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Psalms of Solomon

Introduction

A collection of eighteen pseudonymous hymns or poems, attributed to Solomon, are known as the Psalms of Solomon. In general, they convey a Jewish community’s response to persecution and a foreign invasion,1 likely in reference to the Romans in the first century BCE.2 The community responsible for the psalms regard themselves as “the pious” and “the righteous,” and the psalms are distinct from the canonical psalms and Psalms 151–155 in their identification, to some degree, of the community’s circumstances and their appeal to God both for the punishment of wicked Israelites, who are rightly judged for their iniquity, and for judgment on the gentile rulers, who are the means of God’s judgment on wicked Israelites. In this respect God is appealed to throughout as the righteous judge who dispenses rewards and punishments for human actions.3 At what point in its history the work was attributed to Solomon is unclear, though it seems evident that the reference to the “son of David” (Pss. Sol. 17:21) was the cause of its Solomonic affiliation.4

Language and Manuscripts

Though Psalms of Solomon is preserved today only in Greek5 and Syriac6 translations, most scholars believe it was composed in Hebrew.7 Shortly afterward it was translated into Greek, and at some later date into Syriac.8 However, no Hebrew manuscripts survive from antiquity, and the extant Greek texts are relatively late. Its Greek text exhibits clear indications of “Semitisms” and other features of translation from Hebrew. The Greek translation makes use of the Septuagint Psalter, and it is likely that the Psalms of Solomon translator sought to harmonize his Greek rendering with that of the Septuagint. The Greek text of the Psalms of Solomon is quoted in 1 Baruch, which requires that the Greek translation was available by the end of the first century CE.9

Provenance

The central concern of Jerusalem in the Psalms of Solomon suggests to most scholars that the work was written in that city or its nearby vicinity.10 Jerusalem is explicitly addressed (Pss. Sol. 11) and even speaks (chap. 1). Furthermore, it is identified as the seat of the Sanhedrin (4:1), and some suggest that the vices described are particularly urban.11

Subject to considerable discussion is the identification of the three main groups that find a place in the Psalms of Solomon. These include the devout, the gentiles, and the sinners. The devout are the authors of the Psalms of Solomon, often identified as the Pharisees. Items consonant with this attribution include the claim of human responsibility for actions (9:4), belief in the resurrection (3:12), a concern for piety and a righteous life, and a distinction between the righteous and the sinner.12 To these could be added the notion of theocracy (2:30, 32; 5:18, 19; 17:1, 34, 46), the sanctity of the law (e.g., 4:8; 10:4), and divine providence (5:3–4).13 There are, however, objections to Pharisaic authorship. These include the absence of other distinctive Pharisaic concerns, such as Sabbath observance and table fellowship.14 Also, some of the characteristics typically attributed to the Pharisees apply just as well to the Essenes (e.g., a doctrine of retribution; 2:34, 35; 13:6; 15:12, 13; 17:8).15 But it is widely recognized that so little is known about the Pharisees prior to 70 CE that identification of their distinctive beliefs to the extent of identifying them with a particular document remains tenuous. Others have argued for an Essene origin for the Psalms of Solomon,16 but the characteristic dualism and sectarian nature of the Dead Sea Scrolls are not found here. Whatever the precise origin of the author and his community, it is clear that they understood themselves as the “congregation of the pious” (συνεδρίῳ ὁσίων, synedriō hosiōn, 4:1; συναγωγὰς ὁσίων, synagōgas hosiōn, 17:16; cf. Ps. 149:1).17 This self-designation distinguishes them not only from their gentile oppressors but also from impious Israelites.

As we have seen above, the gentiles are best identified with the Romans under the leadership of Pompey.18 There is no hope for gentiles, who are rejected by God and lawless by nature (Pss. Sol. 2:2, 19–25; 7:1–3; 8:23; 17:13–15); though they are the instrument of God’s judgment on the sinners in Israel (chap. 8), they will ultimately be purged from Israel (chap. 17). It is (pious) Israel that is chosen “above all nations” (9:8–11) as the object of God’s covenantal care and salvation.19

The sinners are Jewish opponents of the devout, sometimes associated with the Hasmonean Sadducees. Regardless of their identification, they have laid hold of the kingship by violence (17:5–8, 22), they are lax in their observance of ritual purity and ceremonial observances (1:8; 2:3, 5; 7:2; 8:12; 17:45), and they are scandalously compliant with foreign customs (8:22).20 Though little is made of the law explicitly in the Psalms of Solomon (cf. 4:8; 14:1–3), it is undoubtedly the violations of God’s law that underlie the psalmist’s designation of these Israelites as sinners.

