the giants (10:9–10). Fourth, Michael is sent by God to inform the fallen Watchers of their doom and God’s intent to rid the world of their wickedness (10:11–16a). God will then restore righteousness and purity, and his people will experience prosperity (10:16b–20). All the nations will come to worship God, and the earth will be cleansed from its pollution forever (10:21–22; 11:1–2). Curiously, no mention of Enoch is made in chapters 6–11.
Enoch returns in 1 Enoch 12–16, where he is commissioned to inform the fallen Watchers of God’s judgment against them (12:1–13:1). First, though, he narrates his experience of being hidden with the Watchers (12:1–2). He was blessing the Lord when the Watchers called to him and charged him to tell the fallen Watchers that their sin brought defilement on the earth and they will therefore have neither peace nor forgiveness (12:3–6). Enoch obeys his commission and confronts Azazel and the other fallen Watchers with the message (13:1–3a). They respond in fear (13:3b) and beg for Enoch’s (written) intercession to the Lord (13:4–5). Enoch writes the prayer and falls asleep while reading it (13:6–7). In a vision he is commissioned to reprimand the fallen Watchers (13:8–14:1), and he then recounts the vision to them (14:2–7). Their prayers will not be heard (14:2–4, 7), and they will be unable to ascend to heaven and will remain imprisoned for all eternity (14:5). They will observe the destruction of their loved ones (14:6). Then Enoch recounts his heavenly ascent (14:8), wherein he enters the heavenly sanctuary (14:9–17) and sees the Great Glory sitting on a lofty throne (14:18–23). The Lord then calls him (14:24–25) and commissions him to deliver a message to the Watchers that immortal beings are not to intermix with mortals (15:1–7). As a result, their progeny—the giants—will yield evil spirits from their bodies to wreak havoc on the earth (15:8–12; 16:1–2). Enoch is to announce to these fallen Watchers their impending doom (16:3).
1 ENOCH 17–36
First Enoch 17–36 is an extensive description of Enoch’s heavenly travels and accompanying visions. Chapters 17–19 begin with Enoch being lifted up by angels and given a tour—in a westerly direction—of the mythical world (17:1–18:9), including the prison where the fallen Watchers are to be kept (18:10–19:1a) until their final demise (19:1b–3). The final section of the Book of Watchers (chaps. 20–36) describes a second account of Enoch’s heavenly ascent. It begins (chap. 20) with a list of the names of his angelic guides. A cyclical pattern of the ensuing visions is thereafter observable as follows: arrival (“I came to . . .”), vision (“I saw . . .”), question (“I asked the angel . . .”), angelic interpretation (“he said . . .”), and blessing (“Then I blessed the Lord”).19
The final section continues by repeating (chap. 21) the description of the prison from 18:10–19:2. This stands in stark contrast to chapter 22, where Enoch is given a vision of the existence of the souls of the righteous dead anticipating heavenly bliss (22:1–9) and the sinners their torment (22:10–14). In 1 Enoch 23:1–24:1, Enoch travels west and sees another vision of a river of fire, the function of which is unclear. He then travels to see seven mountains adorned and picturesque, configured as a throne (24:2–3), where he sees the tree of life (24:4–6). The angel Michael explains the vision to Enoch (25:1–4) and the ensuing blessings for the righteous in the new Jerusalem (25:5–7). Enoch then travels to the center of the earth, where he marvels (26:6) at the lush mountains and valleys (26:1–3) within which is another, barren valley (26:4–5). His angelic guide—this time Uriel—explains that the accursed valley is reserved for the gathering of the accursed for judgment in the last days (27:1–2), while the righteous receive blessings (27:3–5).
Then Enoch’s travels take him east, to the center of a mountain, and he sees a lush wilderness (28:1–3), the tree of judgment (29:1–2), a lush valley (30:1–3), and a forest of fruitful trees (31:1–3; 32:1–2). This easterly journey culminates in Enoch’s arrival in paradise (32:3–6) and at the ends of the earth (33:1–36:4). Within this final segment Enoch describes the opening of the gates of heaven (33:2–4; in reference to chaps. 72–82) and then his journey to the north (34:1–3), west (35:1), and south (36:1–3; cf. chap. 76). The book concludes (36:4) with a blessing to God.
Contribution and Context
THE VISIONARY EXPERIENCES OF ENOCH IN THE BOOK OF WATCHERS
The narrative framework and the conveyance of a heavenly revelation from the supernatural world that have come to form the foundational definition of an apocalypse20 play a vital role in the Book of Watchers.21 The entire work is introduced in the first of Enoch’s visions (1 En. 1–5), where his eyes are opened (1:2) and he receives a vision (1:2) concerning the elect of a future generation who will experience the day of tribulation (1:1–2). Enoch’s role is typically that of an intercessor for the fallen Watchers, even though he, like the biblical Ezra, is depicted as a “scribe” (12:3–4; cf. Ezra 7:6, 11; Neh. 8:1, 4; etc.). In his role Enoch is given access to God, is commissioned to announce judgment (1 En. 12:3–13:6),22 and is charged to communicate judgment upon the Watchers (1:1–2; 12:4b–6; 13:8b).
Enoch receives his visionary experiences through both dreams (13:8a, 10; 14:1–2) and visions (1:2; 13:8a, 10; 14:1, 2, 8a, c, 14b). He also experiences heavenly ascent (14:8c, 25; 15:1; 17:1, 2, 4; cf. 18:14–19:3) and the opening of the gates of heaven (33:2–5). He has these experiences in a variety of settings, such as while blessing God (1:1–2; 12:3a), interceding in prayer (12:3), and sleeping (13:7b; cf. 14:2; 83–90). He is also found in a posture of fear, falling on his face (14:14a); in the sanctuary (12:3; 14:9–23); and by a river (13:7; cf. Ezek. 1:1; Dan. 10:2–12:11).
The centerpiece of Enoch’s heavenly vision in the Book of Watchers is the “throne vision” (1 En. 14), in which Enoch sees God himself enthroned, “great in glory,” brighter than the sun and whiter than snow (1 En. 14:20). Here God is the object of worship for countless worshipers (14:22; cf. Dan. 7), and it is here where Enoch receives his commission and charge against the fallen Watchers (1 En. 14:24–16:4). In this respect the visions in general and the throne vision in particular point to the coming judgment of God.
ESCHATOLOGICAL JUDGMENT IN THE BOOK OF WATCHERS
The Book of Watchers addresses several interrelated themes in its overall message. These include the origins and nature of sin, its spread throughout humanity, and its ultimate consequences. While some of these components are familiar from other Second Temple writings, the Book of Watchers is among the oldest and most explicit with respect to some of the most important facets.
At the center of the Book of Watchers lies the myth of fallen angels, or Watchers. It is their rebellion against God, not the disobedience of Adam and Eve, that accounts for the origin of sin. But even here the Book of Watchers retains two distinct traditions pertaining to the original culprit for the rebellion and ensuing havoc wreaked on humanity. On the one hand, Shemihazah leads the fallen Watchers to take human wives and sire giant offspring (1 En. 6:3, 7; 9:7; 10:11; 15:3–7). These giants bring about violence and bloodshed, transforming the earth into a state of impurity (10:20–22). On the other hand, sin enters the world through Azazel revealing heavenly secrets to humans (8:1; 9:6; 10:4–8). These include metallurgy, from which humans make weapons for shedding blood, as well as cosmetics and jewelry used for sexual seductions. Still other skills imparted by the fallen Watchers include magical incantations and astrology (7:1; 8:2–3). Presumably both the author of the Book of Watchers and those who preserved it were content to allow this disparity to stand.23
The sin of the fallen Watchers introduces violence, bloodshed, and religious impropriety into the human sphere of existence. As told in 1 Enoch 12–16, the story of angelic rebellion is cast in the form of priests who abandon their ministry in the heavenly sanctuary and become defiled by intercourse with human women (cf. 15:4–7a). They sire giants, who continue to lead humans into sin and plague them with sickness (15:8–16:1). In both instances the condition of human sin and suffering is attributed to the continuing influence of fallen Watchers in the world.24 In this framework God himself is not culpable for human sin, and people are as much victims as perpetrators (e.g., 1:9; 5:4; 27:2).
With the entrance of sin into the human condition, people are generally placed into one of two categories: the wicked or the righteous. The latter are surely those with whom the original audience of the Book of Watchers was to identify. The wicked, or “sinners,” are the objects of stern warnings, similar to those issued to Israel (e.g., Deut. 33; Judg. 5; Hab. 3; Mal. 1). They will ultimately be destroyed because of their sins (1 En. 1:9). In stark contrast to the natural created order, the wicked do not observe the laws of God and will receive their due judgment (chaps. 2–5).25 They join the fallen Watchers in their cursing and ultimate condemnation (5:6–7; 16:1). They commit adultery and become corrupt by the arts taught by Azazel (8:1–2). At their death they are set apart, buried to await the judgment they did not receive in their lifetime (22:10). They will be plagued by eternal pain and retribution (22:11a), and, as with other criminals, their souls will endure but will not rise from death (22:13–14).
The righteous avert the fate of the wicked. They are coupled with the “chosen” (5:7, 9), the “elect” (1:1), the “blessed” (1:2), and the “pious” (25:5), and the entire vision of the Book of Watchers is for their benefit (1:2). Enoch himself is counted among them (1:2; 15:1; cf. 12:4). They will enjoy light, joy, and (eternal) peace and will inherit the earth (5:7, 9; cf. Isa. 65:17–25). They are present at the day of tribulation when the ungodly are removed (1 En. 1:1). They receive (divine) wisdom and will not do wrong again (5:8; 8:8). They will complete the natural number of the days of their lives (5:9). Most of what is explicitly said of them pertains to their future: they will pass through judgment with peace (1:7, 8a; 10:17) since they will be preserved by God (1:8b). Their souls will be separated from their bodies and will avoid judgment (22:9, 13). God will show them kindness, prosperity, and the light of God (1:8b). They will be blessed when God comes to visit the earth (25:2–6), and they will enjoy the fruit of a fragrant tree prepared for them (25:5, 7).
Judgment itself seems to occur in stages. Initially Raphael is instructed to bind Azazel and cast him into darkness in anticipation of the day of judgment when he will be hurled into fire (10:4–6). Likewise Shemihazah and his entourage are bound under the earth until judgment occurs, when they will be shut up in the torment of eternal fire (10:12–13). Elsewhere, prior to final judgment, fallen Watchers are kept in “prison” until the great day of judgment (18:14). There are places where the “spirits of the souls of the dead” are kept until judgment (22:3) and a “cursed valley” where all the godless, cursed people are kept until judgment (27:2–3). The Book of Watchers depicts a typological understanding of the flood as judgment on the wicked, a perspective shared among other Second Temple writings (e.g., CD-A II, 17–21; Matt. 24:36–41; 2 Pet. 2:4–5). Beyond judgment lies restoration. Early on Raphael is told to “restore the earth which the angels have ruined” (1 En. 10:7). But it is not clear whether the earthly restoration is terminated or at all affected by the final judgment.26
CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES
Some scholars (e.g., P. Grelot) have suggested that the Book of Watchers shares important similarities with Babylonian traditions from the Gilgamesh Epic, such as the “waters of life” (1 En. 17:4).27 More recently scholars have suggested that the description of the giants (esp. in 7:2–5; cf. 15:11) is modeled after the violent behavior of demons in Mesopotamian literature (Utukkū Lemnūtu).28 Yet some find difficulties in comparing the journeys of Gilgamesh and Enoch, which differ both in content and sequence. Others suggest Enoch’s travels are drawn from a Greek tradition, such as Odysseus’s journey to the underworld.29 Perhaps it is best to acknowledge affinities with several of these settings while observing the distinctive manner in which the Book of Watchers brings them together30 using a model of depicting Enoch’s journeys that draws from ancient Near Eastern diplomacy intended to impress and intimidate (cf. 2 Kings 20).
Purpose
Determining the original setting of the Book of Watchers is notoriously challenging. The difficulty arises in that the pseudepigraphic nature of the work veils historical referents. Finding the setting is further complicated by the consensus that the Book of Watchers is not a single composition but a compilation of several traditions, each—at least potentially—with distinct social settings. Therefore, while some scholars advocate a search for the work’s setting in its current form, others have carefully examined the polemical nature of portions of the Book of Watchers to posit possible settings (see below). A matter of a more general nature throughout the work is the conspicuous absence of Torah. Though the reader is repeatedly advocated to pursue righteousness and avoid sin, there remains strikingly little indication of obedience to Torah. This is sometimes seen as an indication that whatever identification of the author (or authors) can be inferred from the text, Torah is not central to it. Some scholars have taken this, coupled with the polemic against the Jerusalem priesthood and its temple, to posit a unique form of Judaism known today as “Enochic Judaism.”31
For 1 Enoch 1–5 some have suggested a situation in which new converts are addressed on issues of judgment and salvation. The history of the eschatological remnant is rehearsed, and the hearers are co-opted into that history through a set of appeals to obey God’s commandments. In this reading, 1 Enoch 1:1 indicates insiders of the religious group, which includes those previously numbered among the “sinners.”32 However, the nature of the sins and the identity of the sinners cannot be identified with any clarity (e.g., 1:9; 5:4; cf. 27:2). Nevertheless, the edification and admonition are not thereby lost since the message is to the “ideal readers,” the elect, to affirm that they are God’s righteous people. Despite all their hardships, God controls their fate, and they as his elect people—addressed in these chapters in the third person—are blessed for their faithfulness to God’s covenant. The wicked—addressed in the second person—face divine retribution, and the contrasts between the righteous and the sinner and blessing and cursing run throughout with God as the principal actor.
The setting for 1 Enoch 6–11 has been seen in terms of the author casting his own context in the last days typologically upon the events of primordial times. Its retelling of the fall of the angels from Genesis 6:1–4 is placed into the author’s own setting, in which depravity, led by the fallen angels, notably Shemihazah, incites divine judgment. These angels are sometimes identified with a corrupted Jerusalem priesthood of the original audience.33 In this respect the judgment recorded in the Book of Watchers against the fallen Watchers is a veiled condemnation against the priestly establishment overseeing the Jerusalem temple.34 The nature of their corruption pertains to illicit marriages in which the wayward priests marry women forbidden to the priesthood (cf. Lev. 21), thereby polluting the sanctity of the temple and its cult. Another component of this segment of the Book of Watchers has been identified in terms of its political rather than cultic setting.35 The violence of the giants described in chapters 6–11 is thought to reflect the tumultuous events after the death of Alexander the Great. These are the wars of the Diadochi (successors), in which Alexander’s generals fought with one another over the succession of his dynasty. In this reading, the giants correspond to Macedonian chieftains of that era, pointing to a geographical origin of Galilee.36 A similar conclusion has been drawn pertaining to chapters 12–16,37 where heaven is found to be depicted as a temple, its angels are priestly in function, and by his passing through the heavenly sanctuary, Enoch is himself likely a priestly figure. Finally, some have argued that chapters 17–19 depict the scribal origin of a social group traveling between Jerusalem and Galilee, perhaps under temporary duress, during the third century BCE, prior to the influx of Hellenism.38
Some have responded with caution to an antipriestly polemic in the Book of Watchers. On the one hand, it is unclear whether the Book of Watchers is sufficiently transparent to identify such a polemic.39 More generally, the Book of Watchers in particular and apocalypses in general exhibit what has been called the “essential polyvalence of apocalyptic symbolism,” which “enables it to be re-applied in new historical situations.”40 This necessitates caution in drawing firm conclusions about the social settings of a document from the symbolic descriptions it contains. In other words, “by telling the story of the Watchers rather than of the Diadochi or the priesthood, 1 Enoch 1–36 becomes a paradigm which is not restricted to one historical situation but can be applied whenever an analogous situation arises.”41 This means that the setting may depict the wars of the Diadochi or the Jerusalem priesthood and that the author chooses to avert explicit references and, as John J. Collins argues, transpose the specific historical crisis onto a mythical plane, wherein 1 Enoch 1–36 becomes a “paradigmatic model” that can be applied “whenever an analogous situation arises.”42 This necessarily frustrates one’s attempt to identify a single Sitz im Leben and favors notions of a social setting in a broader sense.
The ambiguity of the setting serves the overall purpose(s) and function(s) of the work rather well. The transcendent perspective of the Book of Watchers, implicit in its genre and explicit in its outlook, subverts the earthly crises (whatever they may be) to the transcendent plan of Israel’s God.43 The work as a whole, then, provides a “lens through which any crisis can be viewed”: “By evoking a sense of awe and instilling conviction in its revelation of the transcendent world and the coming judgment, the apocalypse enables the faithful to cope with the crises of the present and so creates the preconditions for righteous action in the face of adversity.”44
The punishment of the Watchers may distract attention from earthly troubles, equipping the readers to endure any further hardships. They are offered both consolation and, perhaps implicitly, exhortation to be faithful to Israel’s God. After all, the suffering of the righteous amid the proliferation of sin is not new to the readers (1 En. 6–16). This must not be taken to mean the perspective of the righteous is wrong. On the contrary, the righteous are affirmed.
Their cry is heard by God, who sends judgment on the earth. God is attentive to the plight of his people, addressing wickedness and injustice in the heavenly realm in a manner that will one day be replicated on earth. The wicked and their offspring will be destroyed, their judgment will be completed, and the righteous will be restored. For the readers of this text, it is a statement about the demonic powers behind the evil in their own contemporary experiences. They can take comfort in that God and his angelic forces are aware of their plight and will bring it to an end, which may well be the “essence of this author’s message.”45 The nature of the book’s use of apocalyptic symbols both conceals aspects of the book’s provenance and lends to its ability to be applied to a variety of situations.46
The Similitudes of Enoch (1 En. 37–71)
Introduction
The Similitudes of Enoch, or Book of Parables (1 En. 37–71), is likely the latest of the five segments that compose 1 Enoch. It dates from between the first century BCE and the end of the first century CE and clearly depends on earlier portions of 1 Enoch (the Book of Watchers and the Epistle of Enoch). It likely originates from a distinct Enochic writing concerned with vindication of the righteous and judgment on mighty rulers and is the only major portion of 1 Enoch not attested among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Like the Book of Watchers, the Similitudes records Enochic visions and angelic interpretations as Enoch is borne up by clouds and wind (39:3; cf. 52:1) through God’s throne room—where he sees the “Son of Man” enthroned (46:1–8; 61:8)—and the universe (41:3–8). In these experiences, Enoch learns the fate of the righteous and the wicked, and about the new order that is to come. Furthermore, Enoch sees the “Son of Man” (also called the “Anointed One” and “Elect One”) acting as God’s agent of judgment against the wicked. Finally (chap. 71), Enoch ascends to the heavenly throne room, where he is told that he himself is the “Son of Man.”47 The terms similitudes and parables draw from prophetic literature and indicate the book’s revelatory nature, though the work itself is introduced as a “vision of wisdom” (37:1).
