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Page references followed by ‘n’ indicate footnotes.
Activin 262
Advanced Cell Technologies 191
African claw frog 150–1
age-related macular degeneration 173
AIDS 120, 154, 272, 273
Alcor Life Extension Foundation 293, 305–6
Allison, James 137
Alvarado, Alejandro Sánchez 182
Alzheimer’s disease 2, 3, 169, 253, 279, 288, 303
Amazing Stories magazine 110, 113–14, 118, 196, 221, 263, 292, 294, 298, 299–300
anaphase 28
animalcules 12
amino acids 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 139
amniotic sac 259, 261
amoebae 87–9, 88, 96, 98
amyloid beta 169
anthropomorphism 24–5, 44, 48, 56, 60, 115, 201–2, 209, 292
antibiotics 106, 117, 128, 141
antiseptic 17
Antonelli, Paola 125
aperiodic crystal 19n
apoptosis (automatic cell death) 132–3
archaea 93, 96, 97, 97, 139
Aristotle 13–14, 24
artificial intelligence 308–9
Ascl1 (gene) 178–9
assembloids 167, 327–8
assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) 225, 232–3, 233n see also IVF
Atoh1 (transcription factor) 179
atomic physics 19n
Atwood, Margaret: The Handmaid’s Tale 244
autism 79, 140, 169
Avery, Oswald 31
bacteria 11, 12, 16–17, 22, 27, 49, 87, 88, 89, 92, 93, 95, 95n, 96, 97, 97, 98, 99, 102, 106, 121, 127, 128, 134, 135, 137, 139, 140, 141, 154, 200, 206, 269, 270, 270n, 321, 322, 323
Bacteroides fragilis (gut microbe) 140
Baldwin, Kristin 255
Baltimore, David 73
basophil cells 146
Bavister, Barry 215
BBC radio broadcast: “The Life of a Cell” 112–13
B cells 135
Beadle, George 71
de Beer, Gavin 66, 67
Belmonte, Juan Carlos Izpisúa 203–4
Bernal, John Desmond 290–1; The World, the Flesh and the Devil 291–3, 294, 296
Bernard, Claude 102
beta cells 177
bicoid protein 64–5, 65, 67
binary fission 27
biochemistry 21, 223, 268
Birchall, Martin 189–90, 192, 194
Bismarck, Otto von 16
Blaschko’s lines 79
blastocyst 58–60, 58, 68, 145, 149, 152, 158, 202, 202n, 203, 210, 212, 215, 219, 236–7, 242, 255, 256, 256n, 288n
blastomere 162
blastula 149, 150
blood group 82, 174
BMP (bone morphogenetic protein) 241, 241n, 259
body formation (morphogenesis) 62–81, 262
body plan 18, 57, 65, 65, 66, 237, 258, 262
Boisregard, Nicolas Andry de 12–13
bone marrow 82, 126, 146, 190
Boveri, Theodor 28, 30, 54, 66
Brachet, Albert 212
brain:
animal brain modification by implantation of human-derived cells 7, 207, 208, 262
assembloid 167, 327–8
behaviour influence upon features of 302–3
body formation (morphogenesis) and 65, 70, 71
downloading 307–9, 317
embodiment and function of 308–9
embryo development and 65, 70, 167–8
embryoids and 265
freezing 305–8
glial cells 146, 167, 167n, 174–5, 179, 208
human gut and 140
in a dish/jar/vat, existence of 299–315
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and 173–5
microcephaly 168–9
mini-brain/organoids 1–6, 2, 8–9, 44, 71, 81, 92, 101, 125, 143–4, 161–71, 185, 209, 256, 260n, 263, 299, 321, 327–30
Neanderthal 170–1
nerve cell types in 103, 103n
neuroblasts 104, 179
neurons 1, 2, 3–4, 8, 70, 79, 101, 102–3, 104, 143, 144, 144, 146, 146n, 163, 164–9, 167n, 172–5, 177, 177n, 178–9, 208, 240, 262, 308, 314, 328–9
on-a-chip 309
as record of personal histories 301–4
regenerated tissue 146, 146n, 172–3, 191
replacing 253–4
shaped by experience 303–4
size of 168–9
somatic mutations leading to mosaicism in 79
stem cells in 146, 146n
transhumanism and 308–10
transplant 152
Brains In A Dish project 3, 328
Briggs, Robert 149, 150, 287
Brivanlou, Ali 262
Brown, Lesley 225
Brown, Louise 222–5, 226, 227n, 233, 290
Brown, Robert 19, 19n
Brücke, Ernst von 15
Brueckner, Anthony 313
Buchner, Eduard 21
Burke, John 187, 188–9
Burke, Norah 186, 219, 221
burns 147, 187, 189
Burrows, Montrose 105, 212
Bush, George W. 148, 159
Byron, Lord 247
Cajal, Santiago Ramón y 103, 105
Cambrian period 78, 87
Cambridge University 106, 109, 114, 115, 145, 185, 186, 187, 202, 213, 219, 220, 221–2, 236, 240, 258, 291
Campbell, Keith 151
Canavero, Sergio 253
cancer ix, 78–9, 80, 108, 113, 116, 120, 122–3, 127–38, 130–1n, 133n, 157, 166, 170, 175, 181, 189, 190, 238, 239, 277, 283, 300, 306, 323
Canti, Ronald 112
Čapek, Karel: R.U.R. 7, 220, 221, 251–2, 252n, 254
cardiofibroblast 180
cardiomyocyte 172, 176, 180, 181, 193
Carrel, Alexis 104–8, 110, 111, 113, 116, 119, 124, 170, 184–5, 186, 187, 212, 220, 252, 253, 254, 292, 300; Man, the Unknown 184–5
Cartesian dualism 8
cartilage, artificial 191–2
Cas9 (protein) 270, 271, 272n, 273, 274
Catts, Oron 125–6
CCR5 (gene) 272–3, 274
cell vii
apoptosis (cell death) 108, 131, 132–3
autonomy 9, 15–16, 26, 38–9, 61, 79, 90, 92, 104, 105, 109, 114, 116, 210, 251, 263
body formation (morphogenesis) and 18–19, 62–85, 68n, 70, 76, 239, 241
cancer and see cancer
division, discovery of 15, 20, 20, 26–9, 27
division, embryo growth/morphogenesis and 53, 56, 57, 61, 63, 75–8, 76, 80, 239, 241
division, genes/DNA and 29–34, 49, 128–33
division, purpose of 24–5
chromosome see chromosome
communities/collectives, tissues and organisms as 9, 15–17, 21, 71, 86–100, 88, 90, 91, 102, 104, 120–1, 124–5, 128, 129, 134, 138–42, 138n, 200, 206, 316–30
concept, birth of 10–14, 10, 11
