Endnotes

Introduction

1 Jonathan James, ‘Q&A with Come Out and Play Director Makinov’, Daily Dead, at https://dailydead.com/qa-with-come-out-and-play-director-makinov/ (accessed 22 February 2019).

2 Clark Collis, ‘Come Out and Play: The Mystery of the Masked Director’, Entertainment Weekly, 25 March 2013, at ew.com/article/2013/03/25/makinov-come-out-and-play-diego-luna/ (accessed 22 February 2019).

3 Steve Neale, ‘Questions of Genre’, Screen, 31/1 (1990), 45–66 (56).

4 Eric Michael Mazur (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion and Film (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2011), p. 369.

5 Walter Sorell, The Other Face: The Mask in the Arts (London: Thames and Hudson, 1973), p. 16.

6 N. Ross Crumrine, ‘Masks, Participants, and Audience’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), p. 11.

7 Elizabeth Tonkin, ‘Mask’, in Richard Bauman (ed.), Folklore, Cultural Performances, and Popular Entertainments – A Communications-centered Handbook (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 225.

8 John W. Nunley and Cara McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1999), p. 15.

9 Laura Makarius, ‘The Mask and the Violation of Taboo’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), p. 201.

10 Crumrine, ‘Masks, Participants, and Audience’, p. 1.

11 John Mack, ‘Introduction’, in John Mack (ed.), Masks: The Art of Expression (London: British Museum Press, 1994), p. 9; Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 15.

12 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 12.

13 W. Anthony Sheppard, Revealing Masks: Exotic Influences and Ritualized Performance in Modernist Music Theater (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 25.

14 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 17.

15 Rose Butler, ‘Faces of Rage: Masks, Murderers, and Motives in the Canadian Slasher Film’, in Julia Petrov and Gudrun D. Whitehead (eds), Fashioning Horror: Dressing to Kill on Screen and in Literature (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), pp. 211–12.

16 John Schechter, Popular Theatre: A Sourcebook (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013), p. 88.

17 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 20.

18 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 20.

19 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 20.

20 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 20.

21 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 10.

22 Victor Turner, ‘Introduction’, in Victor Turner (ed.), Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1982), p. 12.

23 Ronald L. Grimes, ‘Masking: Toward a Phenomenology of Exteriorization’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 43/3 (September 1975), 508–16 (508).

24 Richard Schechner, Performance Theory (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 52.

25 Schechner, Performance Theory, p. 87.

26 Schechner, Performance Theory, p. 45.

27 Paul Coates, Screening the Face (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), p. 6.

28 See Linda Badley, Film, Horror, and the Body Fantastic (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1995); James Twitchell, Dreadful Pleasures: An Anatomy of Modern Horror (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Bill Van Wert, ‘The Exorcist: Radical Therapy’, Jump Cut: A Review of Contemporary Media, 1/4–5 (1974), www.ejumpcut.org/archive/onlinessays/JC01folder/exorcist.html (accessed 28 February 2019).

29 Michael L. Quinn, ‘Self-Reliance and Ritual Renewal: Anti-theatrical Ideology in American Method Acting’, Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism, 10/1 (fall 1995), 5–20 (12).

30 Arthur Knight, Clara Pafort-Overduin and Deb Verhoeven, ‘Senses of Cinema-Going: Brief Reports on Going to the Movies around the World’, Senses of Cinema, 58 (March 2011), sensesofcinema.com/2011/feature-articles/senses-of-cinema-going-brief-reports-on-going-to-the-movies-around-the-world/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

31 Michael Richardson, Surrealism and Cinema (Oxford: Berg, 2006), p. 8; Maruša Pušnik, ‘Cinema Culture and Audience Rituals: Early Mediatisation of Society’, Anthropological Notebooks, 21/3 (2015), 51–74 (52).

32 Twitchell, Dreadful Pleasures, p. 84.

33 Carol Senf, The Vampire in Nineteenth Century English Literature (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 167.

34 Vera Dika, Games of Terror: Halloween, Friday the 13th and the Films of the Stalker Cycle (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990), p. 58.

35 Dika, Games of Terror, p. 99.

36 Ralph Merrifield, The Archeology of Ritual and Magic (London: B. T. Batsford, 1987), p. 6.

37 J. C. Crocker, ‘Ceremonial Masks’, in Victor Turner (ed.), Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1982), p. 78.

38 Crocker, ‘Ceremonial Masks’, p. 80.

39 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 9.

40 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 15.

41 Efrat Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, in Efrat Tseëlon (ed.), Masquerade and Identities: Essays on Gender, Sexuality and Marginality (London: Routledge, 2001), p. 3.

42 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 27.

43 Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, p. 22.

44 Laura Mulvey, ‘Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema’, Screen, 3/1 (1975), 6–18.

45 Julia Kristeva, Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), pp. 63–4; Barbara Creed, The Monstrous-Feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis (New York: Routledge, 1993), p. 8.