Language and Manuscripts
With no portions of the Similitudes found at Qumran, it is extant today only in Ethiopic (Ge’ez). Like other portions of 1 Enoch, it may have been written originally in Aramaic or Hebrew and then translated into Greek and from Greek into Ethiopic. It is possible that it was in its Greek form that the Similitudes was enveloped into the corpus of 1 Enoch, perhaps early in the second century CE. Its rendering into Ge’ez likely occurred in the fifth or sixth century, with the translation of biblical texts into that language. Manuscript evidence in Ge’ez, however, is no older than the fifteenth century.
Provenance
The absence of the Similitudes alone among 1 Enoch from Qumran may give indications as to its origins.48 It may well have been rejected because of its apparent sympathies with equating the sun and moon (e.g., 1 En. 41:3–9), indicating a recognition of a lunar-solar calendar, whereas the Scrolls—and the remainder of 1 Enoch—exhibit particular favor toward the solar calendar.49 This provides a better explanation for its absence at Qumran but also suggests an authorship for the Similitudes by a Jewish group that is distinct from that which composed other Enochic writings. It is in any case likely that the Similitudes comes from Jerusalem or the surrounding area, perhaps Galilee.50
Date
Determining a date of origin for the Similitudes is made difficult because of the very few allusions to historical events found within it. A reference to the Parthians and the Medes (1 En. 56:5–8) is typically taken to refer to the Parthian invasion of Palestine in 40 BCE.51 The reference to springs that serve the kings and the mighty but will become an instrument of judgment (67:5–13) is typically taken to refer to Herod the Great’s attempts to find healings in the hot springs of Callirhoe (Josephus, Ant. 17.6.5 §§171–173; J.W. 1.33.5 §§657–658).52 This locates the Similitudes after Herod’s rise to power in 37 BCE.53 Others take mention of “the kings and the mighty” to suggest Roman authorities,54 which may place the Similitudes in the late first century CE. A common view is that it originates prior to the outset of the Jewish revolt in 66 CE, to which no clear reference is made.55
Contents
The Book of Parables is thought to be composed of material written over a period of time. Yet in its present form it exhibits a clear structure. An introduction (1 En. 37:1–4) is followed by three sets of parables or similitudes (38:1–44:1; 45:1–57:3; 58:1–69:29), each of which begins with a chapter presenting the subject matter of the whole. These, along with a conclusion (70:1–71:17), recast some material from the Book of Watchers (1 En. 1–36). It is woven with wisdom material, which serves the book’s message of unraveling the mysteries of eternal life given to Enoch (37:4).56
INTRODUCTION (37:1–4)
The introduction (37:1–4) identifies the work as the second of Enoch’s visions (37:1), which are words of wisdom (37:2; cf. 37:3, 4) announced to all who dwell on the earth (37:2, 5). It is taught in accord with the Lord of Spirits (37:2, 4), who has given the lot of eternal life to Enoch (37:4). Enoch is charged to impart the three ensuing parables (37:5).
THE FIRST PARABLE (38:1–44:1)
The first parable (38:1–44:1) introduces the main figures of the work and generally follows the structure of the opening chapters of the Book of Watchers. It begins with an announcement of the coming judgment on the wicked (chap. 38). They are sinners judged for their sins and driven from the earth (38:1; cf. 38:3). They have denied the name of the Lord of Spirits (38:2; cf. 1:3–9), and it would be better for them had they not been born (38:2). Their fate of destruction (38:6) is juxtaposed with that of the righteous, the elect, and the holy when the Righteous One appears (38:2–3). Chapter 39 begins by recounting—in the future tense—the fall of the angels and their siring of children with humans (39:1; cf. chaps. 6–7). Then Enoch is introduced alongside an announcement of judgment on the fallen angels (39:2; cf. 14:1). Enoch ascends to heaven (39:3) and sees the dwelling places of the holy ones (39:4–5; cf. chap. 14). He also sees the Elect One (39:6a) and countless righteous and elect caught up in praise of the Lord of Spirits (39:6b–7). Enoch joins in the heavenly worship (39:8–14) and enters the innumerable company of those who stand before the Lord of Spirits (40:1; cf. chap. 14). In this setting Enoch has a vision of four angels (40:2–7), whom his angelic guide identifies as Michael, Raphael, Gabriel, and Phanuel (40:8–10).
Enoch then sees the secrets of heaven (41:1–2a), where “sinners” are identified as those who “deny the name of the Lord of Spirits” (41:2b) and are expelled (41:2c). He sees heavenly secrets of the universe (41:3–8a) displaying the incomparable power of the Lord of Spirits (41:8b–9). This is followed by a poetic section on Wisdom (42:1–3; cf. Sir. 24; 1 Bar. 3:9–4:4; 1 En. 94:5), who finds no place to dwell on earth, so she returns to heaven. Then Enoch has another vision of the cosmic secrets of lightning and stars (43:1–3) in which he learns from his angelic guide that they are the names of those who dwell on the earth and believe in the Lord of Spirits (43:4–44:1).
THE SECOND PARABLE (45:1–57:3)
The second parable (45:1–57:3) concerns judgment on those who will deny the Lord (45:1–2) when the Elect One is enthroned (45:3), dwells among his people, and transforms the earth for the righteous (45:4–6a). In contrast, the wicked will be destroyed from the earth in judgment (45:6b; cf. 10:16–11:2; 91:14). Enoch then has a vision of the Chosen One (46:1–3), the Son of Man (cf. Dan. 7:9, 13; Isa. 49) who will open hidden storerooms (1 En. 46:3b) and will execute judgment on kings and mighty ones (46:4–8; cf. chaps. 62–63; Isa. 13–14; 52–53). In the days of judgment on the wicked, the prayers of the righteous—as well as their blood—will ascend to heaven and occasion God’s vindicating judgment (1 En. 47:1–4).
After Enoch sees a “fountain of righteousness” (48:1; cf. Wis. 2, 4–5), the discussion of the Son of Man resumes. He is called “Before Time” (1 En. 48:2–3) and variously described as a “staff for the righteous” (48:4a), the “light of the gentiles” (48:4b; cf. Isa. 49:6; 1 En. 10:21; 90:38; 91:14), and the hope of those who are sick (48:4c). He shall be worshiped (48:5), though he was concealed prior to creation (48:6). He reveals the wisdom of the Lord of Spirits (48:7a). He preserves the righteous but will humiliate the kings of the earth (cf. Ps. 2:2) and the mighty landowners (1 En. 48:8), who will be delivered to the elect ones and face judgment (48:9–10a) since they have denied the Lord of Spirits and his messiah (48:10b). The vision returns to the flow of Wisdom (chap. 49), which dwells in the Elect One (49:2b–3; cf. Isa. 11:2), who will judge secret things (1 En. 49:4; cf. 62:3; Isa. 42:1).
Chapter 50 begins with a contrasting account of the fate of the righteous and the wicked (50:1–2a) and introduces a new category: the wicked who repent of their sins (50:2b–5; cf. 100:6). The future outlook of this section anticipates the resurrection of the dead (51:1–2), the enthronement of the Elect One (51:3), and the eschatological bliss of the righteous elect on the earth (51:4–5). More secret things of heaven and the future are seen in Enoch’s travels to the west (52:1; cf. 39:1), where he experiences visions of various mountains (52:2; cf. chap. 18). These visions, his angelic guide explains, depict things that will happen by the authority of God’s messiah (52:3–4, 6–9; cf. 8:1; 63:10), when all the secret things will be revealed to him (52:5). There will be judgment in which the kings of the earth are chained for their destruction (53:1–5). As for the righteous, they will be vindicated by the coming of the Righteous and Elect One (53:6–7; cf. 38:2). The kings of the earth are thrown into a deep valley (54:1–2) where they are bound with iron fetters (54:3). The angelic guide explains that the prisoners are being prepared for the armies of Azazel to cast them into the abyss for judgment (54:4–6; cf. chap. 18)—a great flood on the earth that will destroy the wicked oppressors (54:7–10). But the Antecedent of Time regrets the destruction and swears not to do so again (55:1–2). For the present, however, God will have his Elect One seen as he (the Elect One) executes judgment upon Azazel and his angelic company (55:3–4). The army of angels gathers the elect in nets of iron and bronze (56:1–4), and the angels turn against the wicked, who will be swallowed up in Sheol (56:5–57:3).
THE THIRD PARABLE (58:1–69:29)
The third parable (58:1–69:29) seems to focus on the righteous and their future. It begins (chap. 58) with a poetic blessing on the righteous elect (58:1–2), who shall enjoy innumerable days (58:3, 6), peace (58:4, 6), and light (58:4, 5, 6). Enoch then (59:1–2a, 3) describes a vision of lightning and thunder for blessings or curse, “according to the word of the Lord of Spirits” (59:2b). A great shaking and agitation of the forces of the Most High begins chapter 60 (60:1). The enthroned Antecedent of Time is surrounded by angels and the righteous (60:2), and Enoch himself falls down in fear (60:3). An angel is sent to raise him up (60:4), and Michael tells him that so far God has been patient with humanity, but the day of his judgment is coming (60:5–6). Enoch then has a vision of two monsters (60:7a), the Leviathan and Behemoth (60:7b–8). When he asks an angelic host about them (60:9–10), Enoch is shown many hidden things of the universe (60:11–23) and told that the monsters will turn into food when the Lord’s punishment comes on the wicked (60:24–25).
The Son of Man and judgment are the primary subjects of 1 Enoch 61–64. Enoch sees angels lifting long ropes to make measurements, preparing for the resurrection of the righteous in the day of the Elect One (61:1–5). This gives way to a wide acclaim of praise to the Lord from those in heaven (61:6–13). The Lord announces his condemnation of the ruling class (62:1–6; cf. 49:3; Isa. 11:2, 4), whereas the elect will be blessed by the Most High (1 En. 62:7–8). The rulers will beg for mercy in their panic and shame (62:9–10) and will be delivered to angels for punishment (62:11). The righteous and elect shall be vindicated and blessed by the Lord of Spirits (62:12–16; cf. Isa. 52:1). The governors and kings will plead for an opportunity to worship God and confess their sins (1 En. 63:1–5; cf. Isa. 53:1–6; Wis. 5:6–8), but they will not find it (1 En. 63:6–8). Instead they will vanish from before God because of their deeds (63:9–10); they will be filled with shame, be driven out, and experience God’s judgment (63:11–12; cf. 62:10, 12; Gen. 3:24). Chapter 64 describes mysterious faces, said to be angels who led people astray (1 En. 64:1–2).57
Noah is said to witness the destruction (65:1–2a) and to cry out to Enoch (65:2b), who explains that doom has come on the earth because people have acquired the secrets of angels (65:3–8). Enoch exhorts Noah to flee God’s coming judgment on the earth, yet Noah and his righteous seed will be preserved for kingship and great glory (65:9–12; cf. chaps. 83–84; 106–7). Noah then becomes a visionary, seemingly guided by his grandfather Enoch. He sees the angels of punishment who will be responsible for the flood (66:1–2) and is told by God that his blamelessness gained him God’s favor and protection (67:1–3; cf. 10:1–3; 84:5). While some angels will aid in the construction of the ark (67:2a), others will be judged with water and eternal fire as a testimony to the rulers of the earth (67:4–13; cf. chap. 52).
Noah is even given instructions about the secrets of Enoch’s parables (68:1), primarily concerning the judgment of fallen angels (chaps. 68–69). Michael tells Raphael of the coming judgment (68:2–5), and the names and offenses of the fallen angels are listed (69:1–12; cf. 6:7). This is followed by enigmatic references to an oath, of which a certain Kasb’el is executor (69:13) and before which people will tremble (69:14–15a). The Evil One places this oath in Michael’s hand (69:15b). The oath is said to be the means by which the world is created and sustained (69:16–26). Surprisingly, this is followed by a scene of great joy at the revealing of the Son of Man (69:27). Yet those who have led the world astray will be judged and banished from the earth (69:28), after which time nothing corruptible will be found on earth (69:29a). This is because of the appearance of the Son of Man, who seats himself on the throne and before whom all evil disappears (69:29b).
CONCLUSION (70:1–71:17)
In the conclusion to the Similitudes (70:1–71:17), Enoch is removed from the earth and placed between two winds, where angels measure a place for him among the elect and righteous (70:1–3). There he sees the first humans and righteous people (70:4) before his final heavenly ascent (71:1–17; cf. chaps. 14–16; 46). His spirit passes into heaven, where he sees angels (71:1) and two rivers of fire (71:2), and Michael shows him heavenly secrets (71:3–4). He is lifted to the heaven of heavens (71:5a) and sees a building of crystals and fire (71:5b), encircled by a ring of fire (71:6) and angelic guards (71:7), with innumerable angels surrounding the house (71:8–9). He falls prostrate before the Antecedent of Time (71:10–11a), to whom he cries out in praise (71:11b–12). Finally, one of God’s angelic hosts addresses Enoch as the righteous Son of Man (71:13–14), whose righteousness establishes peace for all who follow his example (71:15–17).
Contribution and Context
THE SIMILITUDES IN THE CONTEXT OF 1 ENOCH
The authors of the Similitudes exhibit clear dependence on the Book of Watchers at numerous points throughout the book. The general structure of the first parable follows that of the opening chapters of the Book of Watchers (cf. chap. 37 and 1:1–3; chap. 38 and 1:3–9; 39:1 and chaps. 6–11; 39:2; 40:1–10 and chap. 14). It is clear from the outset that the authors saw the Similitudes as, in some sense, a continuation of the earlier experience of Enoch. The Similitudes is introduced as Enoch’s “second vision” (37:1) following upon the heels of the first (1:2). There the earlier vision is expressly called a parable (1:2); the Similitudes employs the term to describe its own visions (37:5; 38:1; 45:1; 58:1). The term parable or similitude is best conceived of in a broad context (e.g., Num. 23:7, 18; Ezek. 17:2; 20:49; Mic. 2:4) where the concept of a “figurative discourse” is in view.58 Enoch’s revelatory episodes are parables or similitudes “insofar as they involve a complex set of analogies: between the fate of the righteous and that of the wicked, the holy on earth and the holy ones in heaven, the mysterious order of the cosmos and the lot of the righteous.”59
The macro-genre of the Similitudes is that of an apocalypse. It contains features common to apocalypses in general but also exhibits affinities with other portions of 1 Enoch. Enoch’s experience is one of heavenly ascent and a series of journeys with accompanying reports on these experiences. He is raised to the heavenly throne room (39:2–41:2). As in the Book of Watchers (17:1–18:5; 33–36), Enoch sees an array of cosmic phenomena (41:3–8; 43:1–44:1; 59:1–3; 60:11–22) and places of punishment (52:1–56:4). Throughout he sees things that require explanation by an angelic guide. The subject matter is the heavenly realm and the inevitable judgment on the wicked oppressors of God’s righteous people (48:2, 7, 8–10; 50:1–5; 63:1–12). In some instances judgment evokes the narratives of Noah and the flood (54:7–55:2; 60:1–25; 65:1–67:3) in a manner found elsewhere in the Enochic corpus (chaps. 6–11; 106–7). Despite the repeated references to the political interests of the Similitudes found in the “kings” and the “mighty,” Collins is careful to point out that one finds little review of historical material in comparison to what one finds in the so-called historical apocalypses.60
THE RIGHTEOUS IN THE SIMILITUDES
Much of the outlook of the Similitudes as a whole is concerned with judgment and the fate of the righteous, especially in contrast with that of the wicked. The righteous suffer persecution at the hands of the wicked (1 En. 53:7; 62:11), and their cry for vengeance gains God’s attention (47:1–2; cf. 48:7). Their lot is one of blessing, including resurrection (51:1; 62:15) and eternal life on a transformed earth with the Son of Man (45:4–6; 51:4–5; 58:2–6; 62:13–16). Correlating these heavenly blessings with tangible human experience is notoriously difficult.61 This is due in part to the terminology used. “Righteous” in the Similitudes is often used interchangeably with “chosen” and “holy.”62 Moreover, it has been shown to take on a quasi-technical sense as a title for a religious community.63 A few aspects, though, can be inferred. The righteous are people who believe in the name of the Lord of Spirits (43:4). They also hate this world and reject its evil works in the name of the Lord (48:6). That they likely experienced persecution is indicated by a reference to their blood (47:2). Nothing is explicit about observance of the law, which may be presumed. More can be inferred about the righteous by contrastive statements made with respect to their wicked opponents.
The wicked are enemies of the righteous—people of power, described as kings of the earth and mighty men (46:4; cf. 38:4; 48:8; 53:5; 54:2; 62:1, 9; 63:1). They commit sin and evil (45:5) and deny the name of the Lord of Spirits (38:2; cf. 41:2; 45:1). All their deeds are oppression (46:7a), and “their power (depends) upon their wealth. And their devotion is to the gods which they have fashioned with their own hands. But they deny the name of the Lord of the Spirits” (46:7b). They have placed their hopes “upon the scepters of [their] empires” (63:7). When judgment comes, these sinners will be punished (38:3–5; 41:2; 45:2; 53:2; 69:27–29) and will burn in the fires of gehenna (48:9; 54:2; 63:3).
The distinction between the righteous and the wicked, then, is their belief in or denial of the Lord of Spirits. The latter misplace trust in their earthly powers, whereas such facets of this world are disdained by the righteous. Cumulatively, this suggests that the Similitudes come from a group oppressed by ruling powers and authorities. Even though the righteous are Jews and the wealthy, idolatrous oppressors are gentiles, the polemic between the righteous and the wicked is not couched in language of Jews and gentiles.64
SON OF MAN IN THE SIMILITUDES
Another important aspect of the Similitudes is the extensive material on the “Son of Man” (1 En. 46:3, 4; 48:2; 62:5, 7, 9, 14; 69:29; 70:1; 71:14, 17), also called the “Chosen One” (48:6) or “Elect One” (39:6; 40:5; 45:3, 4, 5; 49:2, 4; 51:3, 4; 52:6, 9; 53:6; 55:4; 61:5, 8, 10; 62:1) and “Messiah” (48:10; 52:4). His importance is evident when one observes that the Similitudes is unique among Jewish apocalypses in the attention given to a single individual.65 This figure first appears in 1 Enoch 46:1 with a vivid description: “I saw the One to whom belongs the time before time. And his head was white like wool, and there was with him another individual, whose face was like that of a human being. His countenance was full of grace like that of one among the holy angels.”