cytoplasm, discovery of 19 see also cytoplasm
differentiation 61–71, 76–8, 80–1, 90, 104, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 158, 160, 164, 166, 169, 175, 182, 185, 190, 193, 196, 257, 260, 296
discovery of function and structure 10–44
dynamic aspect of 23–4, 26
endoplasmic reticulum, discovery of 19–20 see also endoplasmic reticulum
epigenetics and 14, 74–81, 76, 81n, 152, 156, 158, 160, 183, 241, 243, 287n
eukaryotes (cells containing a nucleus) 22, 27, 34, 52n, 78, 93–100, 97
filamentary model of 20, 27
future of growing humans and 247–98, 256n, 259, 260n, 262n, 266n, 269n, 272n, 278–9n, 281n, 288n
gametes see gametes and egg and sperm
genes influence upon cell proliferation and body development 34–42, 36n, 41n, 40
germ cells 30, 52–5, 53n, 70, 77, 78, 90, 145, 145n, 166, 239, 240–1, 242, 243, 245, 257, 259, 260, 260n, 292n
Golgi apparatus, function 22–3 see also Golgi apparatus
Great Chain of Being and 24
immunity and see immunity
internal ecology of 127–42, 130–1n, 133n, 138n, 142n see also cancer; immunity and microbiome
key chemical components of 21
life as fundamentally cellular, discovery of 14–16
life outside of the body 101–26
lineage 76–81, 76, 132, 144, 148–60, 162, 175, 177, 182–3, 191, 243
living nature of 25–6
location of self and 44
membrane, discovery of 19
microbiome and see microbiome
mini-brain and see mini-brain
mitochondria, function and structure of 22, 23, 23 see also mitochondria
multi-cellularity, origins of 22, 86–100, 88, 90, 91, 94n, 96n, 95n, 96n, 97, 99n, 100n
nuclear transfer 149–53, 266, 287–8, 290
nucleus, function of 23, 23 see also nucleus
organelles 22, 94, 97–8, 99, 265, 268
organoid (lab-grown cell structure) and see organoids
origin/evolution of 24
origin of the term 20–1
prokaryotes (lacking a nucleus/pre-nucleus) prokaryotes 22, 93–8, 99, 100, 139
protoplasm 20, 21, 21n, 54, 89
sex and reproduction see sex and reproduction
reprogrammed, making tissues and organs from 184–208, 187n, 189n, 202n, 203–4n
reprogramming 143–83, 145n, 146n, 148n, 149n, 151n, 154n, 158–9n, 167n, 177n
staining 19, 28, 161–2
stem cells see stem cells
theory, development of x, 14–17
zygote (fertilized) 11, 57, 68, 76, 77, 81, 87, 144, 152, 235, 266, 271, 289
see also individual cell type
centrosome 28
cervical cancer 116
Charpentier, Emmanuelle 270
chemotherapy 146
chimerism 82–4, 199, 203, 206, 204n, 256n, 323
chloroplast 94, 98
cholera 16–17
Christianity 47, 86, 124, 225–6, 226n, 227
chromatin 32, 34, 75, 80
chromosome viii
cell division and 27, 28, 32, 53, 29, 78, 148–52, 241
cell lineage and 148–52, 151n
chimerism and 83, 84
cloning and 245, 287, 288n
discovered 27–8, 27
epigenetic regulation and 74–9
eukaryotic cells and 93–4, 97
fruit fly embryo and 64
function of 23, 23
gender and 71, 75, 79, 81–2
gene editing and 278–9, 278n
genomic mutations within 78
haploid/diploid cells and 53, 150, 241
HeLa cells and 120, 121
genes/DNA and 29, 30–1, 32, 32, 32n, 33–4, 36, 41, 74, 75, 78, 240, 245
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and 255
mitochondrial replacement and 266
nuclear transfer and 149–51
nucleus and 23, 27
primordial germ cells (PGCs) and 240, 241
red blood cells and 81–2
sex and 51, 52–4, 53n, 235, 239, 240
SRY and 71, 240
telomeres and 133
X-chromosome inactivation 75
Chun-Li Zhang 179
Church, George 263, 264
Clark, Andy 310
Clarke, Ellen 324
climate system 24
cloning 44, 49–50, 58, 121, 148–9, 149n, 150–2, 245, 266, 287–90, 287n, 288n, 296, 319n, 323
c-Myc 157, 158
Collier’s magazine 119
Colluci, V. L. 181–2
colonial animals 324–5
conception 6, 13, 44, 47, 210, 210n, 211, 212, 212n, 213, 213n, 215, 215, 216, 217, 219, 223, 224, 226n, 227, 229–30, 234, 239, 244, 245, 255, 292, 319
consciousness 7, 109, 207, 294, 295, 308, 321, 327, 328–9
corpus callosum 303
Created Out of Mind 3, 303, 328
Crick, Francis 31, 32, 71
CRISPR 270–4, 270n, 272n, 275, 279n, 284, 289–90
crystals, structure of 18–19, 18–19n
curcumin 80
Curie, Marie 130
cystic fibrosis 37, 278, 279
cytoplasm 19, 93, 230
Dahl, Roald: “William and Mary” 300
Daily Express 222, 224
Darwin, Charles ix, 15, 24, 25, 29–30, 32, 33, 48, 54, 55, 89, 92–3, 95n, 142, 226, 322, 326
Davies, Paul 129
Dawkins, Richard: The Selfish Gene viii–ix
decidua 60
Deem, Michael 273, 274
Defoe: Daniel: Robinson Crusoe 320
dementia 3, 169, 303
Descartes, René: Meditations on First Philosophy 311, 313, 314, 319
diabetes 135, 136, 177–8, 277
Dictyostelium discoideum (Dicty) 89–92, 90, 91, 96, 97, 97, 100, 320–1
differentiation 61, 63, 70–1, 76–8, 80–1, 90, 104, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 158, 160, 164, 166, 169, 175, 182, 185, 190, 193, 196, 257, 260, 296
digital people 294
diploid cell 53, 150, 241
disaggregation experiments 61–2
DNA 65, 84, 93, 94, 121, 150, 155, 159n, 263, 266n, 268, 278, 289, 296, 316
copying errors 33, 128–9, 130, 131, 132
discovery of 31
epigenetics and 74, 75–6, 80
genes and 33–4, 35, 36, 40, 41, 71, 72
genome editing and 269, 270, 270n, 272n
molecular structure revealed 31–2, 32, 32n, 71
nucleotide bases 33, 36, 71–2
as soul 44, 323
telomeres 120, 133
transcription and 33–4, 35, 95