Date

There are some indications of a date for some, though not all, of the psalms. First, references to a foreign invader taking Jerusalem (e.g., Pss. Sol. 2:1–2; 8:18–22; 17:7–13)21 are generally believed to refer to the invasion of the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE.22 Second, the mention of an assassination of the “dragon” in Egypt (2:26–27) is typically thought to refer to the assassination of Pompey in 48 BCE.23 It seems likely that more than one author composed the psalms and their collection likely took a couple of decades.24 And so most of the psalms are thought to date from around the time of—before or after—Pompey’s death.25 Some have proposed a date for select passages during the early years of Herod’s reign (37–4 BCE), and so this would suggest clear parameters for the composition of the entirety of the Psalms of Solomon between 63 BCE and the turn of the era.26

Contents

Psalm 1 is superscripted “A Psalm of Solomon.”27 The psalmist recalls crying aloud to the Lord when he was troubled by sinners (1:1), when suddenly the clamor of war was heard before him (1:2a). He consoled himself that the Lord would hear him because he, the psalmist, is righteous (1:2b–3). But his enemies exalted in their wealth in arrogance (1:4–6), and their sins surpassed those of the gentiles and profaned the sanctuary of the Lord (1:7–8).

Psalm 2 is labeled “A Psalm of Solomon Concerning Jerusalem.” It begins with a complaint that God did not interfere when a battering ram was at the walls of Jerusalem and gentile foreigners trampled the sanctuary (2:1–2). Also, the “sons of Jerusalem” defiled the sanctuary and so were removed by the Lord (2:3–4). God’s glory was despised and his children were captured by gentiles (2:5–6). This was done because of Israel’s sins (2:7–10). They performed depraved and defiling acts in broad daylight (2:11–13). The psalmist is troubled by all this but acknowledges that God is right in his judgments (2:14–19). Jerusalem has thrown off the glory given to it by God (2:20–21), and so the psalmist implores God to bring judgment on it by the hand of the “dragon” (Rome; 2:22–25; cf. Ezek. 29:3; 32:2; Jer. 51:34). God answers this with the murder of Jerusalem’s assailant in Egypt (Pss. Sol. 2:26–31; Pompey, 48 BCE).28 The psalmist calls on the officials of the earth to witness God’s judgment and calls on those who fear the Lord to praise him (2:32–37).

The superscript for Psalm 3 reads, “A Psalm of Solomon Concerning the Righteous.” It begins with the psalmist imploring his own soul to praise the Lord (3:1–2), reminding himself that the righteous remember the Lord and do not esteem his discipline lightly (3:3–8). But the sinner who curses his hardship does not acknowledge God’s hand and multiplies his own sins (3:9–12).

Psalm 4 is called “A Conversation of Solomon with Those Trying to Impress People.” It begins with a rebuke to the profaner who flatters others in word and appearance (4:1–2a) and whose judgments are hypocritical (4:2b–3). He is devious with women and deceptive in his words and conduct (4:4–5). The psalmist prays for his removal and exposure (4:6–7). The sinners will be driven out as they deceitfully quote the law and destroy wisdom with insatiable lawlessness (4:8–13). The psalmist implores God for their disgrace and ruin (4:14–24) but for mercy on those who love him (4:25).

Psalm 5 is simply “A Psalm of Solomon.” Here the psalmist sings praises to God for his mercy and care for the poor (5:1–2a). He implores God to hear his cry in need (5:2b–4) and under persecution (5:5–6). But even if God does not restore him, he will still come to God, who cares for the wildlife and kings alike (5:7–11a). For God alone is the hope of the poor and needy (5:11b–14), and those who fear the Lord are content with moderation in his provision (5:15–19).

The superscript for Psalm 6 reads, “In Hope. Of Solomon.” It pronounces blessed the one whose heart is ready to call on the Lord (6:1). His ways are directed by God, and so he is not fearful and trusts God (6:2–4). He prays for his household and trusts in the Lord’s provision (6:5–6).