The language here draws from the Son of Man vision in Daniel (Dan. 7:9–10, 13–14).66 While the presentation does not presuppose “Son of Man” to be a well-known title,67 the Enochic introduction of the figure does seem to presuppose some familiarity with its Danielic source. The Enochic Son of Man also resembles figures from the Hebrew Bible such as the Isaianic servant and the Davidic king (e.g., 1 En. 48:1–7 and Isa. 49:1–6; 1 En. 49:1–4 and Isa. 42:1; 49:7; 1 En. 48:8a, 10 and Ps. 2:2; 1 En. 49:3–4; 51:3 and Isa. 11:3–4).68 Particularly intriguing about the Son of Man in the Similitudes is that his role throughout is inextricably linked to the “righteous,” for whom he will be a staff upon which they can lean (1 En. 48:4, 5). He is revealed to the righteous by the wisdom of the Lord of Spirits (48:5). He will dwell with the righteous forever after the day of judgment (62:14). In short, the Son of Man’s role is as eschatological revealer and judge, who vindicates the righteous and judges the wicked.69
The identification of the Son of Man with Enoch in the Similitudes (70:1; 71:14) has generated some discussion among scholars. Though 1 Enoch 70:1 clearly equates him with Enoch (“his name was lifted up into the presence of that Son of Man and into the presence of the Lord of Spirits”), some dispute this identification on textual grounds. The difficulty lies in the omission of “into the presence of” in one manuscript (Abbadianus 55 [U]). The result reads: “his [Enoch’s] name was lifted up, that Son of Man . . . to the presence of the Lord of Spirits.” The second text (71:14) is more clear: “You (are) that Son of Man who was born for righteousness.”70 Scholars typically observe that references to “that Son of Man” elsewhere in the Similitudes (41:2; 62:5, 9, 14; 63:11; 69:29 [2x]) give no indication that Enoch himself is in view. Collins offers three potential solutions to the tension of identifying Enoch with “that Son of Man.” The first potential solution, and perhaps the most straightforward approach, is to identify Enoch as the Son of Man throughout, even though it does not become known to either the reader or him until the end of the book (e.g., Morna Hooker, Maurice Casey, James VanderKam). Several objections could be raised. The first objection is that the preferred reading at 70:1 makes a clear distinction between Enoch and the Son of Man. The second objection is that nowhere else in apocalyptic literature does one find a visionary who fails to recognize himself in his own visions. A third objection, John J. Collins observes, is that the preexistence of the Son of Man elsewhere (1 En. 48:2; cf. 48:6; 62:7) precludes anything attested about Enoch.71 A possible solution to these three objections may be found in the notion of a “heavenly counterpart,”72 in which Enoch functions as a prototype for the righteous, analogous to the Son of Man’s function as the heavenly counterpart for the righteous community. This has been found in the Prayer of Joseph and 3 Enoch. In the latter—which dates not earlier than the fifth century CE—Metatron is a figure enthroned, called the “Prince of the Divine Presence,” and even likened to YHWH himself (3 En. 12:5). He is likewise identified with Enoch (3 En. 4:1–5), though whether such correspondence between Enoch and a heavenly figure is present in the Similitudes is not entirely clear.73
Collins’s second possible solution regarding the identification of Enoch with the Son of Man is to read “Son of Man” in 71:14 as a common noun (“that man who”).74 In this manner the alleged identifications of Enoch as the “Son of Man” (e.g., 60:10; 71:16) instead single him out “as the human being most closely associated with the heavenly counterpart.”75 Collins’s third and final possible solution to the question of Enoch’s identification with the “Son of Man” is to regard chapter 71 as a secondary addition to the Similitudes.76 This understanding, substantiated on literary grounds, recognizes that the redactional addition of chapter 71 introduces an incongruity foreign to the remainder of the Similitudes.
The solution that regards Enoch’s identification with the Son of Man throughout, though only made known later, seems the most probable. Yet what motivated the author of the Similitudes to identify Enoch with the Son of Man remains a mystery. Collins theorizes that it may have been a response to early Christian use of that title for Jesus. Yet as Collins himself observes, chapter 71 is otherwise void of any anti-Christian polemic.77
The Son of Man in the Similitudes has been compared with other heavenly beings and messianic figures, such as the messiah (4 Ezra 11–13), Melchizedek (11QMelch), and the Son of God (4Q246). In 4 Ezra the Danielic fourth beast is recast as the Roman Empire (4 Ezra 12:11), and the Son of Man figure is hidden in the presence of God (4 Ezra 12:32; 13:26; cf. Isa. 49:3; 1 En. 48:6; 62:7). For this author, writing after the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Son of Man is the Davidic messiah (4 Ezra 12:31–32) who executes judgment on the enemies of God’s people with fire (4 Ezra 13:3–4; cf. Dan. 7:13; Pss. Sol. 17:35; 1 En. 51:3).
The title also gains prominence in early Christianity, where Jesus is identified as “Son of Man” (e.g., Mark 2:10, 28; 8:31, 38; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:33, 45; 13:26; 14:21, 41, 62; and parr.).78 Aside from its four occurrences outside the Gospels (Acts 7:56; Heb. 2:6–8; Rev. 1:13; 14:14), the term is always attributed to Jesus in reference to himself. It seems likely that the Markan use of the title derives from Jesus’s own usage, itself influenced by Daniel 7, independent of Jewish texts of the Second Temple period, including the Similitudes of Enoch.79 The titular ascription is best seen as an appropriation of Daniel 7 with respect to Jesus as the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven rather than influence from the Similitudes.80 Some point of similarity is found in the enthronement of the Son of Man (Matt. 19:28; 25:31; 1 En. 61–62). It is probably best to conceive of the “Son of Man” beyond the confines of a titular usage but within the more fluid depiction of supernatural beings evident in a number of texts, such as the preeminent place of angelic figures like Michael (in Daniel and the War Scroll [1QM]), Melchizedek (in 11QMelch), and the Angel of Truth (in the Rule of the Community [1QS]). The Son of Man of the Similitudes is likely best ranked among these figures while superior to archangels.
The Son of Man is explicitly identified as the messiah (1 En. 48:10). Depending on the date of this tradition, it may have prepared for subsequent developments of the messiah as a supernatural being found in Jewish apocalypses of later dates. In this respect the Similitudes may have a point of commonality with early Christianity in its appropriation of messianic categories with a figure that is distinctly more than human. The significance with regard to messianism and law observance is difficult to pinpoint. On the one hand, there is a palpable absence of explicit law observance as a means of identification with the righteous and procurement of God’s eschatological redemption. On the other hand, there is no trace of polemic against the law.
Purpose
From the above material, several things can be inferred as to the function of the Similitudes in the community of the righteous. The work seems at least in part designed to encourage the righteous that their destiny is bound up with the Son of Man, who dwells in heaven and prepares a place for the righteous. They in turn are exhorted to trust and believe. The setting of the work provides no clear historical material to make points of contact with known events. The application can be as broad as any situation where the kings and the mighty are oppressing the righteous. Rather than a particular crisis, the righteous community could be experiencing pressures from known first-century-CE sources, such as the pagan imperialistic ambitions of Rome or the impious reign of the Herods. Regardless of its original setting, “the Similitudes offered to the powerless the assurance of a special destiny guaranteed by a heavenly patron. The heavenly world would furnish the respect and dignity denied them in the present.”81
The Astronomical Book (1 En. 72–82)
Introduction
The Astronomical Book (1 En. 72–82) describes the role and structure of heavenly and earthly bodies and addresses the importance of the solar calendar of 364 days. Yet the presentation of this material creates some unique challenges for the reader. Unlike other apocalypses, including those within the Enochic corpus, readers are given no account of the process of the revelation through a dream or heavenly ascent. Instead, the entire work is a report of the revelation that Enoch receives while guided by Uriel.82 More difficult still is the manner in which the revelation is described. George W. E. Nickelsburg explains it well: “With monotonous repetition and with calculations and predictions ad infinitum, the treatise demonstrates the uniformity and order of God’s creation as it is evidenced in the movements of the luminaries and the blowing of the winds.”83 The purpose is to advocate for a solar calendar of 364 days, in contrast with competing views.
Language and Manuscripts
First Enoch 72–82 is extant in its entirety only in Ethiopic, which is a translation from a Greek rendering of an original Aramaic.84 The Astronomical Book is attested in the four fragmentary Aramaic manuscripts (4Q208–211), which contain more detail than the shorter Ethiopic version, including an otherwise unattested ending to chapter 82. The manuscripts are as follows: 4Q208 dates from the late third to the early second century BCE and resembles 1 Enoch 73:1–74:9; 4Q209 dates from around 30 BCE to 70 CE and corresponds roughly to 1 Enoch 76–79, 82; 4Q210 dates from the mid-first century BCE and corresponds to 1 Enoch 76–79; and 4Q211 dates from 50 to 1 BCE and bears no correspondence with the Astronomical Book. These important fragments are listed in terms of correspondence with the Astronomical Book because they differ from the fuller text attested in Ethiopic.
For example, 4Q208 contains details of calendrical material that is much more extensive than the corresponding material in Ethiopic (1 En. 73:1–74:9). Similarly, 4Q209 contains portions of an amalgamated calendar and aspects that overlap with 1 Enoch 76–79, 82. Since 4Q211 has no overlap with the extant Astronomical Book, some have conjectured that it contained an alternative ending, now lost, that belongs at the end of the present chapter 82.85 This hypothesis regards the mention of “winter” in this fragment as an indication that the alleged longer ending provides discussion of seasons and concluding observations about the stars. Yet the connection between this reading and the present chapter 82 is uncertain. How this and other material relates to the Ethiopic is explored below.
Evidence of a Greek version of 1 Enoch 72–82 is sparse. It seems likely that Greek fragments from the Oxyrhynchus papyri, dating from the fourth century CE, contain material from the Astronomical Book.86 Second Enoch 11–16 may depend on a Greek text of the book, but 2 Enoch survives only in Slavonic, and its antiquity is disputed (see more below). Some have suggested Christian authors writing in Greek exhibit awareness of this material.87
The ambiguity created by the similarities and differences between the Aramaic (Qumran) and Ethiopic material requires attention to the textual history of the respective texts. The latter is based on a Greek translation, now almost completely lost, of something similar to the Aramaic text from Qumran. If the current Ethiopic version is indeed based on a Greek text derived from an Aramaic original, then “something drastic happened in the journey from one to the other.”88 Nevertheless, the Ethiopic and extant Aramaic traditions have some important points of similarity. They share, for instance, concern for topics such as the calendar,89 the gates and their winds,90 the four quarters and their names,91 the heavenly bodies and their rules,92 the seasons,93 and the so-called paternal report in which Enoch addresses his son.94 At the same time, their differences are worth noting.95 First, the Qumran fragments (e.g., 4Q208, 4Q209) contain considerably more detail than the Ethiopic, and it is estimated that the full text—of which the Qumran evidence is only a small fragment—was quite extensive. No extant Ethiopic traditions preserve this vastly expanded material, particularly the lengthy lunar sections found among the Qumran texts.96 Second, there are differences in the wording between the accounts on the twelve gates and their winds (4Q210 1 II, 1–10; 1 En. 76:3–14) and the four quarters and their names (4Q209 23 3–10; 4Q210 1 II, 14–20; cf. 1 En. 77:1–4). There is an incomplete correspondence between 4Q209 28 and 1 En. 82:9–13, and 1 En. 82:15–20 deals with only two of four seasons (cf. 4Q211).
The Ethiopic is thus an abbreviated version of what was most likely a much longer work. One can only conjecture why some material was omitted whereas other tedious elements were preserved. Perhaps for its literary location only summaries of the astronomical material were necessary, with the details available for consultation elsewhere.97 But the Ethiopic of 1 Enoch 72–82 contains no evidence of the synchronistic calendrical material found in 4Q208. The synchronistic calendar in 4Q209 adds material to 1 Enoch 72–82. The result is that the Aramaic Qumran evidence implies a more extensive synchronistic calendar than that found in any Ethiopic manuscript.
Additional challenges unique to the Astronomical Book pertain to its ending. Whereas the entire work is concerned with the intricate details of astronomical matters, chapter 81 contains no cosmological interest at all. Instead it introduces the tablets of heaven (81:1–2), blessings on the righteous (81:4), and Enoch’s return home to instruct Methuselah and his progeny (81:5–10). This leads scholars to conclude the entire chapter was likely a later addition that explains how Enoch disseminates his instruction and provides ethical direction for his revelation. Another problem in the ending of the Astronomical Book is found in chapter 82. After Enoch names the four leaders who distinguish the four seasons (82:10–20), only two are described (82:15–20). This leads most scholars to presume some material after verse 20 is lost. But even in its incomplete state the chapter plays an important role: it employs features from testamentary literature in that Enoch offers some parting wisdom to Methuselah, pronouncing blessings on the righteous who adhere to the correct number of days. In this respect chapter 82 bears more correspondence with the remainder of the Astronomical Book than chapter 81.98
Provenance
The Astronomical Book is a Jewish work concerned with the importance of the correct, solar calendar. As such it stands in unison with other Jewish works from antiquity (select Qumran texts and the book of Jubilees). It is unclear what further can be said about its provenance, though some speculate its traces of polemical tones suggest an association with traditional intellectual groups of scribes and priests.99 Its affinities with astronomical concerns from Babylonian literature may suggest an origin in the eastern diaspora (see “Critical Issues” below).
Date
Early work on the Astronomical Book from Qumran has suggested it is among the oldest of the Enochic compositions, perhaps from the late third or early second century BCE. Subsequent analyses of the manuscripts themselves suggest, for example, that 4Q208 was copied somewhat later in the second century BCE.100 This requires a date of composition prior to that, which is supported by secondary references to the Astronomical Book. In the early- to mid-second century BCE, Pseudo-Eupolemus identifies Enoch as discovering astrology and perhaps relating it on to Methuselah.101 Possible references to Enoch’s astronomical affiliations are found in Sirach (Sir. 44:16; 49:14), circa 200–167 BCE, though the allusions are much too vague to offer any firm determination.102 Perhaps more definitive is the influence of astronomical material on subsequent Jewish works. For example, the book of Jubilees, which dates from the mid-second century BCE, likely refers to the Astronomical Book in its mention of an astronomical composition by the seventh patriarch (Jub. 4:17, 18, 21).103 Finally, scholars have recognized material from the Astronomical Book in the Book of Watchers (esp. 1 En. 2–4, 33–36),104 which places the Astronomical Book at least into the third century BCE and likely among the earliest Enochic material.
Contents
The book is a revelation of the movements of celestial bodies—the sun, moon, and stars. It gives account of the positions of heavenly bodies until the eternal, new creation comes. Throughout these chapters Uriel reveals to Enoch—who then relates to his descendants—the movements of the sun through heavenly gates, six to the east and six to the west, in accordance with the annual calendar. The sun remains in each of these six gates for thirty days in each of its two annual movements through them (1 En. 72:2–24). At the end of each of the four seasons an extra day is added—making thirty-one days—to arrive at a 364-day solar year (72:25–37). (The failure to account for the four extra days by some is later criticized [75:1–3; 82:4–8]). The travels of the moon are likewise described (73:1–8), with its waxing and waning and movements like those of the sun (73:3, 5–8).
Uriel then shows Enoch the rotation of the stars, which, like the sun, measures a year of 364 days (74:1–13), whereas the moon reflects a shorter year of 354 days (74:14–17). These are the fixed positions for the heavenly luminaries (75:1–2), shown to Enoch by Uriel (75:3). Uriel also shows Enoch the openings of the sky through which the rays of the sun shine and give heat (75:4, 6–9), which affects the winds and dew (75:5). Then Enoch sees twelve gates and their corresponding winds, three going in each of the four directions of the compass and associated with different weather (76:1–13). These Enoch reveals to his son, Methuselah (76:14). The four directions are named (77:1–4); then Enoch sees seven high mountains (77:5) and seven great rivers (77:6–8), as well as seventy-two large islands in the sea (77:9). Enoch gives the names for the sun (78:1) and moon (78:2), which are compared to each other (78:3–4) prior to a description of the latter’s waxing and waning in its cycles and seasons (78:5–17). In chapter 79 Enoch again addresses his son (79:1; cf. 76:14), indicating he has revealed to him the rules of all the stars of heaven, rules that Uriel showed him for every day of every season (79:2–80:1).
Then the narrative turns polemical in tone. It introduces “the sinners,” whose days, like the days of winter, are cut short (80:2a; cf. 75:2) and whose labors are futile (80:2b). “He” will appear and withhold rain (80:2c), though the identity of the figure is unclear. At his appearance, crops shall be lacking, and the heavenly luminaries will depart from their normal courses (80:3–6) against “the sinners” (80:7a), who will in turn regard the heavenly luminaries as gods (80:7b). As a result, they will experience judgment (80:8). Uriel then instructs Enoch to read and understand the tablets of heaven, which describe the deeds of humanity for all generations of the world (81:1–2). Enoch utters a blessing to God (81:3) and then pronounces the person blessed who is righteous and does not receive judgment “on that day” (81:4). After this, seven angels bring Enoch home and instruct him to tell Methuselah and all his children that “no one of the flesh can be just before the Lord; for they are merely his own creation” (81:5). Enoch is given one year for the task (81:6). He is told that the righteous will be blessed (81:7, 9a) whereas the “sinners” and “the apostate” will be judged (81:8, 9b). When the angels conclude their instruction, Enoch returns home blessing the Lord (81:10).
In the final chapter Enoch explains to Methuselah (82:1a) that he will write all that was revealed to him concerning these things and exhorts his son to preserve it for generations to come (82:1b–3). Enoch pronounces a blessing on the righteous “in the computation of the days in which the sun goes its course in the sky” (82:4)—whereas others err in their computation of days (82:5)—which is recorded forever as 364 days (82:6). This is the true computation recorded by Enoch as instructed by Uriel concerning the luminaries and the months, festivals, years, and days (82:7–9). Then Enoch names the four leaders who distinguish the four seasons (82:10–20). The book seems to anticipate a description of these seasons, though only two are described (82:15–20), with the remainder likely contained in the lost material thought to follow verse 20.
Critical Issues: Sources for the Astronomical Book
Scholars have observed similarities between the Astronomical Book and cuneiform documents from Babylonian astronomy, which share both general and particular features.105 These include the sun’s yearly movements, the names and numbers of stars as well as their times, and the correspondence of the sun’s travels with other celestial and meteorological activities. From this, several conclusions may be inferred.106 First, much of the background for the astronomy of the Astronomical Book is attested in the Babylonian material. Second, the 360-day calendar opposed in the Astronomical Book (1 En. 75:1–2; 82:4–6) is known in Mesopotamia. Third, the points of correspondence between the Astronomical Book and the Babylonian literature may suggest an origin in the eastern diaspora. Despite these similarities, the numerous places in which stars are present in the Astronomical Book have no relation to astronomy in other ancient Near Eastern contexts107 and may stand in opposition to it.108
The Astronomical Book also makes use of texts from the Hebrew Bible.109 It identifies the two great luminaries, the sun and the moon (1 En. 78:3), of Genesis 1:16, where they are identified only as the greater and lesser lights. In the Enochic material the sun is the “great luminary” (72:4, 35, 36) and the moon the “smaller luminary” (73:1). Like the Genesis text, the Astronomical Book plays a pivotal role for the demarcation of seasons, days, and years (75:2–3; 82:7–10). The Astronomical Book also draws from Genesis the ruling function of the luminaries (Gen. 1:16, 19; 1 En. 72:1; 75:3; 79:2; 82:10, 15–20). The luminaries also play a role of separation (Gen. 1:14, 18; 1 En. 82:4, 11–14). In addition to Genesis, the Astronomical Book looks to Isaiah 30:26 to explain how the moon can be one of the great luminaries while also being small. The Enochic material indicates that the greater and lesser status pertains to brightness (1 En. 72:37; cf. 78:3–4).