46 Nick Haslam, ‘What Is Dehumanization?’, in J. Vaes, P. G. Bain and J. P. Leyens (eds), Humanness and Dehumanization (London: Taylor and Francis, 2013), p. 34.

47 Haslam, ‘What Is Dehumanization?’, p. 38.

48 Thomas Sipos, Horror Film Aesthetics: Creating the Visual Language of Fear (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2010), p. 63.

49 Stephen T. Asma, On Monsters: An Unnatural History of Our Worst Fears (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 8.

50 Sorell, The Other Face, p. 10.

51 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 17.

52 Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, p. 18.

53 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 15.

54 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, pp. 16, 24.

55 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 25.

56 See Julia Kristeva, Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980); Stacy Burton, ‘Paradoxical Relations: Bakhtin and Modernism’, Modern Language Quarterly: A Journal of Literary History, 61/3 (2000), 519–43 (519); Anker Gemzøe, ‘Modernism, Narrativity and Bakhtinian Theory’, in Astradur Eysteinsson and Vivian Liska (eds), Modernism (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2007), p. 126; Terry Eagleton, ‘I Contain Multitudes’, London Review of Books, 29/12 (21 June 2007), 13–15, https://www.lrb.co.uk/v29/n12/terry-eagleton/i-contain-multitudes (accessed 28 February 2019).

57 Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), p. 10.

58 Florent Christol, ‘Massacres and Masquerades: Costume in the American Slasher Film and the Cultural Myth of the “Foolkiller”’, in Julia Petrov and Gudrun D. Whitehead (eds), Fashioning Horror: Dressing to Kill on Screen and in Literature (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), p. 222.

59 Katerina Clark and Michael Holquist, Mikhail Bakhtin (Cambridge: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 1984), p. 304.

60 Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, p. 39.

61 Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, p. 40.

62 Rozaliya Yaneva, Misrule and Reversals: Carnivalesque Performances in Christopher Marlowe’s Plays (Munich: Herbert Utz Verlag, 2012), p. 210.

63 See Christol, ‘Massacres and Masquerades’; Barbara Creed, ‘Horror and the Carnivalesque: The Body-Monstrous’, in Leslie Devereaux and Roger Hillman (eds), Fields of Vision: Essays in Film Studies, Visual Anthropology, and Photography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 127–59; Angela Ndalianis, The Horror Sensorium: Media and the Senses (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2012); Robert Stam, Subversive Pleasures: Bakhtin, Cultural Criticism and Film (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).

64 Jack Santino, ‘Flexible Halloween: Longevity, Appropriation, Multiplicity and Contestation’, in Malcolm Foley and Hugh O’Donnell (eds), Treat or Trick? Halloween in a Globalising World (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009), pp. x, 12–13.

65 Richard Schechner, Performance Studies: An Introduction (London: Routledge, 2013), p. 52.

66 Schechner, Performance Studies, p. 52.

67 Sigmund Freud, ‘The Uncanny’, in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (London: The Hogarth Press, 1955), p. 219; Helen Wheatley, ‘Television’, in William Hughes, David Punter and Andrew Smith (eds), The Encyclopedia of the Gothic (Malden: John Wiley & Son, 2016), p. 677.

68 Frederick S. Frank, ‘Glossary’, in The Castle of Otranto and The Mysterious Mother By Horace Walpole, ed. Frederick S. Frank (Peterborough: Broadview Press Ltd, 2003), p. 343.

69 William Hughes, Historical Dictionary of Gothic Literature (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2013), p. 86.

70 Paul Fleming, ‘Doppelgänger/Doppeltgänger’, Cabinet Magazine, 14 (2004), www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/14/fleming.php (accessed 28 February 2019).

71 Georges Bataille, ‘The Mask’, LVNG, 10 (2002), 63–7 (64).

72 Bataille, ‘The Mask’, 65.

73 Grimes, ‘Masking’, 509.

74 Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, p. 21.

75 Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, p. 21.

76 Grimes, ‘Masking’, 509, 510.

77 Grimes, ‘Masking’, 509.

78 Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, p. 20.

79 Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, p. 20.

80 Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, p. 21.

81 Simon Shepherd and Mick Wallis, Drama/Theatre/Performance (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2004), p. 180.

82 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 16.

83 Adam Lowenstein, Shocking Representation: Historical Trauma, National Cinema and the Modern Horror Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p. 2.

84 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 2.

85 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, pp. 2–3.

86 Doug Bradley, Sacred Monsters: Behind the Mask of the Horror Actor (London: Titan Books, 1996), p. 15.

87 Clive Barker, ‘Foreword’, in Bradley, Sacred Monsters: Behind the Mask of the Horror Actor, p. 8.

88 Neale, ‘Questions of Genre’, 56.

89 Butler, ‘Faces of Rage’, pp. 197, 199.

90 Butler, ‘Faces of Rage’, p. 200.

91 Sipos, Horror Film Aesthetics, p. 63.

92 Jason Huddleston, ‘Unmasking the Monster: Hiding and Revealing Male Sexuality in John Carpenter’s Halloween’, Journal of Visual Literacy, 25/2 (autumn 2005), 219–36 (220).