“Of Solomon. About Restoring” is the title of Psalm 7. The psalmist asks God not to depart from his community lest their enemies, whom God has rejected, overtake him (7:1–2). He asks God to discipline his community but not turn them over to gentiles, appealing to God’s kindness not to destroy those among whom his name dwells (7:3–6). God is their protector and they are under his yoke forever, even in discipline (7:7–10).

The superscript for Psalm 8 is “Of Solomon. To Victory.” This psalm begins with the sound of war and destruction in Jerusalem (8:1–4) and the psalmist’s anxiety (8:5). But God’s judgments against the sinners is just (8:6–7). God exposed their sins (8:8–9), adultery (8:10), theft from the sanctuary (8:11), and pollution of the sanctuary (8:12). Their sins were worse than that of gentiles, and so God brought judgment by bringing someone from the end of the earth to declare war against Jerusalem and its land (8:13–15). They came ready for war (8:16–20) and took away captives (8:21). But the sinners, just like their ancestors, persisted in their defilement of Jerusalem, and so God was proven right in his condemnation (8:22–23). The psalmist then declares God’s praises and pleads for mercy (8:24–34).

Psalm 9 is called “Of Solomon. For Proof.” It describes Israel being taken into exile for neglect of the Lord (9:1–2). People choose to do right or wrong and receive consequential life or destruction from the Lord (9:3–5). God will care for those who call on him and will forgive those who repent (9:6–7). Then the psalmist appeals to Israel’s covenant with God as the basis for his appeal for mercy (9:8–11).

The superscript for Psalm 10 is “A Hymn of Solomon.” The psalmist declares happy those who are protected from evil by the Lord’s rebuke, even by a whip (10:1–2). They will be directed toward righteousness and be remembered by God in mercy (10:3–4). God is just and shall be praised in the synagogues of Israel (10:5–7). The psalm concludes with the author’s plea for salvation on the house of Israel (10:8).

A superscription reading “Of Solomon. In Anticipation” precedes Psalm 11. The psalmist calls for the sounding of the trumpet from the sanctuary to indicate that God is watching over Israel (11:1–2). God has assembled them from afar and made level paths for their journey (11:3–5). Israel proceeds under God’s supervision and Jerusalem is robed in splendor (11:6–7), and the psalmist pleads for God’s mercy on Israel (11:8–9).

Psalm 12 is superscripted “Of Solomon. About the Tongue of Criminals.” The psalmist pleads for the Lord to save his soul from the wicked, whose words are twisted and false (12:1–3). He also asks for God to remove the wicked, protect those who live peacefully, and grant an inheritance of the Lord’s promises to the devout (12:4–6).

The title for Psalm 13 is “Of Solomon. A Psalm: Comfort for the Righteous.” It begins with a declaration of God’s mighty arm saving and preserving the psalmist from hardships and the fate of sinners (13:1–2). The Lord protected him from wild animals (13:3–4), while the godless and sinners faced a terrible destruction (13:5–6). The psalmist then outlines the difference between the discipline of the righteous for things done in ignorance and the destruction of sinners (13:7–12). The righteous are disciplined in secret as an expression of God’s affection and to preserve their life (13:8–11a, 12), but the sinners are taken to destruction (13:11b).

Psalm 14 is called “A Hymn of Solomon.” It begins by lauding the faithfulness of God to those who love him, endure discipline, and live by the law (14:1–2). These devout are called the Lord’s “paradise” and “the trees of life” who are firmly planted forever (14:3–5). Sinners and criminals enjoy only brief pleasures, since God knows the secrets of the heart and will deliver them to their inheritance in Hades (14:6–9), whereas the devout will inherit “life in happiness” (14:10).

Psalm 15 is “A Psalm of Solomon with Song.” Here the psalmist calls on the Lord’s name when persecuted and is saved because God is a refuge and empowers those who confess his name (15:1–2). And so the psalmist praises God, knowing that the one who does so will never be disturbed by the unrighteous (15:3–5). God marks the righteous for salvation and delivers them from famine, which will overtake sinners who are marked for destruction (15:6–9). Their inheritance is destruction and darkness at the day of the Lord’s judgment, when those who fear the Lord will find mercy (15:10–13).