viruses and 25n, 154
Dolly the sheep 151, 287, 289
domains of life 96–7, 97
Donne, John 320
Doolittle, W. Ford 142
Doudna, Jennifer 270, 273–5
drugs 3, 80, 81, 116, 120, 122, 137–8, 141, 170, 176, 178, 188, 191, 193, 269, 293, 295
Dujardin, Félix 889
Dunsford, Ivor 82
Dyck, José van 232
ectoderm 70, 70, 77
ectopic pregnacies 67
Edinburgh Magazine 250
Edinburgh University 245
Edison, Thomas 108–9
Edwards, Robert 202n, 213–14, 215, 228, 232n
egg cell:
cloning and 287
embryoid and 255, 260, 261
freezing of 238
genome editing and 271, 275
IVF and 212–16, 215, 223, 226, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 238–44, 245, 281, 282, 283
making artificially 238–44
mitochondrial replacement and 266–7
morphogenesis (body formation) and 61, 64, 67, 70, 76, 77
nuclear transfer and 149–53, 287
parthenogenesis 49, 51–2, 220n
pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and 281, 282, 283, 287
sexual reproduction and 17, 45–59, 156, 200
uniparent and 245–6
Einstein, Albert 289, 302
embryo/embryology vii, 6, 45, 54, 57, 68, 108, 210, 214, 216, 234, 236, 262, 266, 267, 271
body formation (morphogenesis) and 14, 62–74, 262
cell death/cancer and 132–3
cloning and 287–90
culturing of tissue, first 102–8
designer baby and 268–86
developmental landscape of cells in 76–7, 76, 160–3, 183
developmental process of human 46, 54–85, 57–8n, 58, 90, 114
embryonic stem (ES) cells 59, 63, 70, 77–8, 125, 144–65, 148n, 150n, 166, 173, 191, 201, 202, 202n, 203, 204n, 227, 234, 240, 242, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261–2
embryonic stem (ES) cell research, banning of federal funding for 148, 159
epigenesis 14
gametes, fertilizing without 255–7
gametes from stem cells and 238–46
genome editing and 265–78
human artificial insemination and, first 211–12 see also IVF
human origin/identity and 83–5, 86–7
IVF and see IVF
microbiome and 139–40
mitochondrial replacement and 266–7
NIH funding of research using 204–5, 204n
nuclear transfer and 149–53, 266, 287–8, 290
reprogramming cells and 144–65, 145n, 146n, 148n, 149n, 151n, 154n, 158–9n, 167–8, 167n, 173, 177, 177n, 178–9, 181
research on human embryos limited to less than 14 days old 235–8, 238n, 257, 262, 264
pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and 278–86, 281n
synthetic human entities with embryo-like features (SHEEFs) 263–5
synthetic/embryoids 256–65, 259
tissue engineering/organoids and 185, 186, 191, 198, 199, 201–4, 202–3n, 204–5, 204n, 205
Emory University, Atlanta 278
endoderm (“inner skin”) 59, 59, 70, 70, 77, 198, 237, 257, 258–9, 260
endoplasmic reticulum 18, 19–20, 94
endothelial cells 189, 193, 198–9
Enlightenment 15, 107, 205, 254, 311
enzymes 21, 22, 31, 33, 35, 41n, 71, 72n, 94n, 95, 119, 120, 128–9, 132, 133, 139, 179, 192, 270, 272n
epiblast 59, 59, 60, 61, 77, 237
epigenetics 14, 74–81, 76, 81n, 152, 156, 158, 183, 241, 243, 287n
epigenotype 80
epilepsy 169
Ettinger, Robert: Man into Superman 294, 295
eugenics x, 107, 108, 218
eukaryotes 22, 27, 34, 52n, 78, 93–100, 97
Evans, Martin 145
evolution:
cancer and 128–9, 134, 136
cell division and 24, 25, 26, 29–30
cell linage and 78, 78n, 80–1, 182–3
cell plasticity and 182–3
chimeras and 203
DNA and 33, 35 see also DNA
evolutionary psychology 46
genes and viii–ix, 29–30, 33, 41 see also genes
germ cells and 54–5
Hayflick limit and 108
HeLa cells and 120–1
horizontal gene transfer and 49, 95n, 99
humans as colonies of cooperating cells, origin of and 87, 88, 92–3
hybrids and 198
individual and 324
microbiome and 141–2
multi-cellularity and 94–100, 94n, 96n, 97, 99n, 100n
by natural selection 29–30, 33, 51, 100, 128, 141, 183, 322, 324, 326
nature of life and 5
non-Darwinian change and 326
sex and 50, 51, 52, 54, 55
SHEEFs and 263–4
snowflake and 18
television and 38n
transhumanists and 296–7
Virchow and Darwinian 15
viruses and 25–6n, 154
exocrine cells 177
“Ex ovo omnia”, Harvey’s notion of 10–11, 10, 13–14
fallopian tube 58, 67, 225, 241
family balancing 280–1
Fell, Honor 112–13, 115, 185, 221–2
Feng Zhan 270
fertility vii, x, 147, 211–34, 238, 239, 242–3, 245, 246, 267, 284
fibroblasts 5, 5, 80, 122, 145, 157, 158, 163, 176, 177, 177n, 180, 187, 195–6, 255, 330
Firestone, Shulamith: The Dialectic of Sex 232
Flagg, Francis: “The Machine Man of Ardathia” 292, 315
Flemming, Walther 27–8; Zellsubstanz, Kern und Zelltheilung (Cell Substance, Nucleus and Cell Division) 27, 27n
flesh, human:
coming to terms with 316–30
lack of ease with 7–9, 86, 294–8, 316–30
Fol, Hermann 212
folate 80
Foster, Michael 89
Francis Crick Institute 271
Frankenstein (book) 6–7, 46, 246–51
Frankenstein (film) 254, 304, 304
Franklin, Rosalind 31
Franklin, Sarah 225, 229–30, 232, 233–4
fruit fly 22, 30–1, 64–8, 65, 139, 262
fungi 11, 22, 50, 87, 88, 93, 99, 136, 139, 321–2
Gaia theory 24
gall bladder 203
gametes 17, 29, 30, 45, 47–50, 52–4, 55, 67, 70, 77, 82, 84, 99, 207, 212, 223, 224, 239, 240, 241, 242–4, 245, 246, 260, 275, 282, 319 see also eggs and sperm
Gartler, Stanley 119, 120n
gastrulation 69–71, 70, 77, 237, 240n, 257, 258, 261, 262
Gattaca (film) 286
Gearhart, John 145