93 Carol J. Clover, Men, Women and Chain Saws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 42.

94 Clover, Men, Women and Chain Saws, p. 42.

95 Clover, Men, Women and Chain Saws, pp. 62–3.

96 Tony Williams, ‘Trying to Survive the Darker Side: 1980s Family Horror’, in Barry Keith Grant (ed.), The Dread of Difference: Gender and the Horror Film (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996), p. 17.

97 These include: Funeral Home (William Fruet, 1980), Night School (Ken Ward, 1981), Girls Nite Out (Anthony N. Gurvis, 1982), Night Warning (William Asher, 1982), The Final Terror (Andrew Davis, 1983), Mountaintop Motel Massacre (Jim McCullough Sr., 1983), Sweet Sixteen (Jim Sotos, 1983), The Initiation (Larry Stewart, 1984), Killer Party (William Fruet, 1986), April Fool’s Day (Fred Walton, 1986), Hello Mary Lou: Prom Night II (Bruce Pittman, 1987), Killer Workout (David A. Prior, 1987), Mommy’s Epitaph (Joseph Merhi, 1987), Cheerleader Camp (John Quinn, 1988) and Evil Laugh (Dominick Brascia, 1988).

98 Huddleston, ‘Unmasking the Monster’, 220.

1 Situating Masks and Horror Cinema

1 Ian Woodward, Understanding Material Culture (Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2007), p. 3.

2 Woodward, Understanding Material Culture, p. 4.

3 Vivian Sobchack, Carnal Thoughts: Embodiment and Moving Image Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), p. 59.

4 Sobchack, Carnal Thoughts, p. 62.

5 John G. Cawelti, The Six-Gun Mystique (Bowling Green: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1970), p. 32.

6 Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Way of the Masks (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1982), p. 12.

7 Lévi-Strauss, The Way of the Masks, p. 14.

8 Lévi-Strauss, The Way of the Masks, p. 14.

9 Claude Lévi-Strauss, ‘The Structural Study of Myth’, in Claude Lévi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology (1955; London: Penguin, 1968), p. 217; Andrew Tudor, Theories of Film (New York: Viking Press, 1973), pp. 135, 139. Although, as Daniel Chandler has rightly noted, that ‘this begs the question about who “we” are’. See ‘An Introduction to Genre Theory’, Visual Memory (11 August 1997), visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/intgenre/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

10 Mark Jancovich, Horror, The Film Reader (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 12.

11 Thomas Schatz, ‘The Structural Influence: New Directions in Film Genre Study’, in Barry Keith Grant (ed.), Film Genre Reader IV (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012), p. 115.

12 Rick Altman, The American Film Musical (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 340.

13 Angela Ndalianis, The Horror Sensorium: Media and the Senses (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2012), p. 29.

14 Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), p. 40.

15 Steve Neale, Genre and Hollywood (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 196.

16 Steve Neale, ‘Questions of Genre’, Screen, 31/1 (1990), 45–66 (56).

17 Neale, ‘Questions of Genre’, 56.

18 J. C. Crocker, ‘Ceremonial Masks’, in Victor Turner (ed.), Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1982), p. 81.

19 Doug Bradley, Sacred Monsters: Behind the Mask of the Horror Actor (London: Titan Books, 1996), p. 28.

20 Bradley, Sacred Monsters, p. 30.

21 Robin and Tonia Ridington, ‘The Inner Eye of Shamanism and Totemism 1970’, History of Religions, 10/1 (1970), 49–61 (50).

22 Ridington, ‘The Inner Eye’, 50.

23 Bradley, Sacred Monsters, p. 31.

24 Michael Ripinsky-Naxon, The Nature of Shamanism: Substance and Function of a Religious Metaphor (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), p. 42.

25 Also neo-shamanism, a contemporary spiritual practice linked to neo-paganism and the so-called ‘New Age’ movement. See Ward Churchill, ‘Spiritual Hucksterism: The Rise of the Plastic Medicine Men’, in Graham Harvey (ed.), Shamanism: A Reader (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 324–33; R. J. Wallis, ‘Waking Ancestor Spirits: Neo-shamanic Engagements with Archeology’, in Graham Harvey (ed.), Shamanism: A Reader (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 402–23; Gordon MacLellan, ‘Dancing on the Edge: Shamanism in Modern Britain’, in Graham Harvey (ed.), Shamanism: A Reader (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 365–74.

26 Margaret Stutley, Shamanism: A Concise Introduction (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 2–3.

27 Stutley, Shamanism, p. 3.

28 Stutley also notes the complexity of the term and the difficulties of locating a single origin for it (Shamanism, p. 3).