Psalm 16 is headed “A Hymn of Solomon. For Help for the Devout.” The psalmist recounts a time when he was far from the Lord and near the gates of Hades (16:1–3a). Only when God’s mercy intervened, jabbing him like a goaded horse, was he rescued by his savior (16:3b–4). And so the psalmist gives thanks to God and pleads that he will be kept from the seduction of sin (16:5–8). He also asks God to direct his work, his steps, and his speech (16:9–11a) and asks to be disciplined if he sins (16:11b–14) and so receive mercy from the Lord (16:15).

Psalm 17 begins with a superscript reading, “A Psalm of Solomon, with Song, to the King.” After acclaiming the kingship of God, the psalmist acknowledges a person’s life is brief but God’s strength and his kingdom are eternal (17:1–3). He then recalls God’s promise of David’s kingship to his descendants (17:4). But Israel’s sins have caused “sinners” to rise up against it and establish a monarchy (Hasmoneans) while despoiling the throne of David in arrogance (17:5–6).29 But God raised a man “alien to our race” (i.e., the Roman gentile Pompey) who hunted them all down to bring about judgment on them (17:7–10). This “lawless one” (Pompey entered the Holy of Holies; cf. Pss. Sol. 2:2; Josephus, J.W. 1.7.6 §152; Ant. 14.4.4 §72)30 laid waste to the land and expelled its inhabitants (17:11–13), doing in Jerusalem what gentiles do for their gods elsewhere (17:14). Even the Israelites living among the “gentile rabble” adopted these practices (17:15). The pious did not remain in Jerusalem but fled to the wilderness (17:16–17), while the wicked in Jerusalem continued to practice their iniquity, appointing commoners to leadership and criminals to rule (17:18–20). The psalmist then implores the Lord to raise up the king, the son of David, to rule over Israel, asking him to destroy unrighteous rulers and purge Jerusalem of gentiles (17:21–24). He will cause nations to flee and gather a holy people (17:25–26). He will not tolerate unrighteousness among them and will distribute them upon the land (17:27–28). He will judge the peoples and have the gentile nations serve him (17:29–30a). He will purge Jerusalem and make it holy, and nations will come from the ends of the earth to see its glory (17:30b–31). The Lord Messiah will be a righteous king, and his strength will come from hope in God (17:32–34a, 37–40a). He will be compassionate to the nations that revere him and bless the Lord’s people (17:34b–35), while he himself will be free from sin in order to rule well and drive out sinners (17:36). He will shepherd the Lord’s flock in holiness and discipline the house of Israel with pure words (17:40b–43). The psalmist concludes by pronouncing a blessing on those born in that day, asking God to deliver Israel from the pollution of profane enemies, and acknowledging the eternal kingship of the Lord (17:44–46).

For Psalm 18 the superscript reads, “A Psalm of Solomon about the Lord Messiah.” It begins with an acclamation of the watchful and compassionate care of God for the descendants of Abraham (18:1–3). God’s discipline cleanses Israel for the time when the messiah will reign (18:4–5), when the “Lord Messiah” will rule with the rod of discipline to direct people in the fear of God (18:6–9). God is great and glorious, and the fear of him governs the stars and the hours of the day (18:10–12).

Critical Issues

Form and Shape

This collection has a distinctive shape. Its eighteen psalms are provided a primary frame by the two short psalms that open and close it. Psalm 1 relates a crisis on a national level for the Jewish people in the throes of warfare (Pss. Sol. 1:2), whereas Psalm 18, the last psalm, affirms God’s goodness to Israel (18:1) and looks forward to the eschatological reign of God’s messiah (18:5). A second frame consists of the two longest psalms, Psalms 2 and 17. The former describes the destruction and defilement of Jerusalem by gentile invaders, while the latter depicts the retributive justice of God at the hands of a messianic son of David, who will smash the unrighteous rulers and reign over Israel. Within these frames the remaining psalms deal with similar concerns of nationalistic (Pss. Sol. 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15) or personal (Pss. Sol. 3, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 16) interests.31