Contribution and Context
THE ASTRONOMICAL BOOK IN THE CONTEXT OF 1 ENOCH
The Astronomical Book contains points of correspondence with other material from 1 Enoch. Aramaic material from Qumran suggests the Astronomical Book stands alongside the Book of Watchers (1 En. 1–36) as one of the earliest Enochic compositions. It seems likely, especially from 1 Enoch 76–77, that the former is older and bore some influence on the latter.110 This may be seen with matters such as aspects of mythical geography (chap. 77 in chaps. 17–19),111 the placement of the heavenly gates, the role of Uriel, and Enoch’s praise to God (chaps. 72–82; 33–36).112 The Astronomical Book contains some similarities as well as differences with respect to the Similitudes of Enoch (chaps. 37–71).113 On the one hand, the works have some common features, such as Enoch’s presence with angelic figures and the inclusion of items such as winds, mists, the sun, and the moon. On the other hand, the secrets and storehouses in the Similitudes (41:3–8) are absent in the Astronomical Book, which employs instead the terminology of gates. The lightning, thunder, and clouds so important in the Similitudes (e.g., chap. 41) are absent in the Astronomical Book. And the matters of stars, calendrical issues, mountains, and so on in the Astronomical Book are absent from the Similitudes (again, chap. 41). These and numerous other points of comparison suggest that these two works share concern for the same subject matter at several points. Shared features between the Astronomical Book and other portions of 1 Enoch are sparse. The Epistle of Enoch (chaps. 91–108) references the respective luminaries (e.g., 100:10–13; 101:2; 102:2; 104:2) and the one (i.e., Enoch) who looks into such things (93:11–14) but is more concerned with judgment. The Book of Dreams (chaps. 83–90) contains no astronomical material and only loosely relates to the Astronomical Book in its eschatological outlook after a season of judgment. The fragmentary material from the Book of Giants is concerned only with angelic matters.114
COSMOLOGY AND ESCHATOLOGY IN THE ASTRONOMICAL BOOK
The central concern of the Astronomical Book is cosmology—the order of God’s created celestial bodies depicted in their movements and corresponding calendrical concerns. God’s angels remain active agents in the execution of these movements and therefore appropriate guides for Enoch’s vision. Enoch’s conception of the heavenly realms is a large “hemispherical vault stretched over the flat disk of the earth and set upon its outer edge.”115 Where the heavenly realm intersects with the earth, Enoch describes a series of twelve gates through which the sun and moon travel in their monthly and annual cycles. There are also scores of other openings through which the stars come and go.
These cosmological laws are unchanging and remain the same from creation until the establishment of a new creation (see, e.g., 72:1). The point of the steadfastness of creation observing the laws of the Creator stands in sharp contrast to human waywardness in the Book of Watchers (e.g., 2:1–5:4). This contrast is absent in the Astronomical Book. Instead, the constancy of the travels of the sun, moon, and stars seems to underscore the endurance of the 364-day solar calendar. As long as these patterns endure, the calendar they establish endures. Changes in God’s created order are couched in the author’s eschatological framework, some of which are reflective of similar anticipations in the Hebrew Bible. The prophets foresee that the heavens will vanish and the earth will wear out (Isa. 51:6). The sun and moon will no longer give their light (Isa. 13:10; Ezek. 32:7–8; Joel 2:10) but will be replaced by the radiance of the Lord (Isa. 60:19). The Astronomical Book sees the pattern of the heavenly luminaries retained until the establishment of a “new creation” (1 En. 72:1; cf. Isa. 65:17; 66:22). Also in the eschatological future, Enoch foresees a time when the years become shorter, the leaders of stars go astray, people take the stars for gods, evil overtakes them, and punishment destroys them (1 En. 80:2–8). The constancy of God’s created order is thereby disrupted.
Purpose
The function of the Astronomical Book lies in its advocacy for a 364-day calendar (1 En. 72:32). It is on this matter that its polemical tone is introduced. Typically the importance of calendrical issues lies in the correct days for observing religious festivals.116 Yet the Astronomical Book does not criticize the observance of festivals according to other calendars (cf. 82:7); rather, its polemic is against the 360-day calendar for its failure to account for the additional four days (e.g., 75:1–2; 82:4–6).117 The importance of a 364-day calendar (72:32) in the Astronomical Book is shared with and likely influences the book of Jubilees and the Qumran scrolls.118 Calendrical material from Qumran evidences the two calendrical systems likely influenced by the Astronomical Book: the solar year of 364 days and lunar year of 354 days (see esp. 4Q317–330). The author of the book of Jubilees also knew and drew on astronomical material associated with Enoch.119 Jubilees shares the Astronomical Book’s specific calendrical concerns and explicitly references Enoch writing a book concerning heavenly signs that pertain to the cycles of months and seasons and accounting for the months and days of the year (e.g., Jub. 4:17–19).
A related polemic occurs against “sinners” (1 En. 80:2; cf. 75:2), who will worship the heavenly luminaries as gods (80:7). Such atrocities, said to be done by the wicked Manasseh (2 Kings 21:3; cf. 2 Kings 23:4–12), were strictly forbidden (Deut. 4:19–20) and punishable by death (Deut. 17:3–5; cf. Job 31:26–28; Zeph. 1:5; Jer. 19:13; Ezek. 8:16). Likewise the sinners and the “apostate” in the Astronomical Book will experience God’s judgment (1 En. 80:2; 81:8). Employing features of testamentary literature, the Astronomical Book depicts Enoch instructing Methuselah (82:1) with what becomes the main purpose of the work as a whole: to exhort its audience to avoid the lot of sinners who err in their computation of days (82:4b–5) and to take heart at the anticipated celebration of the righteous (81:7).
The Book of Dreams: Dream Vision (1 En. 83–84)
Introduction
The Book of Dreams (1 En. 83–90) contains two visions. The first, called the Dream Vision (chaps. 83–84), contains an account of the coming flood, followed by a prayer. The second, called the Animal Apocalypse (chaps. 85–90), offers an allegorical recounting of human history, using animals to represent people and people to represent angels. Israel is symbolized by sheep, and God himself is the Lord of the sheep. Both visions are experienced by Enoch, who relates them to Methuselah (83:1). Both occur in the house of Enoch’s grandfather, Mahalalel, and pertain to intercession either on behalf of all humanity (chaps. 83–84) or for Israel (chaps. 85–90). They are distinguished by the fact that the first is received while Enoch was learning to write (83:2a) and the second prior to his marriage to Methuselah’s mother (83:2c). These two components of the Dream Vision are typically preserved together in manuscript evidence, and therefore presented together here.
Language and Manuscripts
It is widely recognized that the discovery of Aramaic material from Qumran affirms the origin of the Dream Vision in that language, though Hebrew sources are likely.120 Among the Aramaic manuscripts from Qumran, those preserving portions of the Dream Vision are as follows: 4QEnc (4Q204) contains 1 Enoch 89 and dates from the last third of the first century BCE; 4QEnd (4Q205) contains 1 Enoch 89 and seems to be a contemporary copy of 4QEnc; 4QEne (4Q206) contains 1 Enoch 88–89 and dates from the first half of the first century BCE; and 4QEnf (4Q207) contains fragments from 1 Enoch 86:1–3 and dates from 150–125 BCE.121
Among the Greek witnesses, Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2069 (frags. 3, 1), dating from the fourth century CE, contains portions of 1 Enoch 85:10–86:2; 87:1–3.122 Written into the margins of an eleventh-century manuscript (Codex Vaticanus Gr. 1809) is a text identified as “an excerpt from the book of Enoch,” which contains the Greek text of 1 Enoch 89:42–49. As is the case with the Book of Watchers, the Dream Vision is most fully attested in Ethiopic (Ge’ez), translated from the Greek sometime between the fourth and sixth centuries.
The Dream Vision (1 En. 83–84) is unique in the corpus of 1 Enoch for several reasons. First, it is composed almost entirely of prior material from elsewhere within 1 Enoch. Second, it makes no clear reference to any historical event or person, which makes rendering its date of composition, setting, and relation to the Animal Apocalypse possible only by inference (chaps. 85–90). At the same time, it introduces unique material in the narrative, such as Enoch’s grandfather, Mahalalel. He is an otherwise unknown figure and may have been placed in the account to emphasize the youth of Enoch, perhaps to imply this is his first revelation. Finally, through chapter 84 and in portions of 83 (vv. 3a, 5, 6a, 7a, 8a) the Dream Vision exhibits a parallelism that suggests a poetic literary style.123 Though brief and absent of any identifiable historical referent, the Dream Vision presents a vision of the utter destruction of the world and its complete dependence on God.124
Contents
The Dream Vision, sometimes called the Vision of the Flood (1 En. 83:3–84:5), is described as a “terrible vision” (83:2d).125 In it, Enoch sees heaven thrown down upon the earth, and the earth, hills, and trees swallowed up (83:3–4). Enoch’s grandfather, Mahalalel, explains that Enoch has seen the sins of the world (83:5–7) and exhorts him to pray for a remnant to remain in light of the impending destruction from heaven (83:8–9). Enoch writes his prayers for generations to come (83:10–11) and recounts them to God (84:1–3). He warns of God’s coming judgment (84:4) and implores God to sustain a generation to succeed him (84:5–6).
Contribution and Context
THE DREAM VISION IN THE CONTEXT OF 1 ENOCH
Most of the Dream Vision is adapted from earlier material found elsewhere in 1 Enoch.126 Its account of the sun, moon, and stars (1 En. 83:11) is drawn from the Astronomical Book (chaps. 72–82). The judgment on fallen angels at the day of judgment (84:4) comes from the Book of Watchers (chaps. 1–36). As is the case in the Book of Watchers (esp. 13:4–7) and the Animal Apocalypse (89:57; 90:3), the person of Enoch functions not only as the visionary but also as the intercessor (83:8, 10; 84:1–6). Furthermore, his prayer (84:1–6) recalls the angelic prayer in the Book of Watchers (e.g., 1 En. 9), and his dream resembles those found in that earlier writing (83:3–4 [cf. 1:6–7]; 83:11 [cf. 2:1–2]).
FLOOD AND FINAL JUDGMENT IN THE DREAM VISION
The Dream Vision depicts the flood as the final judgment, which likely draws from the Book of Watchers (cf. 1 En. 6–11, esp. 10:1–2). In this respect, the typology resembles the narratives of Noah found in other places in the Enochic corpus (chaps. 65–67; 106–7). Despite the coming judgment, Enoch prays for a remnant to be preserved (83:8; 84:5; cf. 10:16–17), recalling the similar assurance Noah receives in Genesis (Gen. 8:20–9:15). Yet unlike the Book of Watchers, all humanity is guilty of the sin that occasions this judgment (as in Genesis). The deliverance expected by the remnant is not from the consequences of fallen angels and the ensuing violence (as in 1 En. 6–11) but from a judgment of a more universal nature. Some have observed a natural progression in this regard: while the fallen angels introduce sin through the revelation of forbidden secrets (chaps. 6–11), humanity nonetheless acts on such knowledge and is punished accordingly (10:7; cf. 65:6; 84:4; 106:13–18).127
Purpose
While the Dream Vision draws from prior material within the Enochic tradition, it has modified that material in such a way as to emphasize that God has long stood ready to bring judgment through the waters of the flood. In this respect, its function is to bring earlier material together to provide a companion of sorts to the Animal Apocalypse.128 It may also serve to remind its audience that Enoch’s prayers for the preservation of a righteous remnant are indeed heard, evidence for which is found in the harmony of the celestial bodies (cf. 1 En. 83:11).
The Book of Dreams: Animal Apocalypse (1 En. 85–90)
Introduction
As in the Dream Vision (1 En. 83–84), the Animal Apocalypse is recounted to Methuselah and pertains to the vision in which Enoch sees “all the deeds of humanity” (90:41). The narrative is a symbolic depiction of events from Adam into the Hellenistic time and of the ensuing final judgment and the establishment of a newly created order.129 In this allegory the fallen Watchers are fallen stars, humans are depicted as various kinds of animals, and angels are white men.
Provenance
The highly symbolic nature of the Animal Apocalypse makes it difficult, if not impossible, to gain a clear indication of its origin. The imagery of the Israelite lambs who see, in contrast to others who are deaf and blind (1 En. 90:6–7), is an important starting point. The opening of eyes and seeing connote the reception of a revelation from God. The lambs’ crying out to other sheep is seemingly an appeal to a religious renewal to overturn the blindness (apostasy) of prior generations (esp. Manasseh; 89:54, 74). That the other sheep are deaf and blind to the prophetic exhortation of the younger sheep suggests the rejection of their message (cf. 89:17–19, 30–34, 41, 51–53). The specific nature of their exhortation is not expressed. There is no clear indication from the text that the recipients of the revelation receive a “new Torah” or even “right insight about the old Torah.”130 Yet it seems likely that the prophetic concern of the younger Israelites pertains to the pollution of the temple cult (89:73–74).
Some scholars observe a militant component or ideology in the author’s perspective, including the killing of idolaters (89:35) and the wars of the kings David and Saul (89:42–43, 49). Militant components are present within what is presumably the author’s own community, among which horns arise (90:9) and a sword is given to the sheep (90:19). This may be taken as God’s intervention in the warfare of Judas Maccabaeus.131 From the internal information, a profile of the author’s community may be proposed: they are a younger generation within the elders of Israel, perhaps learned scribes. While concern for the sanctuary and its cult may not imply priestly interests, attention to Moses, Aaron, and the Levites may connote Levitical associations.132 There is concern about oppression from gentiles (90:8), but there is also an anticipation that all the animals on earth (gentiles) will worship in a new temple (90:30; cf. Dan. 7:14, 27).
Date
Dating the Animal Apocalypse is facilitated by the generally recognized reference to the Maccabean conflicts (1 En. 90:9b–16). The anticipation of God’s dramatic intervention in this affair (90:17–19) would suggest a date between 164 BCE (the battle of Beth-zur; 1 Macc. 4:29–34) and 160 BCE (Judas Maccabaeus’s death; 1 Macc. 9:11–18).133
Contents
The narrative can be divided into three segments of redemptive history: from creation to the flood (1 En. 85:3–89:8), from the flood to the final judgment (89:9–90:27), and a final renewal into a new beginning (90:28–42).134
FROM CREATION TO THE FLOOD (85:3–89:8)
It begins with a symbolic depiction of Adam and Eve and their children (85:3–10; cf. Gen. 2–5). In this vision Enoch sees a white bull (Adam), followed by a young heifer (Eve), then two bull calves, one black and the other red (Cain and Abel) (85:3). The black calf strikes the red (85:4), grows, and has offspring like himself (85:5). The female grieves the absence of the red calf (85:6–7) and bears another white bull (Seth) and many more black bulls and cows (85:8). That white bull grows and bears other white cattle like himself (85:9–10).
The next segment (86:1–88:3) provides a symbolic account of the fall of the Watchers (cf. Gen. 6:1–4; 1 En. 6–11), their begetting children with human women, and the ensuing violence. Enoch sees a star fall from heaven (Azazel; cf. 10:4), which then rises and grazes among the cattle (86:1). He sees large black cattle, which exchange their pastures and calves and then moan (86:2). Enoch then sees many stars descend and become bulls in the midst of the calves; they pasture with them (86:3) and sire elephants, camels, and asses (giants) (86:4). These bring violence and fear on the bulls (86:5–6), drawing the attention of heaven (87:1). Seven figures like white men (angels) come (87:2), three of which instruct Enoch to see what happens to the violent animals, the stars, and the cattle (87:3–4). One of the white men seizes the first fallen star, binds it, and casts it into the abyss (88:1). The elephants, camels, and asses are armed with a sword, with which they strike one another (88:2). Another one of the white men seizes all the great stars (fallen angels), binds them, and casts them into the abyss as well (88:3).
The account of Noah and the flood is the subject of the next symbolic account (89:1–8). One of the white men goes to a white bull (Noah) and teaches a mystery: he is born a bull but becomes a man (89:1a). He builds a vessel for himself and three other bulls (89:1b). Enoch then sees the great deluge overtaking the earth (89:2–5). The vessel floats safely while the bulls, elephants, camels, and asses perish (89:6), after which the waters recede, the vessel comes to rest, and darkness gives way to light (89:7–8).
FROM THE FLOOD TO THE FINAL JUDGMENT (89:9–90:27)
The next major section begins (89:9–27) with the white bull (Noah) departing the vessel along with the three other bulls—one white (Shem), one red (Ham), and one black (Japheth) (89:9; cf. the depiction of Adam and his sons in 85:3, 8). These beget a variety of (unclean) wild beasts. From the one white bull (Shem) come other white bulls (Abraham and Isaac). One of these sires a black wild boar (Esau) and a white sheep (Jacob), who then begets twelve sheep (the twelve tribes of Israel) (89:10–12). The movement from bulls to sheep marks a transition from the time of the patriarchs to Israel’s history.135 These twelve sheep (the sons of Jacob) hand over one of their own (Joseph) to wild asses (Ishmaelites), who in turn hand him over to wolves (Egyptians) (89:13). That sheep (Joseph) becomes a ram and cares for the other eleven among the wolves (89:14).
Eventually the wolves begin to fear the sheep and oppress them, and the sheep’s cry reaches the Lord (89:15–16). The Lord summons one of the sheep (Moses) to testify against the wolves on behalf of the sheep (89:17). That sheep, accompanied by another sheep (Aaron), speaks to the wolves on behalf of the sheep (89:18). The wolves deal still more harshly with them despite the Lord striking the wolves (89:19–20). The sheep depart and the wolves pursue them to a swamp of water (89:21–23), which splits before the sheep and devours the wolves (89:24–27). The sheep enter a desert, where the Lord cares for them (89:28). The lead sheep (Moses) goes up a high rock, and the Lord of the sheep appears (89:29–31), yet the rest of the sheep are blinded and go astray (89:32). The Lord’s anger burns against them, but the lead sheep returns all the straying flock to their fold (89:33–35). The lead sheep builds a house for the Lord (89:36) and leads them to a river before all the large sheep fall asleep (89:36–38).
The description continues with the succession of Moses to the building of the temple (89:39–50). Two sheep (Joshua and Caleb) arise to lead the flock to a pleasant land (89:39–41). There the flock is devoured by wild animals until the Lord raises up a ram (King Saul) from among the sheep to lead them (89:42) and defeat those who harm the flock (89:43), until he himself is led astray (89:44). The Lord appoints another sheep to be the ram and rule the flock, but the first ram pursues the second ram until the former falls before the dogs (89:45–47). The second ram (David) leads the sheep (89:48), who have become numerous and feared among animals (89:49). The ram sires other sheep and then falls asleep. One of those sheep becomes a ram (Solomon) and rules the sheep (89:48b) and builds a house (the temple) for the Lord of the sheep (89:50).
The sheep abandon the house of the Lord and go astray, so they fall into the hands of wild beasts (89:51–58; around the time of Manasseh). The Lord then appoints seventy shepherds (guardian angels)136 to pasture the sheep and keep a record of their deeds (89:59–64; cf. 90:5; Deut. 32; Dan. 10; Jer. 25), each in their own period of time (roughly the Babylonian, Persian, Ptolemaic, and Seleucid rules).137 The first account of the disobedient shepherds (89:65–68a) runs from Manasseh (ca. 671/661 BCE) to the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and exile to Babylon (587/577 BCE).138 These shepherds abandon the sheep to lions (89:65), who, along with leopards and boars, devour and destroy them (89:66–67; cf. 2 Kings 25:1–20; 2 Chron. 36:17–20). This is followed by the writing of a report of these events (1 En. 89:68b–72a).