29 Graham Harvey, ‘General Introduction’, in Graham Harvey (ed.), Shamanism: A Reader (London: Routledge, 2003), pp. 1, 2.

30 Harvey, ‘General Introduction’, pp. 5, 6.

31 Anne Marsh, Performance Ritual Document (Melbourne: Macmillan Art Publishing, 2014), p. 98.

32 Donald Cordry’s once-foundational anthropological monograph, Mexican Masks (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) offers a key example of the dangers of cultural bias. Despite its influence, Pavel Shlossberg argues that the ‘Cordry regime’ was a ‘screwball farce’ (Crafting Identity: Transnational Indian Arts and the Politics of Race in Central Mexico (Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 2015), pp. 192, 183), identifying a widespread failure of the academic process because those who validated his work did not realise that the masks in question were created precisely to suit the myths that Cordry himself was looking for evidence to support (Crafting Identity, p. 191).

33 Leslie J. Moran, ‘Law and the Gothic Imagination’, in Fred Botting (ed.), The Gothic (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2001), p. 90.

34 Peter Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination: Balzac, Henry James, Melodrama, and the Mode of Excess (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), pp. xv, vii.

35 Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination, p. 4.

36 Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination, p. 15.

37 Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination, p. 18.

38 Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination, p. 18.

39 Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination, pp. 19–20.

40 Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination, p. 20.

41 Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination, p. 20.

42 Peter Hutchings, Historical Dictionary of Horror Cinema (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2008), p. 150; John Ruskin, The Nature of Gothic: A Chapter from the Stones of Venice (London: George Allen, 1900), p. 52.

43 Maria Beville, Gothic-Postmodernism: Voicing the Terrors of Postmodernity (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009), p. 55.

44 See Nicole Burkholder-Mosco and Wendy Carse, ‘“Wondrous Material to Play On”: Children as Sites of Gothic Liminality in The Turn of the Screw, The Innocents and The Others’, Studies in Humanities, 32/2 (2005), 201–20; Manuel Aguirre, ‘Narrative Structure, Liminality, Self-similarity: The Case of Gothic Fiction’, in Clive Bloom (ed.), Gothic Horror: A Guide for Students and Readers (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp. 226–46; Peter Messent, ‘American Gothic: Liminality and the Gothic in Thomas Harris’s Hannibal Lecter Novels’, in Benjamin Szumskyj (ed.), Dissecting Hannibal Lecter: Essays on the Novels of Thomas Harris (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2008), pp. 13–36; Ineke Bockting, ‘The Ecstasy of the Abyss: The Voice Beyond Dr. Haggard’s Disease’, in Jocelyn Dupont (ed.), Patrick McGrath: Directions and Transgressions (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), pp. 51–64; Pasi Nyyssönen, ‘Gothic Liminality in A. J. Annila’s Film Sauna’, in P. M. Mehtonen and Matti Savolainen (eds), Gothic Topographies: Language, Nation Building and ‘Race’ (London: Routledge, 2013), pp. 187–202.

45 Charles Ducey, ‘The Life History and Creative Psychopathology of the Shaman’, Psychoanalytic Study of Society, 7 (1976), 173–230 (175).

46 Victor Turner, Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1969), p. 107.

47 Turner, Ritual Process, p. 95.

48 Turner, Ritual Process, pp. 128–9.

49 William S. Haney II, Postmodern Theater and the Void of Conceptions (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2006), p. 131.

50 Sandor Klapcsik, Liminality in Fantastic Fiction: A Poststructuralist Approach (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2012), p. 3.

51 Stanley C. Krippner, ‘Conflicting Perspectives on Shamans and Shamanism: Points and Counterpoints’, American Psychologist, 57/11 (November 2002), 962–77 (970).

52 Krippner, ‘Conflicting Perspectives’, 964–70.

53 Krippner, ‘Conflicting Perspectives’, 970.

54 Krippner, ‘Conflicting Perspectives’, 970.

55 Cathleen Rountree, ‘Auteur Film Directors as Contemporary Shamans’, Jung Journal, 2/2 (spring 2008), 123–34 (123).

56 Laurel Kendall, ‘Numinous Dress/Iconic Costume: Korean Shamans Dressed for the Gods and for the Camera’, in Heike Behrend, Anja Dreschke and Martin Zillinger (eds), Trance Mediums and New Media: Spirit Possession in the Age of Technical Reproduction (New York: Fordham University Press, 2014), pp. 116–36.

57 Nikki J. Y. Lee, ‘Apartment Horror: Sorum and Possessed’, in Alison Peirse and Daniel Martin (eds), Korean Horror Cinema (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013), p. 100.