gemmules 29–30, 54
genetics vii, 26, 29
body formation (morphogenesis) and 62–74, 70, 72n
cancer and 130–4, 130–1n, 133n
cell division and 29–34, 32n, 49, 128–33, 130–1n, 133n
cell reprogramming and 148–9, 149n, 151–63, 151n, 169, 171, 173, 176, 177–81, 177n
chimera and 82–4, 199–200, 256n
cloning and 287–90, 287n, 288n
crystals and 18–19n
DNA and 31–4, 32 see also DNA
embryoids and 259–60, 265
epigenetics (control, activation and silencing of genes in different cell types and at different stages of development) 14, 74–81, 76, 81n, 152, 156, 158, 160–3, 182–3, 241, 243, 287n
gene-centred narrative of life 26, 40–4, 322–4
gene, definition of 39–42, 41n
gene, discovery of 29–31
gene therapies 153–4, 270–1
genome, definition of 31
genome editing 265–78, 269n, 270n, 278–9n, 281n
genome, function/role of 34–9, 36n, 67–8, 289–90, 316–19, 323–4, 326
genotype (genes inherited from biological parents) 30, 38, 48, 74, 80, 199, 200
goal/purpose of genes, misleading notions of viii–ix, x, 25, 34–9, 40, 62–3, 68, 75, 80, 128
hologenome 142
horizontal gene transfer 49, 95n, 99
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and 153–60, 163, 164, 166, 169, 170, 173–5, 177n, 191, 193, 194, 198–9, 203–4, 204n, 241, 242, 255–6, 256n, 257, 275
introns 94–5, 94–5n
“jumping genes” 94
microbiome and 139, 141–2, 142n
mitochondrial replacement and 266–8, 266n
multiplex parenting and 245–6
mutation 2–3, 37, 49, 65, 72n, 78–9, 78n, 99, 99n, 108, 120, 128–9, 130–4, 130–1n, 133n, 137, 155, 157, 169, 173, 175, 262, 266n, 267, 270–1, 277, 326
Neanderthal 171
nuclear transfer and 149–53, 151n, 266, 287–8, 290
nucleus and 23
phenotype (expression of genes in appearance and behaviour) 30, 34, 38, 72, 73, 74, 80, 156, 269n
primordial germ cells (PGCs) and 240–4
prokaryotes and 93
protein production and 3, 31, 32, 32, 33–7, 42, 63–7, 65, 71–5, 72n, 94–5, 94n, 133, 135, 155–7, 160, 270
proto-oncogenes 130–1, 130–1n
as recipe to make an organism 34–9
selfish gene viii–ix, x, 39, 128
sequencing 43, 72–3, 72n, 78n, 126, 282, 316–17
sex and 11, 48–60, 53n, 99
term 30
tissues and organs from reprogrammed cells and 200, 201–3, 207
transcription 33–4, 35, 74, 75, 95
transcription factor and 131n, 155–7, 159n, 165, 175, 176–80, 177n, 181, 190, 196, 224, 241, 255
translation 34, 35, 72, 95
tumour suppressor genes 131–2, 133
viruses and 25n, 153–8
Genomic Prediction (company) 285
genotype 30, 38, 48, 74, 80, 199, 200
George Washington University Medical Center, Washington 288
germ cells 30, 52–5, 53n, 70, 77, 78, 90, 145, 145n, 166, 239, 240–1, 242, 243, 245, 257, 259, 260, 260n, 292n
germ line 55, 267, 271, 272, 274, 275, 278, 279
germ theory 16–17
German Romantic philosophical tradition 16
Gey, George 116, 117, 118
Gilbert, Scott 44, 71, 323
Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco 175, 180
glial cells 146, 167, 167n, 174–5, 179, 208
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 15; Faust 217
Golde, David 122, 123, 123n
Golgi apparatus 18, 20, 22–3
Golgi, Camillo 103, 105
gonads 52, 54, 240–1, 243
Gray, James 20–1
Great Chain of Being 24, 29
Greely, Hank 244, 245–6, 280, 281, 282–3, 284, 285, 286, 328
green algae 98
Green, Ronald 245, 276, 284, 286, 290
Gross, Heinrich 305
Guillain-Barré syndrome 168
Gurdon Institute, Cambridge 202
Gurdon, John 150–1, 152, 159
gut bacteria 137, 139
Haeckel, Ernst 15, 57–8n, 89
Hafez, E. S. E. 268
Haldane, J. B. S. 291; Daedalus, or Science & the Future 185–6, 217–19, 218n, 220, 232, 291
Hand, The (film) 113
haploid 53, 150, 241
Haraway, Donna 232; “The Cyborg Manifesto” 310
Harman, Gilbert 311–12
Harold, Franklin 37–8, 43
Harré, Rom 229
Harrison, Ross 102, 103–5, 105n
Hartsoeker, Nicolaas 13
Harvard University 89, 123n, 160–1, 177, 195, 244, 263, 275
Harvey, Thomas Stoltz 302
Harvey, William: Exercitationes de generatione animalium 10–11, 10, 13
Hasta, M. M.: “The Talking Brain” 299–300
Hawking, Stephen 314–15
Hayashi, Katsuhiko 241, 244
Hayflick, Leonard 108
Hayflick limit 108, 132
head transplant 253–4
hearing loss 179
heart:
disease 39, 135, 153, 166, 172, 239, 271, 277, 278
embryo and 63, 76, 258
growing full 192–3
printing 195
tissue 105–8, 110, 147, 172, 176, 180–1, 186, 193
He Jiankui 272–4, 276, 284
HeLa cells 116–21, 117n, 120n
Helacyton gartleri 120
hematopoietic stem cells 146
hepatic endoderm cells 198–9
hepatocytes 161
Hertig, Arthur 213
Hesse, Hermann: Magister Ludi (The Glass Bead Game) 37–8
Hickey, Lance 312
hippocampus 146n, 303–4
histology 19
histones 32, 34, 74
Hitler, Adolf 107, 289
HIV 120, 154, 154n, 272, 273–4, 284
Hobbes, Thomas: Leviathan 129
holobiont 141–2
hologenome 142
Holtfreter. Johannes 62
Homer: Iliad 200
homosexuality 50
Honjo, Tasuku 137
Hooke, Robert 11–12, 11n
Hopwood, Nick 216
Hsu, Stephen 285
Humboldt, Alexander von 15
Hua Hua (cloned macaque monkey) 288
Hughes, Arthur 115
human-cryopreservation 305–7
Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) 267, 271, 279, 280
Human Genome Project 72–3, 126, 282, 316–17
human, growing a:
cell and 10–44 see also cell
cell communities and 86–100 see also cell
cell reprogramming and 143–83