Historical Events

The Psalms of Solomon are significant in their explicit identification of known historical events and the psalmists’ responses, which aid in locating them historically and in understanding the mindset of at least some Jews in Jerusalem during or shortly after the national tragedies they depict. They recount the invasion of gentile rulers who laid waste to Jerusalem (e.g., 1:1–2; 2:1–2, 19–24; 8:18–21; 17:7–14) and, as Joseph L. Trafton observes, exhibit four responses to this problem. First, they recognize that this disaster brought on Israel was the direct result of God’s righteous judgment on Jerusalem because of the iniquities of Jewish “sinners” (e.g., 1:4–8; 2:3–14; 8:8–15; 17:5–6). Second, the instrument of God’s judgment (the “dragon”) was likewise the recipient of divine judgment (2:25–31). Third, in the eschatological outlook of the Psalms of Solomon, God will raise up a messiah to “make everything right” (e.g., 17:21–46; 18:1–9). Fourth, the pious Jews are exhorted to trust in God (cf. 2:33–37; 4:23–25; 5:1–2, 18–19) and the righteousness of his judgments (e.g., 2:15–18; 3:3; 4:8; 8:7, 26) while embracing their own hardships as the Lord’s discipline and direction toward the avoidance of sin (e.g., 3:4–8; 7; 10:1–3; 13:8–12; 14:1–5).32

Contribution and Context

Eschatology

The Psalms of Solomon’s perception of the end of days and its relation to the pious Jews in their crisis plays an important role in the text. This crisis comes to bear in the text in two primary ways: first, it is in part the just retribution of God himself and can only be resolved by divine intervention; second, it serves a role of purifying the faithful Israelites. The only solution to the immediate crisis is God’s intervention, which is depicted as God’s benevolent oversight of his covenant people (cf. Pss. Sol. 10:4; 11:6; 15:12). Even the present sufferings are intended to be redemptive, purging the faithful of sin (10:1–3), which God justly reproves (3:3–10; cf. 13:8–10; 16:14; 18:4). This is to motivate the pious to seek atonement (3:7–8; 13:7) and respond with humble repentance (3:8; 9:6–7; 10:1; 13:10). These righteous will be honored and raised (2:31; 3:12), while the “sinners” are marked for destruction (2:31, 34; 15:12; cf. 3:9–12; 14:9–10).33 Though some of the terminology is not thoroughly explained, it is clear that when God intervenes and establishes his kingly rule in the messiah, the pious will experience resurrection (2:31; 3:12) and the blessings of eternal life (13:11).

Messianism

Integral to God’s benevolent intervention for the righteous is the depiction of the messiah. The Psalms of Solomon is widely regarded as one of the most important sources for a conception of the messiah in Second Temple Judaism.34 John J. Collins remarks that clear messianic references are rare in the Jewish pseudepigrapha. The only passages dealing with a Davidic messiah among this literature that dates prior to the turn of the era come from the Psalms of Solomon 17–18.35 The expectation of a Davidic messiah is rooted in key texts from the Hebrew Bible (e.g., 2 Sam. 7:12–16; Isa. 9:7) and attested in other Second Temple texts (e.g., 4Q252; 4Q285; 4Q174; 4 Ezra 12:32), including the New Testament (e.g., Matt. 1:1–17; Luke 1:32–33; Rom. 1:3; Rev. 5:5). It has piqued Christian interest because it contains (in Pss. Sol. 17:21–46) the “longest continuous extant description of the messiah prior to the coming of Jesus.”36 We have seen above in the summary of contents that this messiah will defeat enemies, rule and judge God’s people, expel unrighteous rulers, cleanse Jerusalem, and distribute people on the land.37 The messianism of the Psalms of Solomon is particular to the political occasion of the Hasmonean rule in the first century BCE. It is important to note that Psalm 17 in particular is devoted to the subject of kingship, with God himself as king utilizing human agents for his reign—namely, David and his descendants (17:1–4). In typical Deuteronomistic fashion, it is the sins of Israel that led to their downfall (17:5a). And, indeed, there were “sinners” who rose up against the legitimate rulers, those “to whom [God] did not make the promise” (17:5c), meaning those usurping the throne were Israelites, Hasmoneans in particular, but not of the legitimate line of David. Nevertheless, they “drove us out” and “took away from us by force” the rule of Israel (17:5b, d). God in turn overthrew these illegitimate Israelite rulers by raising up against them “a man alien to our race” (17:7c), who, as we have seen, is the gentile Roman general Pompey, who deposed Hasmonean rule when he sacked Jerusalem in 63 BCE. Even Simon Maccabee (r. 142–135; 1 Macc. 14:41, 47) and John Hyrcanus (r. 135/134–104 BCE; Josephus, Ant. 13.10.7 §300), though eminent Hasmoneans, did not make a claim to kingship. Instead, according to Josephus, the first Hasmonean to make this explicit claim was Alexander Jannaeus (r. 103–76 BCE).38 And yet the psalmist, writing after the death of Pompey (48 BCE), recalls vividly the usurpation of the Davidic throne (cf. Pss. Sol. 1:4–8; 8:8–13).39 And so the sacking of Jerusalem and the deposing of Hasmonean rule by Pompey, the “lawless one” (17:11) and “the dragon” (2:25),40 were a righteous act of God’s retributive justice. But Pompey’s downfall, too, is celebrated (2:26–30), and in his messianic fervor the psalmist turns from the illegitimate Hasmoneans and the lawless gentile Romans to hope in a Davidic king. Herein lies the psalmist’s messianic hope and prayer for God’s intervention through the messiah (17:21–25; 18:6–8; cf. Isa. 11:2–4). Here the figure is undeniably a political and nationalistic figure establishing his messianic rule through violence while shepherding the people, or at least the pious, toward holiness (17:26). In summary, then, one finds in the Psalms of Solomon a messiah distinctly in the line of David, who will liberate Jerusalem, defeat and subjugate gentiles, and establish a reign marked by peace and by guiding the people in righteousness.41