The second period of the shepherds’ activities (89:72b–90:1) covers the return from exile and the rebuilding of the temple to the time of Alexander the Great. Led by three sheep (Zerubbabel, Jeshua [Ezra 5:2; 1 Esd. 6:2], and likely Sheshbazzar [Ezra 1:8–10; 5:14–16; 1 Esd. 2:12–15; 6:18–20]), the exiles return and commence rebuilding the temple (1 En. 89:72b). The temple is rebuilt, but its sacrifices are polluted (89:73). Both the sheep and their shepherds are blind (89:74a; cf. Mal. 1:7–8, 12; CD-A IV, 17–V, 19), and the sheep are scattered (1 En. 89:75; cf. Ezek. 34:12). The one writing the book shows his account of the deeds of the shepherds to the Lord, but to no avail (1 En. 89:76–77; 90:1). In the third period (90:2–5) the conquests of the Macedonians are recounted, though Alexander the Great is not explicitly identified. The birds of heaven come, led by eagles (Macedonians), and devour and blind the sheep (90:2). The ensuing violence (90:3–5) reflects the wars of the Diadochi (323–301 BCE), followers of Alexander fighting with one another to succeed him after his premature death.139
The fourth period then commences (90:6–19). This is the era of Seleucid rule (after 198 BCE). The lambs are born (a new generation of Israelites) and begin to see Israel’s errors and cry out to their elders, who remain deaf and blind (90:6–7; cf. Jub. 23:16–20). Ravens (gentile rulers) arrive and devour the lambs (1 En. 90:8),140 but a “great horn” (Judas Maccabaeus) arises (90:9–11; cf. Dan. 11:14; 1 Macc. 2:42–48; 7:13; 2 Macc. 14:6) and engages in battle (1 En. 90:12–16; cf. 2 Macc. 11:6–12). Next, the vision leaves the historical narrative for a vision of God’s anticipated future intervention with a large staff to strike the enemies of the sheep (1 En. 90:17–18); the sheep are armed with a large sword to do the same (90:19). This is followed by a vision of judgment (90:20–27) in which the Lord of the sheep summons the white men to bring various figures before him for judgment. Judgment begins with the first fallen star (fallen angels) (90:21b–24), then the disobedient shepherds (90:25), and finally the blinded sheep (apostate Jews) (90:26–27; cf. 10:14).
A FINAL RENEWAL INTO A NEW BEGINNING (90:28–42)
The final vision begins with the “old house” (Jerusalem) being folded up and the Lord bringing a new house (Jerusalem),141 where all the sheep are present (90:28–29; cf. 2 Bar. 4:2–7). All the sheep (Israel) as well as all the animals on earth (gentiles) worship there (1 En. 90:30; cf. Dan. 7:14, 27). Enoch is taken before the sheep and finds that all those dispersed were gathered at the house (1 En. 90:31–33). The sword given to the sheep (90:19) is now sealed up (90:34). Warfare is no longer necessary.142 All whose eyes are open see good things (90:35), and Enoch sees the vastness of the temple (90:36). Then a white bull—whose identity is debated but is likely messianic—arrives on the scene (90:37a) and is feared by all the other animals (gentiles) (90:37b). Strikingly, these animals change to become white bulls (90:38). The sheep are restored to their (new) house, and enmity with other animals is ended.
The entire Animal Apocalypse concludes with a summary of the vision and Enoch’s response to it (90:39–42). Enoch awakens and blesses the Lord (90:39–40) but then weeps over the deeds of humanity and the judgment it incurs (90:41–42).
Critical Issues: The Sources of the Animal Apocalypse
Naturally the Animal Apocalypse, in its concern for the history of the Israelites, draws considerably from the Hebrew Bible, especially Genesis. Some estimate that fully one-sixth of 1 Enoch 85:3–89:8 corresponds to Genesis 1:1–8:7, whereas the remainder of Genesis is treated in only five verses (1 En. 89:9–14). The nature of sin and judgment in the Animal Apocalypse is modified from the Genesis narrative to shift emphasis from the origins and activities of humanity to God’s judgment itself. Divine judgment is estimated to comprise some 29 percent of the Genesis account (Gen. 1–8) but swells to 54 percent in the Animal Apocalypse (esp. 1 En. 85:3–89:8). This is seen specifically in its account of the flood (86:1–89:1), which draws from the Genesis narrative supplemented by that of 1 Enoch 6–11. The Animal Apocalypse differs from the Genesis narrative in identifying Cain’s murder of his brother, Abel, as the first sin. Furthermore, the primary source of evil in the first place is not human behavior but the fall of the heavenly Watchers. It is after their initial fall that the line of the white bull is corrupted and the flood ensues. The widespread violence and ensuing judgment likewise follow the stars intermingling with the cows.143
In the author’s recounting of the biblical narrative, the cycle of sin, punishment, repentance, and restoration rings of Deuteronomic conceptions, dividing history into three distinct eras. In addition to narrative material, one finds echoes of prophetic texts from the Hebrew Bible in the Animal Apocalypse. Nickelsburg observes as the most obvious the metaphorical depiction of Israel as a victimized flock (e.g., Ezek. 34, 37; Zech. 11). Points of similarity are found with Daniel 9, where, as in the Animal Apocalypse, the seventy years of Jeremiah 25 are interpreted as seventy weeks of years, or 490 years. The new Jerusalem (1 En. 90:28–38) of Isaianic tradition (Isa. 60, 65–66) resembles other material (cf. 1 En. 10; Jub. 23; Dan. 12:1–3).144
The Animal Apocalypse shows affinities with and makes use of other Enochic material, particularly the Book of Watchers. In the author’s demarcation of time, key events that are future in the Book of Watchers (e.g., 1 En. 6–11) are presented as past events in the Animal Apocalypse (the fall of the Watchers, the siring of giants, the binding of angels, the destruction of giants, and the flood). Other events that are past in the Book of Watchers are moved to the eschatological future in the Animal Apocalypse (89:76; 90:3, 12–14, 20–38), such as people’s cry for help (8:4), intercession by angels (9:1–11), and the new earth (10:7–11:2).145 Also drawn from the Book of Watchers is Enoch’s travel to the heavenly temple (87:3–4; cf. chaps. 12–16) along with archangels (chap. 81; cf. chaps. 17–36).
Though clearly dependent on the Hebrew Bible, the author of the Animal Apocalypse is also familiar with traditional expositions of those narratives, such as Cain’s demonic affiliation (85:3), Eve’s grief over Abel’s death (85:4, 6), and the expansive flood story (86:1–89:1), among others.146 The Animal Apocalypse may have drawn on other sources (e.g., Jub. 4:23–24; T. Ab. 11:3–9), which, like the Animal Apocalypse (e.g., 1 En. 87:3–4; 90:31), depict Enoch’s designation as the heavenly scribe charged with recording human deeds for final judgment.
Contribution and Context
THE ANIMAL APOCALYPSE IN THE CONTEXT OF 1 ENOCH
Perhaps the closest conceptual parallels to the Animal Apocalypse within the Enochic corpus are found in the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10; 91:11–17). Both works narrate God’s history with humanity from creation to the new creation. Both divide history into distinct periods, though the Animal Apocalypse is more concerned with the later stages of that history than is the Apocalypse of Weeks. Other points of similarity have been noted,147 including an indication of apostasy beginning during the time of Manasseh and continuing into the Hellenistic era. This apostasy is checked only when a select few Israelites experience a religious awakening of sorts, and it occasions the final judgment.
GENRE, PLOT, AND CHARACTERIZATION IN THE ANIMAL APOCALYPSE
Though the Animal Apocalypse—as its name suggests—belongs decidedly to the genre of apocalypse, it bears some unique features within that genre that raise distinct interests. Most scholars find the Animal Apocalypse shares features with the visions of Daniel, such as its dream visions (Dan. 2:1; 7:1–2, 7, 13; 8:1–2, 17–18), its recounting a sequence of historical events leading to the end of days (2:32–45; 7:1–27; 8:3–26; 11:2–12:4), its use of animals to symbolize people or nations (Dan. 7, 8), and its relation of these events to events in heaven (7:9–10, 13–14; 8:10–12; 10:20–21). But there are also some important differences between them. First, whereas the Danielic visions require an interpreter (Daniel himself in chap. 2; angels in chaps. 7 and 8; cf. Dan. 10–12), Enoch seems to understand the vision quite well without any interpreter (1 En. 90:39–42). Second, Daniel’s vision is limited to the historical settings of the Babylonians, Medes, Persians, and Macedonians (chaps. 2, 7) and specific instances with Alexander and Darius and conflict between the Ptolemies and Seleucids (chaps. 8, 11). The author of the Animal Apocalypse shares Daniel’s interest in the four kingdoms of Daniel 2 and 7, but expands his interests to the entire breadth of human history. His scope transcends, then, the limited interests of Daniel. Third, the animal symbols in the Animal Apocalypse look more specifically to Israel’s sufferings under oppressive gentile rulers, and it becomes a “full-blown allegory.”148 This is an integral component of the Animal Apocalypse, and identifying the symbols is important for understanding the message of the work as a whole (see below).
The Animal Apocalypse also recounts God’s dealings with Israel as the center of its plot. This accounts for a full two-thirds of the narrative, focusing on sin, judgment, and deliverance with Israel at center stage. Violence introduced on the earth by the fallen Watchers extends to Israel time and again. Yet the hardships of Israel are often the consequences of its own sin. It is the apostasy of Manasseh that plunges Israel into sin, resulting in exile. Instead of repentance, Israel continues in blindness to the point of corrupting the temple cult itself. This occasions still further hardships for Israel, this time in the Hellenistic period. But the narrative extends beyond Israel in its hope for re-creation, which entails all humanity in its return to an era before the formation of Israel, back to the garden itself. In this respect Enoch’s vision shows that though sin and corruption seemed to frustrate God’s ultimate plan for humanity, in the end his purpose will be accomplished.149
Table 1.2
Symbolism in the Animal Apocalypse
| Symbol | Referent |
| white bulls | Adam, Sethites |
| black bulls | Cain, Japheth |
| red bulls | Abel, Ham |
| stars | fallen Watchers |
| white men | holy ones |
| sheep | Israel |
| beasts (general) | gentile oppressors |
| lions | Babylonians |
| leopards | Syrians |
| wolves | Egyptians |
| dogs | Philistines |
| hyenas | Moabites |
| wild boars | Edomites, Amalekites |
| foxes | Ammonites |
| vultures | Macedonians |
| wild ass | Ishmael |
| shepherds | (negligent) leaders |
| Adapted from Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 358, table 5. | |
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Animal Apocalypse is its characterization of people and nations as animals of various kinds. Some of the symbolic depictions may be outlined as follows (see table 1.2): Humans are first depicted as bulls and cows, which may suggest their longevity in earliest biblical accounts (1 En. 85:3–89:8).150 The depiction of Israel as sheep is a common biblical metaphor (Num. 27:17; 2 Sam. 24:17; 1 Kings 22:17; 1 Chron. 21:17; 2 Chron. 18:16; Pss. 44:11, 22; 49:14; 74:1; 78:52; 79:13; 95:7; 100:3; 119:176; Isa. 13:14; 53:6, 7; Jer. 12:3; 23:1; 50:6, 17; Mic. 2:12; Zech. 10:2; 13:7), especially in Ezekiel (34:2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 19, 20, 22, 31). In the Animal Apocalypse Israel’s depiction as sheep entails, on the one hand, blindness and wandering, describing their propensity toward unbelief and apostasy (1 En. 89:32–33, 41, 51–54, 74; 90:8). On the other hand, their depiction as sheep is also indicative of their vulnerability to predatory wild beasts (gentiles; cf. 89:13–21, 42, 55–57; 90:2–4, 11–13, 16).151 The predatory animals (esp. in 89:9–90:27) are depicted as unclean animals (gentiles), so the Israelite sheep are victims of the unclean, gentile predators.
SIN AND JUDGMENT IN THE ANIMAL APOCALYPSE
Sin is an ever-present reality in the narrative of the Animal Apocalypse, in which humans are both its victims and perpetrators. The origins of sin are less developed here than in the Book of Watchers. It does seem clear that Cain’s murder of Abel, rather than the disobedience of Adam and Eve, is the first sin. This facilitates the author’s laying blame for the origin of sin at the feet of the fallen Watchers rather than with humanity. It is also the case that violence ensues only after the stars (fallen Watchers) mingle with the cows (human women) and in later times is perpetrated by gentiles but not Israelites. Though the Israelites are the victims of such violence, the violence done to them is typically divine punishment for their own sins. And so the cycle continues.
In general, sin is depicted as blindness and straying from God’s righteous path, the law. Specifically, the path of God is the appropriate use of the temple cult, as is evidenced by references to the tabernacle (1 En. 89:36), the Solomonic temple (89:50, 54, 66), and the second temple (89:73). It also entails specific matters, such as the worship of the golden calf (89:32–35), the Israelites’ “blindness” during the time of the judges (89:41), Saul’s sin (89:44), the abandonment of Jerusalem (89:51) and the temple (89:54), and the temple’s pollution (89:73).152
More specifically still, the abandonment of the Jerusalem temple by the Northern Kingdom and subsequent cultic apostasy by Manasseh lead to God’s abandonment of the flock (89:9–90:27). In his place are angelic shepherds whose failures exacerbate gentile oppression. The task of these shepherds is temporary (89:64; 90:5), and their misdeeds are recorded by still another angel (89:61–64, 68–71, 76–77; 90:14, 17, 20, 22; perhaps Michael; cf. Dan. 12:1). God appears to judge (1 En. 90:20) the rebellious angels (90:24; cf. 10:7, 12), disobedient shepherds (90:25), and apostate Jews, all of whom are cast into a fiery abyss (90:26–27; cf. 10:14; 27:1–3).153
As discussed above, this work shares with other documents (T. Mos.; Jub. 23; Dan. 7–12) attention to particular events of the Seleucid rule (198–167 BCE; cf. 1 En. 90:2–15; Jub. 23:16–20). This makes the omission of a particular cultic matter all the more curious. It is well known that during this time Antiochus IV Epiphanes, a Seleucid ruler, sought to quell tumult in Jerusalem by force, by striking at the heart of Judaism. In 167 BCE he issued a royal edict forbidding distinctive customs under his jurisdiction, including circumcision and festival and Sabbath observances, so that the Israelites defiled themselves and the cult (1 Macc. 1:41–50; cf. 2 Macc. 6:1–11). There was even a “desolating sacrilege” erected on the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc. 1:54). Extant copies of the law were destroyed (1 Macc. 1:55). Violators were put to death (1 Macc. 1:50, 57). Through a series of battles and negotiations, Judas Maccabaeus led Israel to purify the sanctuary and resume its cult by the end of 164 BCE (1 Macc. 4:52–55). Why this situation is not addressed in the Animal Apocalypse is unclear. This may suggest that from the perspective of the author of the Animal Apocalypse, the second temple was polluted from its inception (1 En. 89:73; cf. T. Mos. 4:8), mitigating the significance of the desecration.154 The Animal Apocalypse is not explicit in some instances as to the causes of sin, such as why Cain is a black bull spawning other black bulls, or who precisely the active agent is when the Israelites are “blinded.” Perhaps the implied subject is the angelic figure Sammael.155
God’s judgment on sin seems to be presented as a dividing structure for the author’s presentation of history into its three respective eras. So despite God’s judgment on sin in the first era (e.g., 1 En. 88:1–3; 89:2–6), it recurs at the beginning of the second (89:11). Objects of judgment are both heavenly (fallen Watchers) and human, with only the righteous Israelites escaping it. The third and final era is one of restoration, a new beginning (90:28–38) in which a new Jerusalem and temple greater than the first are established (90:28–29).
Purpose
It is generally recognized that the Animal Apocalypse was written to address a crisis that had arisen in the events leading up to the Maccabean revolt. The author presents his symbolic review of history so as to place that crisis within a broad context. Though many of the symbolic depictions of events and people can be discerned, the allegorical nature of the presentation suggests a typical rather than particular treatment. As in other facets of the Enochic writings, the message is one of judgment against Israel’s oppressors. Yet here it is particularly the gentile rulers who, like the fallen Watchers, will be disposed of by God’s angelic host.156 The readership is aligned with the righteous in their militant resistance, while being encouraged by God’s ultimate intervention and the promise of resurrection in a new earth. In this sense the elect are given both hope in an eschatological future and encouragement amid their present plight. Further clarity on the purpose of the work may be evident if, in fact, the author had the Apocalypse of Weeks at hand. Nickelsburg suggests that the author of the Animal Apocalypse may have achieved advantages from his revision of the other apocalypse.157 Among other things, this would include a revision of the story line that underscores Israel’s suffering at the hands of its enemies. Furthermore, the Animal Apocalypse brings the eschatological future near to the readers.
The Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 91–108)
Introduction
In its present form the Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 91–108) is a compilation of several writings, only one of which, by far the longest, is an actual epistle (though the epistle itself is composed of two distinct units). The literary segments begin with an Exhortation (91:1–10, 18–19), followed by the Epistle of Enoch (92:1–5; 93:11–105:2). Then comes the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10; 91:11–17), the Birth of Noah (106:1–107:3), and the Eschatological Admonition (108:1–15). There are many challenges to this portion of 1 Enoch, the most obvious of which entails its sequence. For example, though the segment 91:11–17 occurs in the middle of the Exhortation (91:1–10, 18–19), it belongs rather to the Apocalypse of Weeks. Similarly, the segment 93:1–10 occurs in the middle of the Epistle of Enoch (92:1–5; 93:11–105:2) but belongs likewise to the Apocalypse of Weeks. Another difficulty with this work is that its component parts are, in their present form, not in their (rough) chronological order. A general chronology of the origins of the respective units is as follows:
Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10; 91:11–17)
Epistle of Enoch (92:1–5; 93:11–105:2)
Exhortation (91:1–10, 18–19)
Birth of Noah (106:1–107:3)
Eschatological Admonition (108:1–15)158
With the exception of the Eschatological Admonition, which originates in the late first century CE, each of these sections dates from the second century BCE, like other portions of 1 Enoch (e.g., the Book of Dreams [83:1–84:6], the Animal Apocalypse [85:1–90:42], the Astronomical Book [81:1–82:4a]). Though these segments differ in their historical settings and theological outlooks, they share dependence on earlier strands of Enochic traditions from the Book of Watchers (1 En. 1:1–36:4) and the Astronomical Book (1 En. 72:1–80:8; 82:4–20). Perhaps this was among the factors that brought the constituent parts together soon after their composition into a collection of “revelatory disclosures made by Enoch to his son Methuselah,”159 with the final chapter appended at a later date.