existence of brain in a dish/jar/vat, possibility of 299–315
future of 247–98
immunity and see immunity
making tissues from reprogrammed cells 184–208
microbiome and see microbiome
mini-brain/organoids 1–6, 2, 6, 8–9, 44, 71, 81, 92, 101, 143–4, 161–71, 185, 209, 256, 260n, 263, 299, 321, 328–30
sex and reproduction and see sex and reproduction
tissues first grown outside the body 101–26
human papillomavirus 130
Hunter, John 211
Huntington’s disease 3, 172
Hutchinson Cancer Research Center: Seattle 176; Washington 138
Huxley, Aldous 110, 268, 292
Brave New World vii, ix, 2, 6–7, 112, 115, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223
Island 110n
Huxley, Julian 66, 67, 218, 291
The Science of Life 110, 113
“The Tissue-Culture King” 110–12, 113, 114, 122
hydra 104
hypoblast 59
identical twins 58, 59, 79–80, 149n, 235, 236, 273, 288, 322–3
immune system 133n
adaptive and innate 135–6
auto-immunity 136
cancer and 123, 129, 133, 134–8
CTLA-4 136, 137
definition of individuality and 323
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and 174
microbiome and 137, 138–42
rejection of transplant and 178, 188, 190, 191, 199
stem cells and 146, 147, 190, 191, 201
T cells and 135, 136, 137
tissue inflammation and 135, 136, 146, 154
viruses and 154, 154n
immunotherapy 135–8
Imperial College London 308–9
imperialism and colonialism, language of 17
Indiana University 174–5
Indianapolis News 108
individuality 23, 82–4, 89–90, 263, 296, 319–20, 321, 322, 323, 325–7
inflammation 135, 136, 146, 154, 188
inner cell mass 59, 60, 68, 236–7
insemination, first human artificial 211–12 see also IVF
Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Vienna 163
Institute of Neurology, University College London 1, 2
Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai 288
insulin 63, 156, 177, 178
intellectual property rights 122–3, 125
intelligence/(IQ) x, 202, 218, 250, 268, 276–7, 278, 285, 286, 287, 292, 302, 308, 313, 314
intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) 230, 239
introns 94–5, 94–5n
Ipilimumab 137–8
islets 178
IVF 43–4, 147, 203, 209–11, 210n, 239, 242, 265, 267, 268
artificial gametes and 238–44
cloning and 288, 290
designer baby and 268–86
genome editing and 268–78
history of 186, 202n, 210, 211–34, 211n, 212n, 213n, 215n, 215, 216n, 218n, 220n, 223n, 226n, 227n, 255
mitochondrial replacement and 265–8
pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) and 279–86, 281n
stem cell research and 145, 147, 203
success rates 59, 209–10, 231, 234
use of spare embryos for research 123, 226–7, 234
Jackson Laboratory, Maine 262–3
Jacob, François 25
Jaenisch, Rudolf 204n
James, P. D.: The Children of Men 244
Janeway, Charles 135–6
Janssens, Cecile 278
Jianping Fu 261
Johannsen, Wilhelm 30
Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore 116, 117, 118
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore 145
Johnson, Martin 214
Joliot-Curie, Irène 130
Just, Ernest Everett 62
Kass, Leon 159
Keller, David H. 220–1
Keller, Evelyn Fox 72, 73
kidney 147, 161, 164, 165–6, 180, 188, 191, 192, 193, 196, 201, 202
Kikuchi, Takayuk 173–4
King, Thomas 149, 150, 287
Klein, Allon 160–1, 162–3
Klf4 (gene) 158
Knoblich, Jürgen 163, 164, 169
Kobayashi, Toshihiro 201, 202, 203, 206, 207–8
Koch, Christof 329
Koch, Robert 16, 17
Kölliker, Albert von 19
Koonin, Eugene 94, 95
Kyoto University 137, 157, 173–4, 241
Kyushu University 241
Lacks, Henrietta 116–19, 121
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 55
Lancaster, Madeline 163, 164, 165, 168, 169, 329
Landecker, Hannah 26, 104, 116, 118–19
Lane, Nick 94
Langer, Robert 189, 191
Lankenau Hospital Research Institute, Philadelphia 149
Lanza, Robert 191
Laplace, Pierre-Simon 311
Lawrence, William 249, 250–1; Lectures on Physiology, Zoology and the Natural History of Man 249
Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van 12
leukaemia 130, 138, 146
Lewis, Jennifer 195, 196
Life 48, 223–4
life, definition of 5, 43–4
Lindbergh, Charles 107, 108, 184, 186, 252, 253
Lister, Joseph 17
literature:
stories and 41–2
as “the unconscious of science” 114
liver 77–8, 177, 182, 188–9, 191, 195, 198–9, 200, 201, 205, 208, 220
Loeb, Jacques 170, 220n
Lovejoy, Christopher 2, 3, 163, 166, 260n, 261n, 299, 330
Lovelock, James 24
lymphocytes 134–5, 146
lymphoid progenitor cells 146
Lynch, Lydia 135, 138
Lyon, Mary 75
macaque monkeys, cloning of 174, 178, 288, 323
Magritte, René 317
malaria 275
“The Malignant Entity” 113
Mangold, Hilde 66, 66n
Margulis, Lynn 97–8
Markstein, Gary 43–4
Martin, Bill 94, 95
Martin, Gail 145n
Martinovitch, Petar 115
Massachusetts General Hospital 187, 188
Massachusetts Institute of Technology 189
masturbation 47
Matrigel 165
Matrix movies 7, 310, 312, 313, 314
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig 170–1
Maximow, Alexander 187, 187n
Maxwell, James Clerk 311
McK, Mrs 82
McWhorter, John 212
Medical Research Council, UK 215
meiosis 53, 53n, 239, 241, 243
Melton, Douglas 177
membrane, discovery of cell 19
Mendel, Gregor 29, 32
Menkin, Miriam 213
Merkle, Ralph 307–8
mesenchymal stem cells 190, 199, 261
mesoderm (“middle skin”) 70, 70, 77, 257, 260, 260n, 261