Hebrew Bible

Robert B. Wright contends that the Psalms of Solomon is composed in “conscious imitation of the Davidic psalter”42 but also contains echoes of other books from the Hebrew Bible. These include a depiction of adversaries who have trodden down the sanctuary (Pss. Sol. 1, 2; cf. Isa. 63:16–19), a presentation of Israel as the “shoot of my planting,” which “shall possess the land forever” (Pss. Sol. 14:3–4; cf. Isa. 60:21), and cries to God in times of distress (Pss. Sol. 2:8; cf. Pss. 13:1; 22:24; Isa. 64:7; Ezek. 39:23–24). Other influences from the Hebrew Bible in the Psalms of Solomon include the notion of a wreath of glory thrown to the ground (Pss. Sol. 2:21; cf. Lam. 2:1) and the comparisons between the fate of the righteous and that of the wicked (Pss. Sol. 3:9–12; cf. Prov. 24:16–22).43

Second Temple Judaism

The Psalms of Solomon belongs to the category of psalms and hymns attested in other texts, such as the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QHa) from Qumran or embedded hymns like those found in Tobit 13 and Judith 16 (cf. 1 Macc. 1:7–13; 3:3–9; 14:4–15). Wright considers a number of parallels between the Psalms of Solomon (11:2–5) and 1 Baruch (5:5–9), though whether one drew from the other or they shared a common source is undetermined.44 They both implore Jerusalem to stand and look at her children (Pss. Sol. 11:2; 1 Bar. 5:5), indicate that God flattened high mountains into level ground (Pss. Sol. 11:4; 1 Bar. 5:7), and show God making fragrant trees grow and forests shade Israel (Pss. Sol. 11:5; 1 Bar. 5:8). Wright further observes points of correspondence between the Psalms of Solomon and the Dead Sea Scrolls, often noting that Isaiah 11 exerts “strong influence” on both (e.g., Isa. 11:2 [cf. Pss. Sol. 17:37–40; 1QSb V, 25]; Isa. 11:4 [cf. Pss. Sol. 17:23–24; 1QSb V, 24–25a]; Isa. 11:5 [cf. Pss. Sol. 17:22; 1QSb V, 26a]). But there are also similarities in their depictions of the flight of the righteous from Jerusalem (e.g., Pss. Sol. 17:15–17; CD-A IV, 15–18) and other concepts such as the “tree of life” (1QHa XVI, 5–6; Pss. Sol. 14:3), being “driven” or “fleeing” “from the nest” (1QHa XII, 8–9; Pss. Sol. 17:16), punishment for families (CD-A III, 1; Pss. Sol. 9:5), and lions breaking the bones of the strong (1QHa XIII, 7; Pss. Sol. 4:19; 13:3).45 Within the context of Second Temple Judaism, it is important to recognize that the Psalms of Solomon exhibits a polemic not just against the gentile invaders but also against other Jews, the Hasmoneans. This kind of inner-Judaic conflict is found elsewhere, such as the Animal Apocalypse (1 En. 85–90), the book of Jubilees, the sectarian documents in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and also in the New Testament (e.g., Matt. 21:12–13; 23; Mark 7:1–13; 11:15–17; Luke 13:10–17; 19:45–46; John 2:13–16; 8:54–55; 9:40–41). The Psalms of Solomon also shares with the New Testament some distinctive features, such as the notion of God’s kingdom (e.g., Pss. Sol. 5:18; 17:3; cf. Mark 1:15; 4:11, 26, 30; and parr.), the language of justification (Pss. Sol. 2:15–18; cf. Rom. 2:13; 3:4, 20, 24, 28; 4:1; Gal. 2:16–17; etc.), and resurrection (Pss. Sol. 3:12; cf. Luke 14:14; John 11:24; 1 Cor. 15:50–53; 1 Thess. 4:13–17).46