As we have seen with other portions of 1 Enoch, elements of Enochic literature were written quite early, surely before the composition of the constituent parts of the Epistle of Enoch. It also seems clear that prior to their redaction and collection into their present shape, chapters 91–108 were composed independently. Therefore, it is important to distinguish between the respective dates of composition, the dates of the manuscripts in which they are preserved, and the dates of their early redaction and literary histories.160
How the constituent parts came together into their present form is a literary puzzle, the solution to which may be facilitated by the Aramaic manuscripts from Qumran (e.g., 4Q204, 4Q212), which date from shortly after the composition of the original work. Portions of chapters 91 and 92–94 are evident in 4QEng (see table 1.3), while chapters 1–36, 85–90, the end of the epistle itself, and chapters 106–7 are present in 4QEnc, though the latter offers no evidence of literary shape or cohering principles.161
Manuscript evidence does provide a means of identifying the oldest Enochic material toward establishing a theory of the emergence of the collection of the earliest Enochic material. The earliest are the Astronomical Book and the Book of Watchers, both from the third century BCE; while distinct from each other, they overlap in form and content. Additional independent material—including the Apocalypse of Weeks, portions of Epistle A (92:1–5; 93:11–94:5; 104:9–105:2), and Epistle B (94:6–104:8)—likely originates prior to the Maccabean era (on the distinction between Epistle A and Epistle B, see below). These writings share a common interest in wisdom (93:10; 98:3; 99:10) associated with Enoch and made known through heavenly writings (93:2; 103:2; 104:9–13). In its current form the compilation exhibits signs of editorial handling to bridge material. What bridged the earlier and later material seems to be the addition of the account of Enoch’s return to earth to relate information to Methuselah and his children (81:1–82:4a) and the ensuing admonition and predictions Enoch conveys to Methuselah and his brothers (91:1–10, 18–19). These additions, accompanied by further revisions (e.g., 92:1–5; 94:1–5), seem to have constructed the testamentary features evident in the collection’s current form.162 While some suggest the collection was “shaped into a literary unity as a testamentary collection of Enochic writings,”163 Loren T. Stuckenbruck is less certain about this terminology. He prefers instead to view the testament-like material (e.g., scenes in 81:5–82:3; 91:1–3; 94:1) as later developments as compilers of the respective materials sought to “find a literary or narrative rationale for the additions they were making.”164
The result is that the material was organized around the revelatory experiences of Enoch, which he subsequently discloses to Methuselah, his son (91:1–2; 92:1; 106:1, 7; 107:1–3). In this respect it exhibits a testamentary character found in other, roughly contemporary Enochic material (Book of Dreams [83:1], Animal Apocalypse [85:1–3], and Astronomical Book [81:5–6; 82:1]), with the Eschatological Admonition likely added later to an extant collection.165
Languages and Manuscripts
The material from the Epistle of Enoch in its constituent parts is preserved in Aramaic among the Qumran material (see table 1.3).
Table 1.3
Qumran Aramaic Manuscripts of the Epistle of Enoch
| Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10; 91:11–17) | 4QEng (= 4Q212; mid-first century BCE) |
| Epistle of Enoch A (92:1–5; 93:11–14; 94:1–5; 104:9–105:2) |
4QEnc (= 4Q204; last third of first century BCE) 4QEng (= 4Q212; mid-first century BCE) |
| Epistle of Enoch B (94:6–104:8) | Not attested |
| Exhortation (91:1–10, 18–19) | 4QEng (= 4Q212; mid-first century BCE) |
| Birth of Noah (106:1–107:3) | 4QEnc (= 4Q204; last third of first century BCE) |
| Eschatological Admonition (108:1–15) | Not attested |
Evidence of this material in Greek is scant. Though not attested among the Aramaic material from Qumran, portions of the Epistle of Enoch B (94:6–104:8) may be preserved in Greek fragments from Qumran Cave 7 (e.g., 7Q4 1 = 1 En. 13:3–4; 7Q4 2 = 1 En. 98:11; 7Q8 = 1 En. 103:7–8). A papyrus codex from the fourth century CE contains the Greek of 1 Enoch 97:6–104:13; 106:1–107:3. These are from preserved leaves of the Chester Beatty-Michigan papyrus, which may have originally contained 1 Enoch 91/92–107.166 To this one could add the Antinoe (Coptic) fragment (1 En. 93:3–8) and the Latin Royal MS 4 E XIII (1 En. 106:1–18).167
As elsewhere in 1 Enoch, the full text of the Epistle of Enoch is extant only in Ethiopic. Here, however, scholars have observed two distinct versions, or recensions, of the text that have been transmitted: the first (Ethiopic I) is an older text-form, whereas the second (Ethiopic II) is a later reworking of the texts by copyists.168 The former contains ten or eleven parchment manuscripts dating from the fifteenth to eighteenth century. The latter contains more than fifty manuscripts, most of which date from the eighteenth or nineteenth century, though a few date earlier and some later.169
Exhortation (1 En. 91:1–10, 18–19)
INTRODUCTION
The opening segment of the larger collection that makes up the Epistle of Enoch begins with what some scholars identify as a “bridge” in the narrative. Previously, the Animal Apocalypse (1 En. 85–90) described the conclusion of Enoch’s instruction to Methuselah, his son. The present Exhortation (91:1–10, 18–19) returns to that testament-like setting at least in part to set what follows—the Epistle of Enoch (92:1–5; 93:11–105:2)—in the context of what preceded.
PROVENANCE AND DATE
Because the Exhortation bridges and makes use of other material (e.g., the Epistle in 92:1–5; 94:1–5; and the additions to the Astronomical Book in 81:1–82:3), it is generally dated from the middle to the second half of the second century BCE.170
CONTENTS
This brief document begins with Enoch’s appeal to Methuselah, exhorting him to gather his brothers to hear Enoch’s account of what will happen to them in the future (91:1–2). In Enoch’s speech, which comprises the remainder of the document (91:3b–10, 18–19), he is said to discourse on righteousness (91:3a). Specifically, he exhorts them to walk in truth and righteousness and to avoid a double heart (91:4). He warns that violence and iniquity will escalate (91:5a) but will be cut down (91:5b) only to prevail again (91:6). At that time God himself will bring judgment on the earth (91:7), removing violence, iniquity, and idolatry (91:8–9). The righteous will be raised and given wisdom (91:10). The segment concludes (91:18–19) with Enoch’s final exhortation to heed his instructions in the paths of righteousness.
CONTRIBUTION AND CONTEXT
Because the Exhortation makes use of prior Enochic material, it naturally shares some of its interests and resembles some of its forms. Like the final chapter of the Astronomical Book (chap. 82), the setting is like that of a testament in which Enoch relates instructional information to Methuselah (91:1–2). Exhortations themselves are generally presented as the alternatives of two ways, acting righteously and rejecting wrongdoing (91:3–4, 18–19), a familiar trope in the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Deut. 30:15–30; Ps. 119; Prov. 1:15–16; 2:12–13, 18–19; 4:10, 14–19; 5:56; 7:27) and other Second Temple writings (Tob. 1:3–9; 4:5–6, 10, 19; 5:21–22; 1QS III, 15–IV, 26; CD-A I, 10–II, 14; cf. Sir. 15:11–17:24).171 In the Exhortation these contrasts frame an anticipated eschatological sequence of an increase in wickedness and consequent punishment (91:5), a sequence that will escalate until it is brought to a dramatic end, at which time the righteous will be rewarded as they arise from sleep (91:6–10). Since these anticipate themes taken up later (cf. the Epistle at 1 En. 92:3a and the Birth of Noah at 106:19–107:1), the Exhortation was likely composed in order to integrate these later works into the prior Enochic writings.172
Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 92:1–5; 93:11–105:2)
INTRODUCTION
This important work is, despite its name, not an epistle. This designation was added in the Greek tradition, which references “the words of this epistle” (1 En. 100:6) and the title “Epistle of Enoch” after the end of the Greek text (which ends at 107:3). The work purports to be written by Enoch to his descendants. In that respect it has been likened to a testament. Throughout it bears assertions of authority, placing on Enoch’s lips statements like “I swear to you” and “I say to you.” The author’s authority derives from his knowledge of heavenly secrets, read from tablets in heaven (cf. 103:1–2), and forms the basis for his exhortations throughout.173
PROVENANCE
Nothing is known about the author of the Epistle except what can be gleaned internally from the letter itself. Some suggest the criticism of those who “alter and distort the words of truth” and “write books in their (own words)” (104:10; 98:15) implies Hellenistic Jews who acclimated their ancestral traditions to Greek language and customs.174 It is possible that a reference to the sea (101:4–9) implies a maritime city as the work’s origin.175 But the general lack of specificity both inhibits a precise identification and lends the work to application in several settings.176 Some clues may be found in the accusations against the wicked, who are accused of blasphemy and idolatry (94:9; 96:7; 99:7) and, more prominently, acts of social oppression against the righteous (e.g., 94:8; 96:5; see below). This sort of class division is suitable within the setting of the Hellenization of Palestine prior to the Maccabean revolt (167–160 BCE).
The prophetic tone of the Epistle suggests the author perceives himself within that tradition as an advocate for the otherwise helpless righteous. He is given prophetic oracles pertaining to the suffering righteous (103:2) in terms of both the present (in reference to their unjust sufferings) and the future (in reference to eschatological blessings and vengeance on their oppressors). For the author these concerns are indeed personal: not only does he align himself with the righteous community, but their experiences are identical to his own (cf. 103:9–15). Yet here the author differs from the implied authors of other Enochic material, who are given visions of the cosmos (cf. chaps. 17–36; 72–80; 82:4–20) and significant historical events (e.g., 1 En. 85–90; 93:3–10; 91:11–17). Furthermore, while there are a number of statements about angels (e.g., 97:2; 99:3; 100:4–5; 102:3; 104:1, 4; cf. 104:6), Enoch’s message is not received from angels. The author also seems to take a unique place in his chastisement of the wicked. His repeated emphasis that their deeds will not be forgotten (e.g., 96:4, 7; 97:2, 7; 99:3, 15; 103:4; 104:1) may suggest he sees himself as providing a record of the indictment against them for when God’s eschatological judgment arrives.177
DATE
Since the Epistle makes use of the Book of Watchers (see below), it can be written no earlier than the third century BCE—but how much later has occupied more recent discussion. Manuscript evidence from Qumran (e.g., 4QEng and 4QEnc) indicates on paleographic grounds a date no later than the middle to the end of the first century BCE. The Epistle is likely known by the author of the book of Jubilees, which dates from the mid-second century BCE. If this is the case, then the Epistle dates from before approximately 150 BCE.178 Recent scholarship has tied the date of composition for the Epistle to that of the Apocalypse of Weeks, since the latter is preserved within the former and there is no evidence they circulated independently. The Apocalypse of Weeks is typically regarded as being written prior to the Maccabean era (before 167 BCE),179 suggesting the Epistle was likewise written then. Furthermore, the charges of idolatry seem more suited to before or during the Maccabean revolt (cf. 1 Macc. 1:43, 47; 13:47; 2 Macc. 12:40),180 and the Epistle exhibits traits consistent with conditions prior to the Maccabean revolt181 and lacks any allusion to the revolt itself. The Epistle most likely dates from just prior to 167 BCE.
CONTENTS
The introduction (1 En. 92:1–94:5) begins with Enoch exhorting his descendants and the last righteous generations not to be troubled by the present times (92:1–2). God will bless the righteous, who will arise from sleep to everlasting mercy (92:3–4), whereas sin will be destroyed (92:5). This hope is grounded in the incomparability of God (93:11–14; cf. Deut. 5:26). This is followed by an exhortation to follow the path of righteousness and avoid that of iniquity pursued by sinners, and to hold out hope for ultimate vindication (1 En. 94:1–5).182
The body of the work consists of three main units that encompass (1) woes pronounced against sinners (94:6–100:9); (2) a description of creation’s agency in God’s judgment against the sinner (100:10–102:3); and (3) a refutation of the fallacious claims of the wicked (102:4–104:8).
This first segment is an interwoven series of woes and exhortations (94:6–100:9). It begins with a first set of woes against those who are violent, profit from sin, and trust in riches (94:6–8); they will be overthrown by God (94:9–10; 95:1–2). The righteous are exhorted not to fear the sinners (95:3), who are condemned in a second set of woes for their blasphemy, deception, and injustice (95:4–7). The righteous are then exhorted to hope because they will be blessed (96:1–3), while the rich and powerful who oppress them are condemned in a third set of woes (96:4–8). The righteous are then charged to take courage (97:1–2), and sinners are condemned with warnings of impending judgment (97:3–6). This is followed by a fourth set of woes directed against those who gain wealth unjustly and err in placing their security in it (97:7–10). Following this is an oath sworn to the wise (98:1–3) and to the sinner (98:4–8). The fifth set of woes chides the sinners as fools (98:9–99:2) who oppose the righteous (98:13–14), deceive, and will have no lasting peace (98:15–99:2). The righteous are then encouraged to pray for judgment on the unrighteous (99:3–9) standing in contrast to the righteous, who heed the words of the wise and will be saved (99:10; cf. 94:1–5). This gives way to a sixth collection of woes (99:11–16), leveled against those who spread evil (99:11–13) and practice lawlessness (99:14–16). The text then turns to a description of the future impending judgment on the wicked (100:1–4) and blessings on the righteous (100:5–6).
In the next major portion of the Epistle, one reads an account of how creation functions as a divine agent in affirming the hopeless state of the sinner (100:10–102:3).183 The moon and stars bear witness to their wickedness (100:10); rain will be withheld as a testimony against them (100:11–12), while snow and frost will be hurled against them in judgment (100:13). This is because the creation does the bidding of the Most High, and he uses it to execute judgment as he sees fit (101:1–9; 102:1–3a). The sinner will have no place to hide and will be cursed forever and without peace (102:3b).
A lengthy discourse ensues (102:4–104:8) in which the souls of the righteous who died are exhorted to have hope (102:4–5) since they, unlike the sinner (102:6–11), are promised good things (103:1–3). They will come to life and rejoice (103:4), whereas misery will fall on the sinner (103:5–8). The piety of the righteous is not in vain (103:9–15), and their sufferings are seen by God (104:1). They are to take courage in a hope that lies in the future (104:2, 4–5) and in impending judgment for the wicked oppressors (104:3, 6–8).
In the conclusion to the Epistle (104:9–105:2), Enoch exhorts his audience to avoid error and deceit and to not alter the words of truth, as the sinners do (104:9–10). These words must not be altered (104:11) and will be given to the righteous and pious (104:12) to learn all the paths of truth (104:13; 105:1–2).
CONTRIBUTION AND CONTEXT
The Epistle of Enoch in the context of 1 Enoch. Within the corpus of 1 Enoch, the Epistle of Enoch borrows from the Book of Watchers, primarily concerning the themes of the transgressions of sinners and their punishments, the role of angels in relating the laments of the suffering righteous, and the placements of human souls. The punishment of the wicked after their death (1 En. 102:4–104:8) recalls a scene from the Book of Watchers where Enoch sees four chambers holding the souls of the dead (22:3–9), three of which contain the souls of the wicked awaiting judgment (22:10–13). Similar classifications of souls recur in the Epistle (cf. 102:6b; 103:5–8; 104:7–8) and, as in the Book of Watchers, address the matter of how the wicked experienced no punishment during their lifetime. Furthermore, the Epistle seems to draw on a tradition early in the Book of Watchers (e.g., chaps. 1–5) aligning the fallen angels with the wicked activities of “sinners” (e.g., 94:6; 95:4; 97:9; 98:1, 2, 4; 100:9; 103:1). Furthermore, while the Epistle exhibits familiarity with the Book of Watchers, on several points it does so in distinct contrast to it. Whereas in the Book of Watchers angels descend as rebels against God (6:6), in the Epistle angels descend as agents of God (100:4). Whereas God—through his angels—intercedes on behalf of the righteous in the Book of Watchers (e.g., 8:4–9:3), in the Epistle the righteous find no justice against their oppressors (103:14).184 Finally, the Epistle indicates that sin was created by humanity (98:4), whereas fallen angels introduce sin into the world in the story line of the Book of Watchers.185
Prophetic nature of the Epistle of Enoch. Scholars typically observe that, perhaps more than any other facet of the Enochic corpus, elements of the Epistle of Enoch communicate directly to both the righteous and the wicked in the second person. Yet these statements are more than mere predictions of eschatological punishments and rewards.186 Furthermore, the experiences and circumstances of the righteous and sinners in the past or present are framed in terms of predictions of the future (1 En. 94:1–5; 104:9–105:2).187 The author seems to infer that his denunciations play a role in actually bringing the expected judgment into effect. In this way, he takes on a prophetic role as one who champions the cause of the victimized righteous of his community. This is embedded in the text within the exhortations to the righteous themselves, in which they are called to courage, faith, and hope in view of the impending judgment on the sinner on the one hand (e.g., 95:2–3; cf. 1 En. 91:12; Num. 21:34; Deut. 3:2; Josh. 8:1) and the promise of vindication and eternal life for the righteous on the other (e.g., 1 En. 104:2).188
In the author’s perspective, the sinners in the present world prosper in wealth and social standing at the expense of the righteous. The difficulty is that the wicked not only prosper at the expense of the righteous but also seem to be receiving the blessings of God’s covenant with Israel (Deut. 28:1–14), whereas the righteous gain only its curses (Deut. 28:15–68; cf. 1 En. 103:9–15). This problem is addressed most substantially in the “woe oracles” throughout the document, which both outline the crimes committed by the sinners and pronounce their ensuing judgment. The prophetic nature of the Epistle is also borne out in its “disclosure formulae,” statements whereby the author claims to know and make known special revelations from God. The author knows the special mysteries of heaven (103:2; 104:12), that sinners will tempt the righteous (94:5), and that God is mindful of their plight (97:2). He also knows that God will overturn the fortunes of the wicked (94:10), whose deeds are recorded for judgment (98:8; cf. 98:10, 12; 100:10; 103:7–8).189
Righteous and sinners in the Epistle of Enoch. The relation between the righteous and sinners is an integral part of the Epistle of Enoch. The author draws on themes from the Hebrew Bible to invoke matters pertaining to the unjust suffering of the righteous and the inevitable judgment anticipated for their wicked oppressors. Much of this is borne out in the woe oracles, which show that the wicked will experience a reversal of fortune at the final judgment (e.g., 1 En. 96:4, 7; 97:7), a time in the eschatological future when the blessings and curses of the Deuteronomic covenant will finally be realized (cf. 103:9–15; 104:1–6). It seems the author’s prophetic role in these instances aligns him with prophets from the Hebrew Bible who lay similar charges against disobedient Israel. In contrast to the wicked, the righteous will have a place in bringing about judgment on the sinners (95:3; 96:1; 98:12; 99:11), and the righteous will also enjoy the eschatological rewards of future life (92:3; 103:4; cf. 96:3a; 104:2b, 4, 6b).190
But the document precludes vague generalizations about who these people are. For the author, the righteous are members of his own community, while the sinners are the ones oppressing them. Specifically, the righteous are the victims of the oppression of the sinners. They are the ones with whom the author identifies, people without influence or power who are yet recipients of Enoch’s revealed wisdom. They “receive the words of the wise and understand them and do the ways of the Most High” (99:10).