metaphase 28
metaphor, science and use of viii, x, 16, 34, 37, 39, 40, 60, 62–3, 68, 76, 80, 81, 127, 129, 134, 163, 178, 196, 222, 228, 318, 327
methyl group 74, 80
Mialet, Hélène 314, 315
miasma 17
microbiome 137, 138–42, 142n
microchimerism 83
microscope 2, 9, 11, 12, 14, 20, 22, 28, 29, 43, 89, 90, 92, 111, 112, 148 162, 209, 211, 212, 230, 260n
milieu intérieur 102
Min Chueh Chang 212
mini-brain 1–6, 2, 6, 8–9, 44, 71, 81, 92, 101, 143–4, 161–71, 185, 209, 256, 260n, 263, 299, 321, 328–30
Mironov, Vladimir 196
Mitalipov, Shoukhrat 271, 272
Mitchell, Robert: Tissue Economies 122, 124–5
mitochondria 94
diseases 266–7, 266n, 275
discovery of 19
evolution of 97–8
function of 22, 98, 265
genes in 151n, 266, 266n
replacement 265–7, 266n
mitosis 27, 27, 53, 57
Monod, Jacques 72
Moore, John 122–3
More, Max 293, 295–7
Morgan, Lynn 214, 216
Morgan, Thomas Hunt 30, 31, 32, 64, 71
morphogenesis (body formation) 62–74
morphogens 64, 65–6, 68n, 71, 74, 168, 259, 260, 262
morphology 71
Morriston Hospital, Swansea, Wales 194
mosaicism 79, 199, 200, 323
motor neurons 104
Müller glia 178–9
Muller, Hermann 19n
Müller, Johannes 14–15
multi-cellularity 89–100, 97
multiplex parenting 245–6
Murdoch, Professor Alison 234, 266
Murphy, Charlie 3
Museum of Modern Art, New York: “Design and the Elastic Mind” 125
mutation 2–3, 37, 49, 65, 72n, 78–9, 78n, 99, 99n, 108, 120, 128, 129, 130, 131, 155, 157, 169, 173, 175, 262, 266n, 267, 270–1, 277, 326
MYBPC3 (gene) 271, 272n, 279n
Myc (gene) 130–1, 130–1n
Mycetozoa 87
myeloid progenitor cells 146
myoblasts 176
Nagel, Thomas 313, 320
Nakauchi, Hiromitsu 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207–8
Nanog 155, 156
National Institute for Medical Research, London 213–14
National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. 204, 205, 289–90
Nature 186, 215, 215n, 221, 272, 328, 329
Nazi Party x, 107, 305
Neanderthals 170–1
Needham, Joseph 291
nerve cells 3–4, 63, 102, 103, 103n, 147, 169, 172, 291
Neuhausser, Werner 244, 275
neural tube 65, 69–70
neuroblasts 104, 179
neurodegeneration 2–3, 166, 169, 172–4, 253, 303
neurons 1, 2, 3–4, 8, 70, 79, 101, 102–3, 104, 143, 144, 144, 146, 146n, 163, 164–9, 167n, 172–5, 177, 177n, 178–9, 208, 240, 262, 308, 314, 328–9
neurula 150
New York Times 106, 110
Newcastle University 234, 266
Newsweek 224
newts 181–2
Niakan, Kathy 271
Night of the Living Dead (film) 114
Nijhout, Fred 73–4
Nilsson, Lennart: A Child Is Born 56
Nobel prize 25, 66n, 73, 103, 105, 105n, 106–7, 136, 137, 145, 159–60
Nodal (gene) 259
non-identical twins 59, 81–2
noose 57, 149n, 287
northern leopard frog 149
nucleic acid 31, 33
nucleotide bases 33, 36, 71–2
nucleus:
bacteria cell and 22
body formation (morphogenesis) and 65
cell division and 27, 27, 28
discovery of 19, 19n, 20, 20
eukaryotic cells and 93–4, 97, 99
function of 23
mitochondrial disease and 266, 266n
nuclear transfer 149–53, 266, 287–8, 290
somatic-cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) 151, 287–8
somatic-cell nuclear transfer cloning 266, 290
transcription and 95
nurse cells 67
Obstetrics and Gynecology 118
Oct4 (gene) 155, 156, 157, 158, 162
Oldenburg, Henry 12
O Lucky Man! 7
oncogene 130
onion cells 20, 20, 26
oocytes 241, 243
Oregon Health and Science University 271
organelles 22, 94, 97–8, 99, 265, 268
organizer cells 66–7, 66n, 114–15, 168, 262
organoids 1–6, 2, 6, 8–9, 44, 71, 81, 92, 101, 125, 143–4, 161–71, 185, 209, 256, 260n, 263, 299, 321, 328–30
Osaka City University Medical School 153
Otto-Wagner Hospital, Vienna 305
ovum see egg
Owen, Ray 82
Oxford University 150
Pääbo, Svante 170, 171
Pancoast, William 211–12, 211n, 214
pancreas 164, 177–8, 201, 202, 202n, 203, 254
pangene 30
pangenesis 30
parenthood 267–8
Parkinson’s disease 172, 174, 253
parthenogenesis 49, 51–2, 220n
Pasteur, Louis 16, 17
Paterson, Ross 1
pattern in cell biology, appearance of 91–2, 91
PD-1 (gene) 137
Pera, Martin 262–3
Perutz, Max 214–15
p53 (gene) 131, 134
phenotype 30, 34, 38, 72, 73, 74, 80, 156, 269n
photosynthesis 98
Pig Wings (artwork) 126
Pincus, Gregory 212
Pinto-Correia, Clara 225
Pius XII, Pope 224
placenta 59, 60, 60n, 70, 77, 83, 145, 200, 237, 256, 258, 259, 261
“The Plague of the Living Dead” 114
planetary biosphere 24
Planococcus mealybug 139
plants 19, 22, 26, 98
pluripotency 59, 61, 70, 77, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 162, 164, 165, 191, 201, 202, 204, 238–9, 241, 242, 243, 255, 256, 258, 282, 330
Poe, Edgar Allan 108, 109
“The Man Who Was Used Up” 252–3
“The Tell-Tale Heart” 113
polio virus 116
Poo, Mu-ming 288
port-wine stains 79
Portuguese man-of-war 324–5, 324
posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) 303
preformationist theory 13
pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) 279–86, 281n; Easy 282–6
pregnancy 55–7, 69, 81, 83, 168, 211, 213, 225, 231, 273, 274, 289
primary progressive aphasia (PPA) 303
primitive endoderm 59, 59, 70, 70, 237, 258–9, 260
primitive streak 69, 70, 70, 236, 237, 240n, 248, 262, 264
primordial germ cells (PGCs) 54, 70, 240–4, 240n, 259, 260, 260n
probiotics 139, 140