Reception History47

The Psalms of Solomon was preserved in a few medieval Greek manuscripts of the Septuagint, with the fifth-century Codex Alexandrinus presenting it after the Old and New Testaments and the two letters of Clement. In other Greek manuscripts it is placed alongside other Wisdom literature, likely because of its attribution to Solomon.48 In Syriac the Psalms of Solomon is presented immediately following the Odes of Solomon as a single book, with Psalms of Solomon 1 actually identified as the final chapter of the Odes (Ode 43). It is likely that in both Jewish contexts (perhaps synagogues; cf. Pss. Sol. 10:7) and Christian communities, the Psalms of Solomon was utilized in corporate liturgical recitations.49

 

1. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1903.

2. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:639.

3. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 239.

4. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1903.

5. The Greek manuscripts date from the tenth to the sixteenth century. See Trafton, Syriac Version, 6–9; R. Wright, Psalms of Solomon, 13–26.

6. The Syriac manuscripts date from the seventh to the sixteenth century. See Trafton, Syriac Version, 5–6.

7. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1903; R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:640. But see, most recently, Joosten, “Reflections.”

8. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:640. Trafton shows that the Syriac is based primarily, if not exclusively, on a Hebrew Vorlage (Syriac Version, 217–18). For the Syriac text, see Baars, “Psalms of Solomon.”

9. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:640.

10. Trafton, “Solomon, Psalms of,” 1:503; Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1903; R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:641; Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 247.

11. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:641.

12. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 246.

13. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:642.

14. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 246.

15. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:642.

16. Dupont-Sommer, Essene Writings from Qumran, 296; see also Eissfeldt, “Psalms of Solomon.”

17. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 246–47.

18. So also R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:642.

19. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:644.

20. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:642.

21. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1903.

22. Josephus, J.W. 1.6.4–7.7 §§131–158; Ant. 14.3.2–4.5 §§41–79; Plutarch, Pomp. 39.3–41.2; Dio Cassius, Hist. rom. 37.14.2–20.2.

23. Caesar, Bell. civ. 3.103.2–104.3; Appian, Syriaca 2.84–86; Dio Cassius, Hist. rom. 42.3.1–5.7.

24. Trafton, “Solomon, Psalms of,” 1:503.

25. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1903.

26. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:640–41.

27. On the superscripts to the Psalms of Solomon, see R. Wright, Psalms of Solomon, 32–33.

28. Cf. Appian, Historia romana 2.84–86; Caesar, Bell. civ. 3.104; Dio Cassius, Hist. rom. 42.3–4; Plutarch, Pomp. 77–80. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1906, 1922.

29. These are not gentiles but Hasmoneans. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1918.

30. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1918.

31. Trafton, “Solomon, Psalms of,” 1:501.

32. Trafton, “Solomon, Psalms of,” 1:501–2.

33. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:644.

34. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1903.

35. J. Collins, Apocalyptic Imagination, 176. See also Charlesworth, “Concept of the Messiah.”

36. Trafton, “Solomon, Psalms of,” 1:503.

37. See esp. Trafton, “What Would David Do?”

38. J. Collins, Scepter and the Star, 54.

39. J. Collins, Scepter and the Star, 55.

40. On “dragon” mythology, see A. Collins, Combat Myth, 76–79.

41. J. Collins, Scepter and the Star, 59.

42. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:646.

43. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:646–47.

44. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:647–48.

45. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:648–49.

46. Trafton, “Solomon, Psalms of,” 1:502.

47. See further the detailed account in R. Wright, Psalms of Solomon, 1–7.

48. R. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” 2:647.

49. Atkinson, “Psalms of Solomon,” 1903; Trafton, “Solomon, Psalms of,” 1:504.