Frequent charges of wickedness and oppression are expressed in prophetic tones in woe oracles directed toward “sinners,” who are variously identified as the wealthy, the elite, idolaters, and propagators of false teachings.191 They lack understanding (98:3) and are fraught with falsehood (95:6; 98:15; 99:1, 2, 9, 12). Their lot is generally expressed in temporal phrases such as “then” or “in those days,” with stronger formulas such as “know!” and “be it known!” and “I say to you.” The strongest condemnatory invocation employs an oath formula: “I swear to you.” The several woes are directed toward them and provide charges against them for which they will be judged. These charges fall into one of two types: religious and social. The religious charges (esp. 99:8–10) include accusations of idolatry (99:7), consuming blood (98:11), blasphemy (94:9; 96:7), and cursing (95:4). The sinners pervert God’s law (98:9; 99:2, 14) and lead many astray in their false teaching (98:15). Most of the charges against the sinners, however, are social in nature, especially pertaining to their wealth and power and exploitation of the righteous who lack the means to repel the oppression of the wicked. The sinners build their homes at the expense of others (94:6–7; 99:3) and lavish in their wealth (96:5–6; 97:8–9), which they flaunt publicly (98:1–3). The comforts and security that they have found in their wealth will be snatched from them in judgment.
PURPOSE
Scholars generally recognize that the author wrote this letter in the name of Enoch, ostensibly addressed to Enoch’s children. Yet historically it is directed to the author’s contemporaries: “the future generations that will practice righteousness and peace” (1 En. 92:1; cf. 1:1–2; 37:2).192 The message is one of consolation: it recognizes the hardships of the righteous at the hands of the wicked. But it also offers consolation in the ultimate vindication and blessings the righteous will experience. Moreover, the righteous are assured that the wicked oppressors, despite their affluence and power at present, will be the objects of God’s swift and righteous judgment.
The work also exhibits sapiential features to extend moral exhortations (94:1, 3–4) alongside warnings that the readers will be enticed away from the path of wisdom (94:2, 5). It uses the familiar framework of two ways—righteous and wicked paths (92:3; 94:1–4; 104:13; 105:2)—as in the Exhortation (91:18–19) and the Apocalypse of Weeks (91:14).193 In words similar to those of Moses (Deut. 30:11–20), the author anticipates rewards for those who heed his instructions (1 En. 94:4; 104:12–13; 105:1), who will in turn instruct future generations (104:13–105:1). Couched in apocalyptic language, the Epistle offers consolation and exhortation to the righteous, whose efforts do not appear to be paying off. Enoch explains, on heavenly authority, that the plight of the righteous in the present world will one day be reversed.194
Apocalypse of Weeks (1 En. 93:1–10; 91:11–17)
INTRODUCTION
Embedded within the Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 92:1–5; 93:11–105:2), the Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10; 91:11–17) is an account of the world’s history from the author’s own time to the end of days placed on the lips of Enoch. In this respect it is like the Animal Apocalypse (85:1–90:42), yet shorter and likely earlier.195 In it Enoch offers exhortation to his sons, appealing to divine revelation, and summarizes history in ten (uneven) lengths of time designated “weeks.” These are further divided into seven parts, creating seventy units in all. The arrangement of the material requires some explanation, for in its present form the conclusion (91:11–17) precedes the beginning (93:1–10). Not only does the flow of the text fit better in this transposed way (93:1–10 followed by 91:11–17), but an ancient fragment from Qumran (4Q212; mid-first century BCE) confirms this arrangement and suggests the segment 91:11–17 was somehow displaced in the Ethiopic tradition.196
PROVENANCE AND DATE
Manuscript evidence (4Q212) requires a date of composition prior to the middle of the first century BCE. Most scholars think the lack of any reference to the Maccabean revolt, the persecution under Antiochus IV Epiphanes, or any events thereafter implies a date prior to 167 BCE.197 If this is so, then the “perverse generation” in week seven (1 En. 93:9) may correspond to Jews succumbing to the pressures of Hellenization in Jerusalem that accompanied Antiochus’s rise to power (175–170 BCE).198 Since the Apocalypse of Weeks alludes to features of the Book of Watchers, it dates from later than the third century BCE.
CONTENTS
The apocalypse commences by attributing it to a discourse recited by Enoch (1 En. 93:1). At the outset the subject matter is identified as the “sons of righteousness” (93:2a), those chosen from eternity, and is addressed to Enoch’s sons (93:2b). The author claims a threefold source for his revelation: a vision of heaven shown to him, words taught to him by angels, and words read from the heavenly tablets (93:2c). The entirety of the remainder of the apocalypse recounts history in terms of “weeks,” spanning from Enoch’s own time in the first week (93:3) to a future time when there will be “many weeks without number forever” (91:17).
Enoch was born in the first week, prior to which righteousness endured (93:3). Subsequent weeks are spoken of in terms of future events. In the second week, deceit will arise and there will be the “first end.” In it a man will be saved (Noah), after which iniquity will increase and a law will be established for sinners (presumably the covenant with Noah; 93:4). At the conclusion of the third week (93:5) a man will be chosen as “the plant of righteous judgment” (Abraham), after whom the plant of righteousness will go forth in perpetuity. This group of elect, righteous people remains the focus for the duration of the apocalypse and represents the origins and history of the author’s community. After the fourth week (93:6), visions of the holy and righteous will be seen, a covenant will be established (Mosaic law), and a tabernacle will be made. The temple, built forever, will arise after the fifth week (93:7). A turning point is reached during the sixth week (93:8), in which apostasy ensues. A man will ascend (Elijah), after which the temple will be burned and Israel, the “race of the chosen root,” will be dispersed. In the seventh week (93:9) a perverse generation will emerge, after which witnesses of righteousness will be chosen from the everlasting plant of righteousness (93:10a). These will receive sevenfold wisdom and knowledge (93:10b) and will uproot the foundations of violence (91:11). These first seven weeks correspond to events known to the author and his community, whereas the remaining three speculate about the eschatological future in which righteousness triumphs over the wicked.199
Righteousness will emerge in the eighth week (91:12) when the righteous—Enoch’s own group—will take up the sword against the wicked. At the end of this week (91:13), the righteous will acquire possessions and a temple will be built for all subsequent generations. Righteous law will be revealed to all the sons of the earth in the ninth week (91:14a). All wickedness will be eradicated from the earth, and humanity will pursue the path of everlasting righteousness (91:14b). This gives way to the climactic seventh part of the tenth and final week (91:15), in which there will be judgment on the fallen angels. A new heaven will replace the first heaven (91:16a), and the powers of heaven will shine (91:16b). After this final week there will be innumerable weeks in which righteousness will prevail and no sin will be found (91:17).
CONTRIBUTION AND CONTEXT
Among the distinct features of the Apocalypse of Weeks is its lack of any description of a revelatory disclosure of any kind—a heavenly ascent, vision, or dream. Instead, Enoch himself indicates he received his message in a vision, in words from angels, and from heavenly tablets (1 En. 93:2). In this respect the wisdom Enoch receives is acquired by revelation, though not a direct revelation from God but one that is mediated through other sources. Whereas the Animal Apocalypse recounts history through the depiction of peoples as distinct animals, the Apocalypse of Weeks does this with a distinct emphasis on the division of time organized into ten “weeks.” The significance of this scheme lies in its understanding of history as carefully ordered and controlled by God. The audience of this work is thereby encouraged by God’s control of their present events and able to locate themselves within the overall account of history. Moreover, the ancient readers, in identifying themselves in the seventh week, recognize that God’s great breakthrough and overturning of their unjust circumstances is at hand in the eighth week.200
Within the Apocalypse’s schematization of history, a number of patterns emerge. First, the narrative begins with the sons of righteousness (93:2) and a time when righteousness endures (93:3), and concludes with a time that foresees an enduring righteousness (91:17). Second, the advent of a wicked generation in the seventh week (93:9), the author’s own time, corresponds to that of the second week (93:4). This suggests the writer sees his own time as in some sense recapitulating the generation leading up to the flood and suggests the author likewise sees judgment on the wicked as imminent. Similarly, third, there are significant reversals in the fortunes of the author’s community at hand. The oppressed righteous (93:9) will themselves punish their oppressors (91:11–12). The Solomonic temple (93:7; week five), destroyed by fire (93:8; week six), will be restored (91:13; week eight). Fourth, the elect descendants of Abraham (93:5; week three) produce a perverse generation from within their own ranks (93:9), and the chosen from that week, the seventh, are heirs of Abraham (93:10). The cumulative effect of these and other features seems to be that the author sees himself and his community as among the righteous recipients of Abrahamic election. And they see themselves on the cusp of a turn in their fortune from hardship to salvation. This is even more pronounced when God’s rule is established on earth (91:12–14; weeks eight and nine), in judgment (91:15) and in the new heaven (91:16; week ten). Yet this reversal of fortunes for the righteous and the onset of innumerable weeks of sinless bliss (91:17) are accomplished without reference to the agency of any messianic figure.201
Whereas the Animal Apocalypse was distinct in its portrayal of peoples in the guise of animals, the Apocalypse of Weeks, as its name suggests, contributes an understanding of the significance of the number seven. Its periodization of history into seven-day units (“weeks”) is presented as a set of ten weeks, for a total of seventy days. This may be derived from the “seventy generations” during which the fallen Watchers are to be bound (1 En. 10:12),202 though the correlation is not entirely clear. Biblical interest in the number seventy suggesting seventy years of rest (e.g., Jer. 25:11–12; 29:10; 2 Chron. 36:21) or years that the temple lies in ruins (e.g., Zech. 1:12–17) does not provide evident points of correspondence. Instead, Stuckenbruck looks to the seventy weeks of years from Daniel 9, which, he suggests, understands a period of 490 years (70 × 7 = 490) extending from the exile (596 BCE) to the author’s present time. A similar articulation of seventy weeks (490 years) is attested elsewhere (e.g., 4Q181 1 1; 2 3; 4Q383–384; 4Q385a–b; 4Q387b; 4Q389a; 4Q390; cf. 1 En. 93:2). If this analogy is more appropriate, then the Apocalypse of Weeks may use a 490-year scheme after the exile (93:8) and within the seventh week (93:9–10), extending into the author’s own time.203
The Apocalypse of Weeks finds natural affinities within the Epistle of Enoch as a whole (1 En. 91–108), particularly with respect to the Exhortation (91:1–10, 18–19) and the Epistle of Enoch proper (92:1–5; 93:11–105:2). A number of distinctive features are shared among them, including contrasts between the righteous and sinners on the one hand, and righteousness and wickedness on the other. They also share an interest in heavenly tablets, the use of “I make known to you” as a means of relating revealed material, judgment on sinners with the sword, the removal of wicked deeds done by sinners, and the understanding, even conversion, of non-Israelites. Because of these and other commonalities, it is sometimes suggested that the works all stemmed from a single author.204
Nevertheless, the ideological similarities suggest an affinity that may account for the merging of these works but need not point to common authorship. The contrasts between the righteous and sinners, righteousness and wickedness, are familiar from other Enochic writings as well as other literature from the Second Temple period in general. Furthermore, the particular identification of sinners as oppressors of the righteous in the Epistle is absent in the Apocalypse. Likewise, the mention of heavenly tablets is sufficiently attested outside this literature (Jub. 3:10; 5:12; 6:17; 15:25; 16:3, 9; 18:18; 19:9; 23:32; 24:33; 28:6; 30:9, 19, 20, 22; 31:32; 32:10, 15; 49:8; 4Q537 1–3 3; 1 En. 81:1–2; 103:2–3; etc.) to allow for other options besides common authorship. The disclosure formulas are in different contexts between the Apocalypse and the Epistle, and the Apocalypse’s indication that the sword of judgment is borne by the righteous is absent from the Epistle. Finally, the removal of wicked deeds and the extension of understanding to all humanity may depend on earlier material (e.g., 1 En. 10:21). The implication seems to be that while material from the Apocalypse of Weeks on the one hand and material from the Epistle and Exhortation on the other share sufficient ideologies to warrant their melding into a common document, their distinctions would suggest different authors.205
Birth of Noah (1 En. 106:1–107:3)
INTRODUCTION
In this work Enoch tells the story of Noah’s birth. Yet the work is less interested in Noah’s angelic features and ability to speak (in praise of God) than the significance of his name etymologically. The name “Noah” is said to mean “rest” (1 En. 106:18; cf. Gen. 5:29), “relief” (107:3; cf. Gen. 5:29), and “to be left as a remnant” (1 En. 106:16).206 Noah’s name, and his accompanying story, is used to hold out the promise of hope to the righteous, who will experience an upsurge of evil before their allotted eschatological blessing.
DATE
The presence of the Birth of Noah segment at Qumran (4QEnc = 4Q204), which dates from the end of the first century BCE,207 requires a prior date of authorship. Its use of the Exhortation (91:5–9) requires a date later than the mid-second century BCE.
CONTENTS
At the beginning of the narrative Enoch relates the marriage of his son, Methuselah, and the birth of his grandson Lamech (1 En. 106:1a), who grew to have a son himself (106:1c). Prior to Lamech, righteousness was “brought low” (106:1b). Lamech’s son (Noah; Gen. 5:28–29), born both white and red and bearing a glorious face (1 En. 106:2), immediately stands and praises the Lord (106:3). In fear, Lamech flees to Methuselah (106:4) and reports to his father that his newly born son is more like an angel than a human, with eyes like the rays of the sun and a glorious face (106:5). Lamech suggests the child comes from angels and, fearing calamity (106:6), implores Methuselah to inquire of Enoch, whose “dwelling is with the angels” (106:7). Methuselah goes to Enoch (106:8) and inquires about “a terrible vision” (106:9). He describes the child to his father (106:10) and recounts his standing and praising the Lord at birth (106:11). He also explains to Enoch Lamech’s fears and that he has come to Enoch because he learns from angels the exact facts and the truth (106:12). Enoch replies that the Lord will renew his commandment since the present generation has transgressed the word of the Lord (106:13) by sinning with women and siring fleshly children (106:14). As a result, there will be wrath and destruction by a flood for a year (106:15). The child and his three children alone will be saved from this calamity (106:16–17). Enoch confirms to Lamech that the child is his, instructs him to name the son Noah, and informs him of the corruption Noah and his progeny will escape (106:18). Afterward, Enoch announces that there will be even greater iniquity (106:19), which will continue until a generation of righteousness arises (107:1a). During this generation violence will give way to good (107:1b). At Enoch’s instruction (107:2), Methuselah tells Lamech that the child is indeed his (107:3a). The child is called Noah, “he who gladdens the earth from destruction” (107:3b).
CRITICAL ISSUES: SOURCES
Scholars generally recognize that the Birth of Noah text (1 En. 106:1–107:3) derives from an earlier document, similar to the Genesis Apocryphon, shaped by the Exhortation (1 En. 91:5–10). Such reshaping, according to Stuckenbruck, resulted in the narrative being told from the perspective of Enoch (106:1, 8–9, 13) and depicting the flood as a type for judgment and salvation (106:13b–17; 106:19–107:1).208
CONTRIBUTION AND CONTEXT
The Birth of Noah (1 En. 106:1–107:3) text stands out among the Enochic literature for its placement of Enoch in the unique position to identify Noah’s father and significance. Despite the extraordinary aspects of his birth, Noah’s name is explained in terms of the fact that he and his sons will survive God’s forthcoming judgment on evil and endure into the coming age. Elsewhere Noah is merely alluded to as “the son of Lamech” (10:1–3). In the Book of Giants (cf. 2Q26; 6Q8 2, 26) Noah is saved from the great flood, and Enoch is an interpreter of dreams. The story of Noah is recounted in the Animal Apocalypse (e.g., 1 En. 89:1–9) and, along with related accounts, in the Similitudes of Enoch (54:7–55:2; 60:1–10, 24–25; 65:1–67:3; 67:4–68:5; 69:1–26[?]) and the Book of Dreams (83:1–84:6).209
PURPOSE
The presentation of Noah and his sons among the righteous few may serve as an exhortation to the readers. Like Noah, the righteous elect will be rescued from divine judgment on the wicked whose iniquities are part of the readers’ present experience.
Eschatological Admonition (1 En. 108:1–15)
INTRODUCTION
The Eschatological Admonition (1 En. 108:1–15) is an appendix to the corpus extant only in Ethiopic, functioning in part as a summary and interpretive conclusion to the whole work. Its concern is the pious who keep the law in the last days.
PROVENANCE
The text, preserved only in Ethiopic, derives from a Greek Vorlage,210 and its affinities with Jewish conceptions of the Second Temple period and the absence of Christian redaction indicate a Jewish writing appended to a prior Enochic collection.211
DATE
The Admonition’s familiarity with both the Book of Watchers and the Epistle (see below) requires a date after the end of the second century BCE. The latest possible date is more challenging. Though manuscript evidence in Ethiopic dates from the fifteenth century CE, there is no reason to doubt a much earlier origin for the Admonition, and the text was surely part of the Enochic collection when it took shape in the fourth century CE. Furthermore, the vague description of a “deserted place” in which the wicked are to be punished (108:3c–6) suggests a date prior to the developed articulations of retribution on sinners prevalent from the second century CE.212 In this respect the text aligns more closely with the end of the first century CE.
CONTENTS
The work describes itself as a book by Enoch for Methuselah and those after him who keep the law in the last days (1 En. 108:1), and therefore it is written in the first person addressed to the second (I-you). Enoch says that his audience, who has observed the law, awaits the end of those who transgress it (108:2). This is a time when sin passes away (108:3a); the sinners, their descendants, and the memory of them will perish (108:3b). Furthermore, their spirits will be slaughtered as they cry out in a desolate place of fiery judgment (108:3c). Enoch then describes a vision in which he sees something like a cloud, flames, and a glorious mountain shaking (108:4). When Enoch asks an accompanying angel about it (108:5), he is told it is the place where the wicked will be punished in accordance with the utterances of the prophets (108:6). Heavenly records, to which angels may refer, keep accounts of the afflicted and their oppressors (108:7). The righteous victims are described as ones who love God, forsake wealth and their physical well-being (108:8), deny worldly food, and consider their life but a breath (108:9a). These are tested by God and found pure that they might bless his name (108:9b). Enoch claims to have recounted their blessings “in the books” (108:10a) and that God has recompensed them for their lives (108:10b). Despite their hardships, they have “blessed me” (108:10c)—here the speaker seems to switch from Enoch to God. God—speaking in the first person—announces that he will summon the spirits of the pious, transforming those among them who died (108:11), and enthrone each of them (108:12). They will shine, because God is faithful (108:13), and witness the punishment of sinners (108:14), who in turn will see the righteous shine (108:15).