prokaryotes 22, 93–8, 99, 100, 139
prophase 28
protein 8
Activin 262
amyloid beta 169
aster 27, 28
bicoid 64–5, 65, 67
body formation (morphogenesis) and 63–7
cancer and 123, 137
Cas 270
caudal 65, 65
collagen 187, 192, 258
CTLA–4 136, 137
dark 36
dorsal 65–6
elastin 192
gel 165
gene expression and production of 3, 31, 32, 32, 33–7, 42, 63–7, 65, 71–5, 72n, 94–5, 94n, 133, 135, 155–7, 160, 270
Golgi apparatus and 22–3
growth factors 189, 193
HLA 135
immune system and 135, 136, 137
intrinsically disordered 36
misfolding 3
morphogens 62–7, 68n, 71, 74, 168, 241n, 259, 260, 262
receptor 135
tau 169
transcription factor and 155–7, 159n, 165, 175, 176–80, 177n, 181, 190, 196, 224, 241, 255
viruses and 25n
Wnt 262
zona pellucida 58
protists 12, 22, 96
proto-oncogenes 130
protoplasm 20, 21, 21n, 54, 89
protozoans 88
Purdy, Jean 215, 232n
Putnam, Hilary 312, 313
race x, 107, 108, 116–20, 117n, 161, 232, 310
Race, Robert 82
Raff, Martin 132
Raper, Kenneth 89–90
red blood cells 81–2, 119, 146, 161
regeneration 104, 146–7, 191, 244
Remak, Robert 15
resveratrol 80
retinal tissue 173, 178–9
rheumatoid arthritis 109, 136
Rice University, Houston 273
RNA 25n, 33–4, 35, 67, 72, 74, 93, 94n, 95, 96, 160, 270, 272n
robots 7, 220, 221, 252n
Rock, John 213, 213n
Rockefeller Institute, New York 104–5, 111, 185
Rockefeller University 31, 104, 262
Rockefeller University Hospital, New York 31
Romero, George 114
Roosevelt, President 107
Rorvik, David 268
Rosenfeld, Albert 48, 223–4, 255
Roslin Institute, Scotland 151, 289
Rostand, Jean 186
Rote Zora 233
Rothblatt, Martine 294, 295
Roux, Wilhelm 57, 61–2
Royal College of Surgeons 249
Royal Society 12, 214
Rutherford, Ernest 19n
Saitou, Mitinori 241, 242, 243, 244
salamander 57–8, 104, 146–7, 148–9, 149n, 183, 287
Salk Institute, California 203–4
Sasai, Yoshiki 165
schizophrenia 169
Schleiden, Matthias Jakob 14
Schrödinger, Erwin 19n
Schwann, Theodor 14, 15, 16, 26–7
Science 184
Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 255–6, 256n, 273
sea urchins 30, 98–9, 220n
Second World War (1939–45) 107
Semmelweis, Ignaz 17
Seoul National University 152, 287
Seth, Anil 309
sex and reproduction x, 17–18, 45–85, 92, 99, 200, 210, 221, 226, 226n, 230–1, 232, 233, 242, 246, 246–7, 280–3, 294, 318
biological purpose of 49–52, 55–6
body formation (morphogenesis) and 62–74
embryogenesis 56–71 see also embryo
fetus, growth of 56–7
future of 209–46
gametes and 52–5
IVF and 209–44
multiplex parenting 245–6
sexual attractiveness and 50–1
success rates of procreation from 55–6
uniparent 245
sexual dimorphism 50, 50n
Shahbazi, Marta 188
Shakespeare, William: The Merchant of Venice 123–4
Shanahan, Murray 308–9
Shapiro, James 99, 322
Sharpe, Richard 245
SHEEFS (synthetic human entities with embryo-like features) 263–5
Shelley, Mary: Frankenstein vii, 6–7, 46, 226, 247–51, 248–9n, 304
Shelley, Percy Bysshe 247, 248–9, 248n
sickle-cell disease 275
skin/skin cells:
artificial 147, 187–9
artificial organs and 4, 5, 5, 6, 8–9, 92, 101, 191, 192, 238
artificial sperm and 241
body formation (morphogenesis) and 69, 70
cancer 130, 138
epigenetics and 77, 79, 81
immune system and 136, 138
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and 158, 241
life span of 146
mice grown from 254
micro-organisms on 139
mini-brain and 4, 5, 5, 6, 8–9, 92, 101, 238
pigmentation 29, 68n
3D printing and 195
Skloot, Rebecca: The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks 116, 118
Slack, Jonathan 177
slime moulds 87–93, 97, 320–1
Smajdor, Anna 245, 246
snowflakes 18–19, 51
Snuppy 287
somatic integrity 138
somatic-cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) 151, 287–8
soul 44, 86, 249, 250, 296, 323
Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 272
Sox2 (gene) 155, 156, 157, 158, 162, 177, 177n
species boundary 202
Spemann, Hans 57–8, 66, 66n, 148–9, 150–1, 287
sperm 11, 12–13, 13, 17, 31, 45, 46, 77, 150, 156, 203, 207, 229, 235, 255, 260, 261, 271, 284
chimera and 200
falling counts 244–5
fertilization of egg 11, 47–8, 47–8n, 53, 55, 59
germ cells and 54, 70, 239
intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) 230, 239
IVF and 203, 211–13, 211n, 215, 215, 239, 242
making artificial 239–44
spinal-column injury 172, 179
sponges 62, 96, 96n, 322
Squier, Susan Merrill 114, 121, 217
Srivastava, Deepak 175, 176, 180, 181
SRY (gene) 71, 240
staining 19, 28, 143, 161–2, 330
Stanford University, California 176–7, 204, 244
Stapledon, Olaf: Last and First Men 292, 292n, 296, 315
stem cells 125, 126
artificial gametes and 239–43
embryoids and 255–63, 259n
embryonic stem (ES) cell research, banning of federal funding for 148, 159
embryonic stem (ES) cells 59, 63, 70, 77–8, 125, 144–65, 145n, 148n, 150n, 159n, 166, 173, 191, 201, 202, 202n, 203, 204n, 227, 234, 240, 242, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261–2
facultative 182
hematopoietic 146
human embryo development and 57–8, 59, 61, 63, 70, 77
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) 153–60, 163, 164, 166, 169, 170, 173–5, 177n, 191, 193, 194, 198–9, 203–4, 204n, 241, 242, 255–6, 256n, 257, 275
IVF and see IVF