58 Richard Leonard, The Mystical Gaze of The Cinema: The Films of Peter Weir (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2009), pp. 220, 223; Jeremy Mark Robinson, The Sacred Cinema of Andrei Tarkovsky (Maidstone: Crescent Moon, 2007), pp. 168, 181; Brad Prager, The Cinema of Werner Herzog: Aesthetic Ecstasy and Truth (London: Wallflower, 2011), pp. 40, 91; James Norton, ‘The Mystery, as Always: Raúl Ruiz, Klimt and the Poetics of Cinema’, Vertigo, 3/6 (summer 2007), https://www.closeupfilmcentre.com/vertigo_magazine/volume-3-issue-6-summer-2007/makers-the-mystery-as-always-raul-ruiz/ (accessed 28 February 2019); Kelley Harrell, ‘The Shamanic Narrative in Star Wars’, Huff Post (17 December 2015), www.huffingtonpost.com/kelley-harrell/the-shamanic-narrative-in_b_8819874.html (accessed 28 February 2019).

59 See James R. Keller, Food, Film and Culture: A Genre Study (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2006). The shaman is also explored in Mike King, Luminous: The Spiritual Life on Film (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2014), pp. 37–49.

60 Tanya Krzywinska, Sex and the Cinema (London: Wallflower, 2006), p. 140; Tom Huddleston, ‘An Interview with Richard Stanley’, Not Coming to a Theatre Near You (20 August 2007), http://www.notcoming.com/features/richard-stanley-interview/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

61 Jason Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies: Schizophrenic and Shamanic Journeys in American Cinema (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2009), p. 1.

62 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 2.

63 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 2.

64 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 2.

65 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 3.

66 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 3.

67 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 3.

68 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 4.

69 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 4.

70 Horsley, The Secret Life of Movies, p. 3.

71 Mark Allen Peterson, ‘From Jinn to Genies: Intertextuality, Media and the Making of Global Folklore’, in Sharon R. Sherman and Mikel J. Koven (eds), Folklore/Cinema: Popular Film as Vernacular Culture (Logan: Utah State University Press, 2007), p. 93.

72 See Cynthia A. Freeland, ‘Realist Horror’, in Cynthia A. Freeland and Thomas E. Wartenberg (eds), Philosophy and Film (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 126–42.

73 See Noël Carroll, The Philosophy of Horror: Paradoxes of the Heart (New York: Routledge, 1990).

74 Timothy Shary, Generation Multiplex (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004), p. 149.

75 Lewis Hyde, Trickster Makes This World: Mischief, Myth and Art (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), n.p.

76 See Turner, Ritual Process, p. 92; George P. Hansen, The Trickster and the Paranormal (Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation, 2001); Alby Stone, Explore Shamanism (Loughborough: Explore Books, 2003), pp. 62–5.

77 Larry Ellis, ‘Trickster: Shaman of the Liminal’, Studies in American Indian Literatures, 5/4 (winter 1993), 55–68 (57).

78 Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology (New York: Penguin, 1959), p. 273.

79 Carl Gustav Jung, Four Archetypes: Mother, Rebirth, Spirit, Trickster (London: Routledge, 2001), p. 160.

80 Jung, Four Archetypes, p. 173.

81 William J. Hynes, ‘Mapping the Characteristics of Mythic Tricksters: A Heuristic Guide’, in William J. Hynes and William G. Doty (eds), Mythical Trickster Figures: Contours, Contexts, and Criticisms (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1993), p. 34.

82 Helena Bassil-Morozow, The Trickster in Contemporary Film (London: Routledge, 2012), p. 24.

83 Bassil-Morozow, The Trickster in Contemporary Film, p. 30.

84 Terrie Waddell, Wild/lives Trickster, Place and Liminality on Screen (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2014), p. xi.

2 Masks and Horror in Literary and Performance Traditions and Early Cinema

1 W. Anthony Sheppard, Revealing Masks: Exotic Influences and Ritualized Performance in Modernist Music Theater (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 37.

2 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 37.

3 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 38.

4 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, pp. 39, 41.

5 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 73.

6 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, pp. 74–83, 86.

7 John Schechter, Popular Theatre: A Sourcebook (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013), p. 81.

8 John Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte: An Actor’s Handbook (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2002), p. 7.

9 Pierre Louis Duchartre, The Italian Comedy (Newburyport: Dover Publications, 2012), p. 64; Schechter, Popular Theatre; Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte, p. 7.

10 Steve Neale, ‘Questions of Genre’, Screen, 31/1 (1990), 45–66 (56).

11 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 72.

12 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 72.

13 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 38.

14 David Wiles, The Masks of Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 112; Benito Ortolani, Japanese Theatre: From Shamanistic Ritual to Contemporary Pluralism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. xvii.

15 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. xvii.

16 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. 300.

17 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. 300.

18 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. xvi.

19 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. xvii.

20 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. xvii.

21 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. 1.

22 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. 1.

23 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. 2.

24 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, p. 3.

25 Ortolani, Japanese Theatre, pp. 4, 5.

26 Wheeler Winston Dixon and Gwendolyn Audrey Foster, A Short History of Film (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2008), p. 87.

