Concept Summary

Motivation

• Motivation is the purpose, or driving force, behind our actions.
• Motivation can be extrinsic, based on external circumstances; or intrinsic, based on internal drive or perception.

• The primary factors that influence emotion are instincts, arousal, drives, and needs.

  • Instincts are innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli. In the instinct theory of motivation, people perform certain behaviors because of these evolutionarily programmed instincts.
  • In the arousal theory, people perform actions to maintain arousal, the state of being awake and reactive to stimuli, at an optimal level. The Yerkes–Dodson law shows that performance is optimal at a medium level of arousal.
  • Drives are internal states of tension that beget particular behaviors focused on goals. Primary drives are related to bodily processes; secondary drives stem from learning and include accomplishments and emotions. Drive reduction theory states that motivation arises from the desire to eliminate drives, which create uncomfortable internal states.
  • Satisfying needs may also drive motivation. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs prioritizes needs into five categories: physiological needs (highest priority), safety and security, love and belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization (lowest priority).
  • Self-determination theory emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
• Incentive theory explains motivation as the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments.
• Expectancy–value theory states that the amount of motivation for a task is based on the individual’s expectation of success and the amount that success is valued.
• Opponent-process theory explains motivation for drug use: as drug use increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms.
• Sexual motivation is related to hormones as well as cultural and social factors.

Emotion

• Emotion is a state of mind, or feeling, that is subjectively experienced based on circumstances, mood, and relationships.
• The three components of emotion are cognitive (subjective), behavioral (facial expressions and body language), and physiological (changes in the autonomic nervous system).
• The seven universal emotions are happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger.

• There are multiple theories of emotion, based on the interactions of the three components of emotion.

  • In the James–Lange theory, nervous system arousal leads to a cognitive response in which the emotion is labeled.
  • In the Cannon–Bard theory, the simultaneous arousal of the nervous system and cognitive response lead to action.
  • In the Schachter–Singer theory, nervous system arousal and interpretation of context lead to a cognitive response.

• The limbic system is the primary nervous system component involved in experiencing emotion.

  • The amygdala is involved with attention and fear, helps interpret facial expressions, and is part of the intrinsic memory system for emotional memory.
  • The thalamus is a sensory processing station.
  • The hypothalamus releases neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal.
  • The hippocampus creates long-term explicit (episodic) memories.
  • The prefrontal cortex is involved with planning, expressing personality, and making decisions. The ventral prefrontal cortex is critical for experiencing emotion; the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, specifically, is involved in controlling emotional responses from the amygdala and decision-making.

Stress

• The physiological and cognitive response to challenges or life changes is defined as stress.

• Stress appraisal has two stages:

  • Primary appraisal is classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign–positive, or stressful.
  • Secondary appraisal is directed at evaluating if the organism can cope with the stress, based on harm, threat, and challenge.
• A stressor is anything that leads to a stress response and can include environment, daily events, workplace or academic settings, social expectations, chemicals, and biological stressors. Psychological stressors include pressure, control, predictability, frustration, and conflict.
• Stressors can lead to distress or eustress.
• The three stages of the general adaptation syndrome are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
• Stress management can include psychological, behavioral, and spiritual aspects.