Explanations to Discrete Practice Questions

1. B
   Self-concept is defined as the sum of all of the ways in which we see ourselves, including who we are, as in (D), who we were in the past, (A), and who we may become in the future, (C). The ought self, while closely related to self-esteem, is our appraisal of how others see us and is not a part of our self-concept.
2. D
   Androgyny is defined as scoring highly on scales of both femininity and masculinity. Achieving a low score on both scales, (A), would be considered undifferentiated, while (B) and (C) would be described as feminine and masculine, respectively.
3. B
   Because there is nothing in the question stem to suggest that this situation will fundamentally change this student’s attitudes in the short term, (A) and (D) can be eliminated. (C) is unlikely in the short term, as learned helplessness requires a repeated inability to have any effect on a situation over a long period of time and is much more severe, usually manifesting as depression. It is far more likely that the student will simply feel ineffective when it comes to math, which is low self-efficacy.
4. A
   Because we know the lawyer has an internal locus of control, we expect her to believe that she is in control of the events that happen in her life. Both (B) and (C) attribute success to outside factors, representing an external locus of control. While choice (D) perhaps represents an attribution that could correlate to low self-esteem, it is not indicative of locus of control.
5. B
   Both excessive organization and excessive sloppiness are indicative of fixation in the anal stage of psychosexual development—what is commonly referred to as anal-retentiveness.
6. C
   As a postadolescent young adult, this person would be be described by Erikson as experiencing the conflict of intimacy vs. isolation, and so forming significant relationships with others would be a primary goal. (B) and (D) represent the next two stages in life (generativity vs. stagnation and integrity vs. despair, respectively), while (A) is the conflict that Erikson would say should have been resolved in adolescence (identity vs. role confusion).
7. A
   Matt’s reasoning reflects a desire to avoid punishment, which reflects stage one in Kohlberg’s preconventional phase (obedience). Cati’s reasoning takes into account social order, reflecting stage four in the conventional phase (law and order).
8. D
   This situation is best described by Lev Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development theory, which holds that children are often unable to perform tasks by themselves, but can complete the task with the help of a more knowledgeable other.
9. D
   (C) has no support from role-taking research and can be eliminated. (A) and (B) are both inaccurate; the Bobo doll experiment shows young children modeling behavior not performed by their parents, and teens are most influenced by their peers, not celebrities and athletes. The research does suggest, however, that children are more likely to engage in behavior modeled by individuals who are like themselves; thus, a female child is more likely to imitate behavior by another female.
10. C
    The superego is responsible for moral guilt when we do not live up to our ideals. While the id and the libido, (A) and (D), may be responsible for the urge to have an affair, the superego is responsible for the anxiety one feels afterward.
11. C
    Jung saw the drive for power and success as typically male traits, so Jung would say this woman is exercising her “inner man.” The animus is the archetype that most closely reflects this quality.
12. C
    This research supports a link between genetic expression and behavior, which is a central tenet of the biological perspective. The social cognitive perspective also holds that people’s behaviors and traits shape their environments, which in turn have an effect on their identity, so the discovery also supports this perspective. Behaviorism is not supported, as the discovery is not related to rewards and punishments.
13. B
    As a rebel and a sociable person, this individual would score highly on both psychoticism and extraversion, respectively. Neuroticism is associated with high emotional arousal in stressful situations, so being able to keep calm in an emergency is a sign of low neuroticism. Conscientiousness, a trait associated with being hardworking and organized instead of impulsive, is not described by the question stem.
14. A
    Reaction formation is a defense mechanism that converts unwanted feelings into their exact opposite. A psychodynamic theorist would say that the terror and hatred one feels toward his or her captor might be unconsciously turned into affection in an effort to reduce the stress of the situation.
15. B
    Fictional finalism is comprised of internal, idealistic beliefs about the future. The assumption that winning the lottery will solve all of his problems is representative of this form of thinking. Cardinal traits, (A), are the traits around which one organizes his or her entire life. Functional autonomy, (C), is when a behavior continues after the drive behind the behavior has ceased; for example, if this young professional continued purchasing lottery tickets after winning simply because he enjoyed them, then this behavior would have gained functional autonomy. Unconditional positive regard, (D), is used in some forms of humanistic therapy in which the therapist believes in the internal good of the client and does not judge the client negatively for any words or actions.