27 Aaron Gerow, A Page of Madness: Cinema and Modernity in 1920s Japan (Ann Arbor: Center for Japanese Studies, The University of Michigan, 2008), pp. 1, 4.

28 David Sorfa, ‘Kurutta ichipeiji; Sometimes Kuruta ippejiji/A Page of Madness (1926)’, in S. Barrow, S. Haenni and J. White (eds), The Routledge Encyclopedia of Films (London: Routledge, 2015), p. 297.

29 Colette Balmain, Introduction to Japanese Horror Film (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008), p. 32.

30 Keiko I. McDonald, Japanese Classical Theater in Films (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1994), p. 132.

31 McDonald, Japanese Classical Theater in Films, p. 126.

32 McDonald, Japanese Classical Theater in Films, p. 126.

33 Wiles, The Masks of Menander, p. 112.

34 Sorfa, ‘Kurutta ichipeiji’, p. 297.

35 Sorfa, ‘Kurutta ichipeiji’, p. 297.

36 Timothy Iles, The Crisis of Identity in Contemporary Japanese Film (Leiden: Brill, 2008), p. 20.

37 Iles, The Crisis of Identity, p. 20.

38 Marvin A. Carlson, Theatre: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 102.

39 Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte, p. 2.

40 Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte, p. 9.

41 Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte, p. 14.

42 M. A. Katritzky, The Art of Commedia: A Study in the Commedia dell’Arte 1560–1620 with Special Reference to the Visual Records (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006), p. 19.

43 Herbert E. Plutschow, Matsuri: The Festivals of Japan (Richmond: Japan Library, 1996), p. 159.

44 Robert L. Winzeler, Anthropology and Religion: What We Know, Think, and Question (Lanham: AltaMira Press, 2008), p. 135.

45 Carlson, Theatre, p. 102.

46 Christopher Frayling, Spaghetti Westerns: Cowboys and Europeans from Karl May to Sergio Leone (London: I. B. Tauris, 1998), p. 131.

47 Frayling, Spaghetti Westerns, p. 131.

48 Frayling, Spaghetti Westerns, p. 131.

49 Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte, p. 23.

50 Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte, p. 24.

51 Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte, p. 32.

52 Duchartre, The Italian Comedy, p. 48.

53 Duchartre, The Italian Comedy, p. 51.

54 Olly Crick and John Rudin, Commedia Dell’Arte: A Handbook for Troupes (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2002), p. 1.

55 Schechter, Popular Theatre, p. 79.

56 Rudlin, Commedia Dell’Arte, p. 4.

57 Angela Ndalianis, The Horror Sensorium: Media and the Senses (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2012), p. 109.

58 George Kurman, ‘Cultural Antecedents of Beavis and Butt-head’, The Journal of Popular Culture, 18/1 (October 1995), 101–12; David James LeMaster, ‘Charlie Chaplin and Harpo Marx as Masks of the Commedia Dell’Arte: Theory and Practice’ (PhD thesis, Texas Tech University, 1995).

59 See Steve Neale and Frank Krutnik, Popular Film and Television Comedy. (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 21; Louise Peacock, ‘Slapstick and Comic Violence in Commedia Dell’arte’, in Judith Chaffee and Olly Crick (eds), The Routledge Companion to Commedia dell’Arte (London: Routledge, 2014), p. 185.

60 Jason Marc Harris, ‘Smiles of Oblivion: Demonic Clowns and Doomed Puppets as Fantastic Figures of Absurdity, Chaos and Misanthropy in the Writings of Thomas Ligotti’, The Journal of Popular Culture, 45/6 (2012), 1249–65.

61 While make-up such as that of the horror clown is certainly a rich site for critical analysis that may in places overlap with the concerns of this book, it is practical here to maintain my interest only in actual masks that appear diegetically in films, and not as costume elements.

62 See David Roche, Making and Remaking Horror in the 1970s and 2000s: Why Don’t They Do It Like They Used To? (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2014), p. 175; Roberto Curti, Italian Gothic Horror Films, 1957–1969 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2015), pp. 119–20; John T. Soister, Of Gods and Monsters: A Critical Guide to Universal Studios’ Science Fiction, Horror and Mystery Films, 1929–1939 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 1999), p. 34; Mark Goodall, Sweet and Savage: The World Through the Shockumentary Film Lens (London: Headpress, 2006), p. 74.

63 Schechter identifies three groups of characters: the maskless caricati, comic cameos by the macchietta and the maschere, ‘the … top bananas’ (Schechter, Popular Theatre, p. 84).

64 Schechter, Popular Theatre, p. 84.

65 Schechter, Popular Theatre, p. 84.

66 Schechter, Popular Theatre, p. 84.

67 Katritzky, The Art of Commedia, p. 102.

68 John O’Brien, Harlequin Britain: Pantomime and Entertainment, 1690–1760 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), p. 119.