mesenchymal 190, 199, 261
Neanderthal 171
nuclear transfer and 149–53, 266, 287–8, 290
pluripotent 57–8, 61, 77, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 153–60, 162, 163, 164, 165, 169, 170, 173–5, 177n, 191, 193, 194, 198–9, 201, 202, 203–4, 204n, 238–9, 241, 242, 243, 255–6, 256n, 257, 258, 275, 282, 330
synthetic human entities with embryo-like features (SHEEFs) and 263–5
totipotent 57–8, 61, 77, 144, 155, 264
Steptoe, Patrick 215, 228, 230, 232n
Sterling, Bruce 310
Stone, Oliver 113
Strangeways Research Laboratory, the University of Cambridge 106, 109, 114, 115, 185, 186, 187, 219, 220, 221–2, 291
Strangeways, Thomas 109–10, 185, 186, 187, 219, 220; “Death and Immortality” lecture 109
stripe formation 68–9, 68–9n
Sunday Express 253
Surani, Azim 239–40, 244
Sutton, Walter 30, 54
SymbioticA laboratory, University of Western Australia 125–6
symbiotic relationships 97–9, 139–42, 321–2
synthetic human entities with embryo-like features (SHEEFs) 263–5
Takahashi, Kazutoshi 157–8
Takahashi, Masayo 173
Takebe, Takanori 198–9, 200, 208
Tatum, Edward 71
tau 169
T cells 135, 136, 137
telomerase 133, 133n
telomeres 120, 133
Tenaya Therapeutics 180
teratomas 166
test-tube baby 217–22, 219, 224, 227, 268
tetragametic 82–4
thalassemia 270, 279
Theory of Everything 42
Thomson, David 185
Thomson, James 145, 148n, 158
3D bioprinting 193–7
3D Bioprinting Solutions 196
three-parent babies 267
Time magazine 107, 268
Times, The 112
tissue/tissue engineering ix, x
body formation (morphogenesis) and 62, 63, 65, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 77, 79
embryoids and 257–63
embryonic stem (ES) cells and 145–7
first grown outside the body 101–26, 103n, 105n, 110n, 117n, 120n, 123n
making tissues from reprogrammed cells 184–208, 187n, 189n, 202n, 203–4n
mini-brain and 1–6, 2, 8–9, 44, 71, 81, 92, 101, 125, 143–4, 161–71, 185, 209, 256, 260n, 263, 299, 321, 327–30
nuclear transfer and 149–53, 266, 287–8, 290
reprogramming of cell and 143–83
tissue affinity 62
tissue inflammation 136
Tit-Bits 186, 219
Titmuss, Richard 124
Topol, Eric 273
totipotent state 57–8, 61, 77, 144, 155, 264
Townes, Philip 62
transcription factor 131n, 155–7, 159n, 165, 175, 176–80, 177n, 181, 190, 196, 224, 241, 255
transhumanism 229, 293–8, 296n, 309, 310
transplantation 67, 105, 107, 122, 135, 146, 147, 149, 152, 165–6, 172, 173, 175, 178, 188–93, 199, 201, 241, 242, 253–4, 265, 266, 271–2, 287
trophoblast cells 59, 60, 61, 70, 70, 258, 259, 259, 261
trophectoderm 59, 237
Tsakiris, Manos 309
tumour suppressor genes 131–2, 133, 153
Turing, Alan 68–9n
Tuskegee University, Alabama 117, 117n
23andMe (company) 285
UK Motor Neurone Disease Association 314
uniparent 245
United Nations (UN) 288
United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 137–8
University College London (UCL) 1, 2, 189–90, 299
University of California, Los Angeles 122; at Berkeley 137
University of Michigan 194, 261
University of Minnesota 177
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine 193
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas 179
University of Tokyo 204
University of Washington, Seattle 179
University of Wisconsin-Madison 145
urchin crabs 98–9
Vacanti, Joseph 188–90, 191–2
vaccines 116, 120, 136
vagus nerve 140
Van Valen, Leigh 120–1
Victimless Leather (artwork) 125–6
Virchow, Rudolf 15, 16, 19, 24, 26–7, 57n, 113, 167n
viruses:
bacteriophage 154
cancer and 120, 127, 130, 131n
Cas proteins and 270
eukaryotic cells and 94
GB-C 154
genes and 60n
HIV 120, 154, 154n, 272, 273–4, 284
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and 154–5, 154n, 157–8, 158–9n, 175, 177
human papillomavirus 130
immune system and 135
influenza 154
living nature of 25–6n
polio 116
Zika 168, 169
Vries, Hugo de 30
Waddington, Conrad Hal 76, 77, 80, 114, 160, 162, 163, 183, 291
Waldby, Catherine: Tissue Economies 122, 124–5
Warnock Committee/Report 235–6, 238
Warnock, Mary 235–6, 238
Watson, James 31, 32, 71, 214
Weinberg, Robert 131n, 134
Weismann, August 30, 78; The Germ-Plasm: A Theory of Heredity 54–5
Wellcome Trust 3
Wells, George Philip.: The Science of Life 110, 110n, 113
Wells, H. G.:
The Island of Doctor Moreau vii, 110, 110n, 111, 113, 207
The Science of Life 110, 110n, 112, 113
Whale, James 253, 304
Whipple, Allen 212
Wilkins, Maurice 31
Wilmut, Ian 151, 152
Wilson, Duncan 187n, 222
Wilson, Edmund Beecher 20, 26
Wilson, Henry V 62
Wnt (gene) 262
Woese, Carl 96
Wojcicki, Anne 285
Wolpert, Lewis 66
Woo Suk Hwang 152, 287
Wray, Selina 2, 3, 122, 163, 166, 169, 260n, 299, 330
xenotransplanation experiment 208
X-rays 130, 131
Yale Review 110
Yale University 307
Yamanaka, Shinya 153–8, 159–60, 163, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177n, 182, 255
Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan 198–9
Yong, Ed 141
zebrafish 139, 162, 173–4, 178–9
Zernicka-Goetz, Magdalena 236, 237–8, 258–61
Zhong Zhong (cloned macaque monkey) 288
Zika virus 168, 169
Zimmer, Carl 316–17, 318; She Has Her Mother’s Laugh 84
zombies 113–14
zooids 58n, 324
Zurr, Ionat 125–6
zygote 11, 57, 68, 76, 77, 81, 87, 144, 152, 235, 266, 271, 289