CONTRIBUTION AND CONTEXT
The Admonition shares with other Enochic writings the presentation of Methuselah as the first of Enoch’s descendants to receive his message (1 En. 108:1; cf. 81:1–82:4; 91:1–4; 93:1–2). Similarly, the wicked are presented as punished and destroyed (108:3–7), as they are in the Book of Watchers (e.g., 17:1–22:14) and in the Epistle (e.g., 102:4–104:8). The Admonition also shares with the Epistle explicit concern for obedience to the law (108:1; cf. 99:2a) and the path of the righteous (91:18–19; cf. 94:1–5; 108:12–13, 15; cf. 104:2b). Notably, the Admonition recognizes an authoritative tradition aside from Enoch in “the prophets” (108:6). Stuckenbruck observes unique features in the Admonition as well,213 such as a punishment for the wicked that is not delayed to the eschaton (e.g., 22:10–13; 103:7–8) but takes place immediately after death. For their part, the righteous are said to be “lowly” (108:7); they “love God” (108:8, 10) and are tested by him (108:9), belong to “the generation of light” (108:11), and even sit on a throne of God’s glory (108:12).
PURPOSE
The author’s community is among the righteous who “keep the law in the last days” (1 En. 108:1), though in the present life they are trampled down by men and reproached (108:10). Nevertheless, they are indeed the “generation of light” (108:11a) who have not yet received recompense appropriate for their faithfulness (108:11b). They will shine (108:12a, 13a, 14a, 15a), be enthroned (108:12b), and see the faithfulness of God (108:13b). The wicked both misinterpret the prophets (108:6) and oppress the righteous (108:7, 10). Their lot is judgment in darkness (108:14–15). The unique concern in the Admonition that the wicked will be judged immediately after death and that the righteous will themselves witness this judgment (108:13–15) suggests a readership concerned that justice is done. Enoch’s vision (108:6–15) provides much-needed assurance that vindication is imminent.
Reception History of 1 Enoch
While noting the disparity of the collection called 1 Enoch outlined above, a survey of the reception of 1 Enoch can be divided into the various parts of the work in Jewish and Christian traditions as well as the Ethiopic context in which the whole of the work is preserved.214
In the context of Second Temple Judaism, discussion begins with the preservation of various portions of 1 Enoch among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including the Book of Watchers, the Astronomical Book, the Book of Dreams, the Epistle of Enoch, and the Birth of Noah (though nothing is found among the Scrolls from the Book of Parables or the Eschatological Admonition). But at Qumran the reception of 1 Enoch transcends the manuscript witness of the document itself to its influence on other works found there. It has also influenced Aramaic works such as the Aramaic Levi Document, Testament of Qahat, Pseudo-Daniel, Genesis Apocryphon, and other works such as the Pesharim, Apocryphal Psalms, and the book of Jubilees. It is also likely that 1 Enoch influences the language of other Qumran texts in their depiction of “angels of destruction” (e.g., 1QS IV, 12; CD-A II, 6; 1QM XIII, 12).215
Jubilees adopts from the Enochic material its understanding of the revelation of the ordering of the cosmos and history before the time of the flood. And so Jubilees recognizes Enoch as the recipient of divine revelation who “functions as a calendrical sage.”216 This is an important observation, for it not only is taken from the Enochic Astronomical Book (cf. Jub. 4:17–18) but also expands, from either the Apocalypse of Weeks or the Animal Apocalypse, to see Enoch as one who is able to foretell human events until the final judgment (cf. Jub. 4:19) and to testify against the evil of humanity (Jub. 4:19, from the Epistle of Enoch). Jubilees also draws especially from the Book of Watchers (1 En. 6:1–9:3; 15:3–16:1) its Enochic tradition about the myth of the rebellious angels (cf. Jub. 5:1–11; 7:21–25; 10:1–6, 7–14).217 Outside of the Scrolls, influence of the Enochic traditions, or at least literary parallels, is found in the Wisdom of Solomon in its argument about the fate of the righteous dead (Wis. 2:1–4:9; cf. 1 En. 102:6–103:15) and its attention to Enoch as one whose piety before God led to his exalted status (Wis. 4:10–15). And finally, Philo of Alexandria, like the Enochic materials, regards the “sons of God” (Gen. 6:2, 4) as angels (1 En. 6:2; 19:2; 21:10; 100:4; 106:5, 12).218
Influence of 1 Enoch can also be found in the writings of early Christianity, and the material here is quite vast.219 Even limiting the discussion to the Book of Watchers (1 En. 1–36) yields a notable amount of material.220 Some familiarity with Enochic traditions is suggested in the writings of Paul (1 Cor. 11:10), Peter (1 Pet. 3:18–22; 2 Pet. 2:4–5), the Revelation of John (Rev. 4:1; 12:8), and the Letter of Jude (Jude 6, 14–15). Jude cites the Book of Watchers (1 En. 1:9), in which Enoch, the seventh from Adam, predicts divine judgment (Jude 14; cf. 1 En. 37:1; 60:8), which attests to the widespread dissemination of Enochic traditions by the first century CE.221
While it is unclear to what degree Enochic (1 Enoch) traditions circulated beyond the first century in exclusively Jewish contexts, it is evident in Christian texts. First among these is the Jewish-Christian Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, where appeal is made explicitly to the writings (or words) of Enoch (T. Sim. 5:4; T. Levi 10:5; 14:1; T. Jud. 18:1; T. Dan 5:6; T. Naph. 4:1; T. Benj. 9:1; cf. T. Zeb. 3:4) in contexts in which sins to be committed by the sons of Jacob are said to be predicted, though no actual text is indicated. The writings of Enoch are cited as “scripture” in the Epistle of Barnabas (130s CE; Barn. 16:5–6; cf. 1 En. 89:56, 60, 66–67; 91:13–18). Augustine (354–430) knows the Enochic writings, but while he draws on them for some of his own writings,222 he insists that they not be regarded as scripture.223 After Augustine, there is little evidence for explicit interest in Enochic traditions in the West.224
The story is quite different in the East, particularly in the Ethiopic tradition, where the Book of Enoch (Mäshafä Henok), alongside works like Jubilees, retained a place in sacred Ethiopian Christian tradition.225 Although prior to the fifteenth century the status of the Book of Enoch in the Ethiopian church is unknown, it was likely valued in that context as early as the fourth century. But it is clear that the fifteenth century saw not only a recognition of the value it held in Ethiopia but also an elevation of its status. There was, to be sure, discussion about the formal inclusion of the Book of Enoch among the Ethiopian scriptures that revolved around its use in liturgical settings, its use in theological and mystical texts, its manuscripts, and whether it was to be included among the eighty-one sacred writings said to compose this canon. For many in Ethiopia today, 1 Enoch is one of the most important books in the tradition of the Ethiopian church.226
1. Alongside Jubilees, 1 Enoch is the best-attested pseudepigraphon at Qumran. Fragments from some eleven manuscripts contain portions of 1 Enoch.
2. The name is variously spelled. “‘Asa’el” is in the Aramaic (and Greek). The Ethiopic has “Asael” (6:7) but more commonly “Azazel.”
3. VanderKam, “Enoch Traditions,” 1:235.
4. Knibb, Ethiopic Book of Enoch, 2:21–22. See also VanderKam, “Textual Base.”
5. Milik, Books of Enoch, 140–63; Stuckenbruck, “4QEnocha,” 3–7.
6. Milik, Books of Enoch, 164–65.
7. Milik, Books of Enoch, 178–79.
8. Milik, Books of Enoch, 5, 217.
9. Milik, Books of Enoch, 225.
10. Milik, Books of Enoch, 6, 25, 140.
11. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 12.
12. Brock, “Fragment of Enoch.”
13. Isaac, “1 (Ethiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch,” 1:10–12.
14. Knibb, Ethiopic Book of Enoch, 2:28–37; Uhlig, Das athiopische Henochbuch, 470–91; Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 18.
15. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 230–31.
16. Milik, Books of Enoch, 6, 25, 140.
17. Stokes, “Watchers, Book of the,” 1334.
18. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 132, 169–70, 230, 279–80, 294.
19. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 51–52.
20. J. Collins, Apocalypse.
21. The following is developed from Gurtner, “Revelatory Experiences,” 31–44.
22. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 229.
23. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 46.
24. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 46–47.
25. Some see here a reference to the law of Moses.
26. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 71.
27. P. Grelot, “La Géographie mythique.”
28. Drawnel, “Mesopotamian Background.”
29. Homer, Odyssea 11.576–600; cf. also Plato, Respublica 10.614–21; Plutarch, Moralia 563–68.
30. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 71–72.
31. See esp. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis.
32. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 132–34.
33. Suter, “Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest.”
34. For a more recent summary, see Suter, “Revisiting ‘Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest.’”
35. Nickelsburg, “Apocalyptic and Myth.”
36. Nickelsburg, “Enoch, Levi, and Peter.”
37. Nickelsburg, “Enoch, Levi, and Peter.”
38. Bautch, Geography of 1 Enoch 17–19.
39. Himmelfarb, “Book of the Watchers.”
40. J. Collins, “Apocalyptic Technique,” 98.
41. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 64.
42. J. Collins, “Apocalyptic Technique,” 98–99.
43. J. Collins, “Apocalyptic Technique,” 109.
44. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 75.
45. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 232.
46. J. Collins, “Apocalyptic Technique,” 97–98.
47. Stuckenbruck, “1 Enoch or Ethiopic Enoch in Outline.”
48. The suggestion by J. T. Milik (Books of Enoch, 89–98) for a late (third-century CE) Christian provenance was largely discredited shortly after publication. See Knibb, “Date of the Parables of Enoch”; Mearns, “Dating the Similitudes of Enoch.”
49. Greenfield and Stone, “Enochic Pentateuch.”
50. Charlesworth, “Books of Enoch,” xiii–xv; cf. Aviam, “Book of Enoch.”
51. Greenfield and Stone, “Enochic Pentateuch,” 58; Walck, Son of Man, 45.
52. See Sacchi, “2005 Camaldoli Seminar,” 511. Alternatively, see Erho, “Ahistorical Nature of 1 Enoch 56:5–8,” 23–54.
53. See Charlesworth, “Date and Provenience,” 40.
54. Knibb (“Date of the Parables of Enoch”) prefers a date after the destruction of Qumran, ca. 70–135 CE.
55. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 221.
56. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 222–23.
57. The connection of chap. 64 to the context is unclear.
58. See Knibb, “Enoch, Similitudes of,” 586.
59. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 224; Suter, “Masai in the Similitudes.”
60. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 225; cf. J. Collins, “Jewish Apocalypses,” 39.
61. J. Collins, “Heavenly Representative.”
62. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 225.
63. Hill, “Dikaioi.”
64. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 226–27.
65. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 227.
66. See esp. Casey, “Use of the Term ‘Son of Man’”; Casey, Son of Man, 99–112; VanderKam, “Righteous One.”
67. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 227.
68. See esp. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life, 83–107.
69. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 229.
70. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch, 95.
71. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 232–36.
72. VanderKam, “Righteous One,” 182–83.
73. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 234. It is possible the prior Enochic material (esp. 1 En. 15:1–2) provides “building blocks” for such an evolution that make the explicit claim about Enoch in 1 En. 71 conceivable. See Stuckenbruck, “Building Blocks for Enoch,” 325.
74. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 235, citing Mowinckel, He That Cometh, 443, and J. Collins, “Son of Man in First Century Judaism,” 451–59.
75. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 235.
76. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 235, citing Müller, Messiahs und Menschensohn, 54–59; Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 330–33.
77. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 236.
78. See most importantly B. E. Reynolds, Son of Man.
79. Dunn, “Son of Man in Mark.”
80. See Collins, “Son of Man in First Century Judaism,” and Slater, “One Like a Son of Man.”
81. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 236–39.
82. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 76.
83. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 44.
84. See also Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 15–17.
85. Milik, Books of Enoch, 19.
86. P.Oxy. XVII 2069, frag. 3, corresponding to 1 En. 77:7–78:1; 78:8. See Chesnutt, “Oxyrhynchus Papyrus.”
87. E.g., Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea (d. ca. 282; cited in Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 7.32.6, 19 [cf. 1 En. 72:6, 9, 31, 32]), and Origen (185–254; Homiliae in Numeros 28:2 [cf. 1 En. 82]). See Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 348–50.
88. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 351.
89. 4Q208; 4Q209 1–22, 26, 29–41 (?); cf. 4Q210 1 III, 3–9; cf. 1 En. 73:4–8; 74:3–10; 78:6–8.
90. 4Q209 23 1–2; 4Q210 1 II, 1–10; cf. 1 En. 76:3–14.
91. 4Q209 23 3–10; 4Q210 1 II, 14–20; cf. 1 En. 77:1–4.
92. 4Q209 28; cf. 1 En. 82:9–13.
93. Cf. 4Q211; 1 En. 82:15–20.
94. 4Q209 26 6; cf. 1 En. 79:1. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 352.
95. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 352–56.
96. Drawnel, “Moon Computation”; Drawnel, Aramaic Astronomical Book.
97. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 357.
98. See J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 76, 78.
99. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 46.
100. Jull et al., “Radiocarbon Dating of Scrolls.”
101. Pseudo-Eupolemus is a source quoted by Eusebius in his Preparation for the Gospel. See Holladay, Historians, 157.
102. See Moshe Segal, Complete Book of Ben Sira, 307–8.
103. See VanderKam, Book of Jubilees (2001), 17–21; VanderKam, “Enoch Traditions,” in VanderKam, From Revelation to Canon, 313–14.
104. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 45.
105. See Ben-Dov, Head of All Years.
106. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 373–83.
107. Neugebauer, Ethiopic Astronomy, 216.
108. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 388–89.
109. See VanderKam, “Scripture in the Astronomical Book.”
110. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 390.
111. Bautch, Geography of 1 Enoch 17–19, 201–5.
112. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 391–94.
113. VanderKam, “Book of Parables.”
114. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 394.
115. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 44.
116. See Beckwith, “Earliest Enoch Literature.”
117. So also Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 367.
118. See Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 46.
119. Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2, 398–403.
120. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 9.
121. Milik, Books of Enoch, 5, 178–79, 217, 225.
122. Milik, “Fragments grecs du livre d’Hénoch”; presented in Hunt, “2069. Apocalyptic Fragment,” 6–8.
123. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 347–48.
124. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 85–86.
125. Translations, headings, and divisions throughout are taken from Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch, unless otherwise indicated.
126. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 346.
127. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 346–47.
128. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 347.
129. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 354.
130. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 361.
131. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 362. Alternatively, Daniel Assefa suggests the ram (90:9b–12, 16) is not Judas Maccabaeus but a spiritual leader of a group behind the Animal Apocalypse. For this reading, he sees 90:13–15 as a later interpolation inserted to support the Maccabean revolt. Assefa, L’Apocalypse des animaux (1 Hen 85–90), 332.
132. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 362.
133. So also J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 85; Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 361; Tiller, Commentary, 61–82.
134. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 354.
135. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 86.
136. So APOT 2:255; cf. Tiller, Commentary, 325.
137. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 87.
138. The dates are suggested by Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 393.
139. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 394, 396.
140. The killing of “one of these lambs” (90:9) is often taken as a reference to the murder of the high priest Onias III (J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 87–88; see 2 Macc. 4:33–35 and Dan. 9:26; cf. Tiller, Commentary, 349).
141. The temple is identified as a “tower” (1 En. 89:50, 54, 56, 66, 67, 73).
142. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 406.
143. See Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 354.
144. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 359.
145. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 355.
146. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 359.
147. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 359.
148. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 357.
149. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 356–57.
150. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 354.
151. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 84.
152. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 355–56.
153. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 85.
154. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 86.
155. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 356.
156. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 88.
157. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 360.
158. Stuckenbruck, “Enoch, Epistle of,” 583.
159. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 1, citing 81:5–6; 82:1; 83:1; 85:1–3; 91:1–2; 92:1; cf. 79:1; 106:1, 7; 107:1–3.
160. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 5.
161. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 114.
162. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 9–10.
163. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 114.
164. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 16.
165. Stuckenbruck, “Enoch, Epistle of,” 583.
166. Nickelsburg, “Two Enochic Manuscripts,” 255–59.
167. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 17.
168. Fleming, Das Buch Henoch, ix.
169. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 21, 23–26.
170. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 584.
171. See Nickelsburg’s “Excursus: The Two Ways” in 1 Enoch 1, 454–56; Nickelsburg, “Seeking the Origins.”
172. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 2.
173. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 83.
174. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 84.
175. Milik, Books of Enoch, 49–51.
176. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 85.
177. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 216.
178. Jubilees refers to a testimony written by Enoch against all the children of men and their generations (Jub. 4:19; cf. 1 En. 91:3; 96:5; 97:4; 99:3; 100:11; 104:11; 105:1). Scholars take this as an indication that the author of Jubilees knew of the Epistle in its entirety (Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 214–15).
179. Stuckenbruck, “Enoch, Epistle of,” 584.
180. VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of Apocalyptic Tradition, 144; Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 213n382.
181. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 215.
182. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 110.
183. Stuckenbruck, “Enoch, Epistle of,” 584.
184. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 210–11.
185. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 85.
186. Stuckenbruck, “Enoch, Epistle of,” 584.
187. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 192.
188. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 112.
189. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 192, 201–2.
190. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 187, 200, 204–6.
191. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 3.
192. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 110–12.
193. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 191.
194. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 85.
195. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 2.
196. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 79.
197. Charles, “1 Enoch,” 2:171.
198. So also Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 62.
199. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 2.
200. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 79, 81.
201. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 59–60.
202. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 81.
203. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 54–55.
204. VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of Apocalyptic Tradition, 145; Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 62–64.
205. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 64.
206. Stuckenbruck, “Enoch, Epistle of,” 584–85.
207. Milik, Books of Enoch, 178–79.
208. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 4, 606–7.
209. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 608–9.
210. “Vorlage” is a German technical term used to designate a textual tradition in one language from which a text in another language is derived. Here the Vorlage is Greek from which the Ethiopic is derived.
211. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 691.
212. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 693–94, citing Apoc. Zeph. 2:1–8; 4:1–7; 10:1–14; 2 En. 7:1–5; 10:1–5; 3 Bar. 2:1–3:8; 4:3–5; T. Ab. 12:1–18 [Rec. A]; 9:1–10:16 [Rec. B].
213. Stuckenbruck, 1 Enoch 91–108, 692–93.
214. Stuckenbruck, “Book of Enoch,” 7–40.
215. Stuckenbruck, “Book of Enoch,” 11–14.
216. Stuckenbruck, “Book of Enoch,” 13.
217. See Stuckenbruck, Myth of the Rebellious Angels, 36–57.
218. Cf. Philo, Giants 2–4; Philo, QG 1.92. Stuckenbruck, “Book of Enoch,” 14–15. See esp. Stuckenbruck, “To What Extent,” 131–42.
219. See, for example, Stuckenbruck and Boccaccini, Enoch and the Synoptic Gospels; deSilva, Jewish Teachers of Jesus, 101–40.
220. For more focused studies, see Harkins, Bautch, and Endres, Watchers in Jewish and Christian Traditions.
221. Stuckenbruck, “Book of Enoch,” 16–17.
222. Augustine, Civ. 15.23, 18.38.
223. Stuckenbruck, “Book of Enoch,” 17–20.
224. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1, 94.
225. The most complete discussion of this tradition is Stuckenbruck, “Book of Enoch,” 21–39.
226. Stuckenbruck, “Book of Enoch,” 22–24, 40.