69 O’Brien, Harlequin Britain, p. 119.

70 Annette Lust, From the Greek Mimes to Marcel Marceau and Beyond: Mimes, Actors, Pierrots, and Clowns: A Chronicle of the Many Visages of Mime in the Theatre (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2000), pp. 38–40; James W. Gousseff, Street Mime (Woodstock: The Dramatic Publishing Company, 1993), p. 33.

71 Rush Rehm, Greek Tragic Theatre (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 40.

72 Rehm, Greek Tragic Theatre, p. 40.

73 MSU Museum, ‘Mask: Secrets and Revelations: Masks on Stage’, Smithsonian Institute, Michigan State University (2012), http://museum.msu.edu/?q=node/326 (accessed 28 February 2019).

74 John Emigh, Masked Performance: The Play of Self and Other in Ritual and Theater (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), p. 35.

75 Steve Tillis, Rethinking Folk Drama (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1999), p. 179.

76 See Susan Harris Smith, Masks in Modern Drama (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 89–126; Harald William Fawkner, Deconstructing Macbeth: The Hyperontological View (Cranbury: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1990), p. 202.

77 Dani Cavallaro, The Gothic Vision: Three Centuries of Horror, Terror and Fear (London: Continuum, 2002), p. 8.

78 Cavallaro, The Gothic Vision, p. 9.

79 Cavallaro, The Gothic Vision, p. 8.

80 Philip Brophy, ‘Arashi Ga Oka (Onimaru): The Sound of the World Turned Inside Out’, in Jay McRoy (ed.), Japanese Horror Cinema (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), p. 159.

81 Catherine Spooner, Fashioning Gothic Bodies (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), p. 201.

82 Catherine Spooner, ‘Masks, Veils and Disguises’, in William Hughes, D. Punter and A. Smith (eds), The Encyclopedia of the Gothic. Volume II (L–Z) (Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), p. 421.

83 Spooner, ‘Masks, Veils and Disguises’, p. 422.

84 Spooner, ‘Masks, Veils and Disguises’, p. 423.

85 Tammis Elise Thomas, ‘Masquerade Liberties and Female Power in Le Fanu’s Carmilla’, in E. E. Smith and R. Haas (eds), The Haunted Mind: The Supernatural in Victorian Literature (New York: Scarecrow Press, 1999), p. 44.

86 See Alex Houstoun, ‘“Hearken … I Can Tell You the Whole Story”: Mono-logues and Confessions in the Early Works of H. P. Lovecraft and Edgar Allan Poe’, in R. H. Waugh (ed.), Lovecraft and Influence: His Predecessors and Successors (Plymouth: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2013), pp. 44–54; Dennis Perry and Carl Sederholm, Poe, The House of Usher, and the American Gothic (London: Palgrave, 2009), pp. 63–82.

87 Efrat Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, in Efrat Tseëlon (ed.), Masquerade and Identities: Essays on Gender, Sexuality and Marginality (London: Routledge, 2001), p. 30.

88 Dawn B. Sova, Critical Companion to Edgar Allan Poe (New York: Facts On File, 2001), p. 110.

89 Paul Roland, The Curious Case of H. P. Lovecraft (Medford: Plexus, 2014), n.p.; Shelley Costa Bloomfield, The Everything Guide to Edgar Allan Poe Book: The Life, Times, and Work of a Tormented Genius (Avon: Adams Media, 2007), pp. 198–9.

90 Martyn Colebrook, ‘“Comrades in Tentacles”: H. P. Lovecraft and China Miéville’, in David Simmons (ed.), New Critical Essays on H. P. Lovecraft (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), p. 222.

91 B. F. Fisher, ‘Poe and the Gothic Tradition’, in Kevin J. Hayes (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 76.

92 R. A. Gilbert, ‘Penny Dreadfuls’, in Marie Mulvey-Roberts (ed.), The Handbook to Gothic Literature (New York: New York University Press, 1998), p. 172.

93 Gilbert Keith Chesterton, ‘A Defence of Penny Dreadfuls’, from The Defendant, published in The Wayfarer’s Library by J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd, London (1901), republished at De Montfort University, www.cse.dmu.ac.uk/~mward/gkc/books/penny-dreadfuls.html (accessed 28 February 2019).

94 George Augustus Sala, The Seven Sons of Mammon: A Story (London: Tinsley Brothers, 1862), pp. 22–3.

95 Paul Bird, ‘Writing Crime: Black Mask and the Conventions of 1920s–1930s Hard-Boiled Fiction’, Journal of the Faculty of Economics, KGU, 22/1 (September 2012), 51–65 (51).

96 Peter Stanfield, Maximum Movies – Pulp Fictions: Film Culture and the Worlds of Samuel Fuller, Mickey Spillane, and Jim Thompson (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2011), p. 47.

97 Don Hutchison, The Great Pulp Heroes (New York: Book Republic, 2006), p. 9.

98 The Lone Ranger premiered on radio in February 1933 on a programme that would continue until 1955, launching a successful cross-media franchise. See Chadwick Allen, ‘Hero with Two Faces: The Lone Ranger as Treaty Discourse’, American Literature, 68/3 (September 1996), 609–38 (613). The figure of Zorro, first appearing in Johnston McCulley’s short story The Curse of Capistrano (1919) – a precursor to contemporary superheroes – appeared across film, radio, pulps, comic books and television. See Kevin Starr, Material Dreams: Southern California through the 1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 227.

99 John M. Callahan, ‘The Grand-Guignol in New York City, October–November 1923: Violence Fails to Draw an Audience’, in Arthur Gewirtz and James J. Kolb (eds), Art, Glitter, and Glitz: Mainstream Playwrights and Popular Theatre in 1920s America (Westport: Praeger, 2004), p. 162.

100 Tom Gunning, ‘The Horror of Opacity: The Melodrama of Sensation in the Plays of Andre de Lorde’, in J. Cook, J. Bratton and C. Gledhill (eds), Melodrama: Stage, Picture, Screen (London: British Film Institute, 1994), p. 60; Adam Rockoff, Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, 1978–1986 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2002), p. 24.

101 Richard J. Hand and Michael Wilson, Grand Guignol: The French Theatre of Horror (Devon: Exeter University Press, 2002), p. 139.

102 Bert Cardullo and Robert Knopf, Theater of the Avant-garde, 1890–1950: A Critical Anthology (New Haven: Yale University, 2001), p. 373.

103 Cardullo and Knopf, Theater of the Avant-garde, p. 375.

104 Robert Cunliffe, ‘Bakhtin, Artaud, and Brecht’, in David Shepherd (ed.), Bakhtin: Carnival and Other Subjects (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1991), p. 53.

105 Cunliffe, ‘Bakhtin, Artaud, and Brecht’, p. 54.

106 Margaret Rogerson, Playing a Part in History: The York Mysteries, 1951–2006 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), p. 82.

107 Rogerson, Playing a Part in History, p. 57.

108 Antonin Artaud, The Theater and its Double, trans. Mary Caroline Richards (New York: Grove Press, 1958), p. 53.

109 Artaud, The Theater and Its Double, p. 93.

110 Linda Badley, Film, Horror, and the Body Fantastic (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1995), p. 9.

111 Badley, Film, Horror, and the Body Fantastic, p. 10.

112 Hand and Wilson, Grand Guignol, p. ix.

113 Victor Emeljanow, ‘Grand Guignol and the Orchestration of Violence’, Themes in Drama 12: Violence in Drama (New York: Cambridge University Press), p. 153.

114 Emeljanow, ‘Grand Guignol and the Orchestration of Violence’, p. 153.

115 Emeljanow, ‘Grand Guignol and the Orchestration of Violence’, p. 154.

116 Emeljanow, ‘Grand Guignol and the Orchestration of Violence’, p. 154.

117 Callahan, ‘The Grand-Guignol in New York City’, p. 167.

118 Hand and Wilson, Grand Guignol, p. 8.

119 Callahan, ‘The Grand-Guignol in New York City’, p. 168.

120 Emeljanow, ‘Grand Guignol and the Orchestration of Violence’, p. 154.

121 Hand and Wilson, Grand Guignol, p. 8.

122 Gunning, ‘The Horror of Opacity’, p. 56; Adam Lowenstein, Shocking Representation: Historical Trauma, National Cinema and the Modern Horror Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p. 47.

123 Richard J. Hand, ‘Half-Masks and Stage Blood: Translating, Adapting and Performing French Historical Theatre Forms’, in K. Krebs (ed.), Translation and Adaptation in Theatre and Film (New York: Routledge, 2014), p. 146.

124 Hand and Wilson, Grand Guignol, pp. 180, 244–64.

125 Rémi Fournier Lanzoni, French Cinema: From Its Beginnings to the Present (New York: Continuum, 2005), pp. 56–7.

126 Richard Abel, The Cine Goes to Town: French Cinema 1896–1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 66.

127 These include Masked Mirth (Robin Williamson, 1917) and two versions of Masks and Faces – one by Lawrence Marston (1914) and a British version by Fred Paul (1917).

128 Many movies from this period feature masks in their titles alone, including Behind Comedy’s Mask (Urban Gad, 1913), The Gray Mask (Frank Crane, 1915), Behind the Mask (Alice Guy, 1917) and The Mask (Thomas N. Heffron, 1918).

129 Pamela Hutchinson, ‘10 Great Silent Horror Films’, British Film Institute (7 November 2016), www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/lists/10-great-silent-horror-films (accessed 28 February 2019).

130 David Robinson, Das Cabinet Des Dr. Caligari (London: Palgrave Macmillian/British Film Institute, 2013), p. 88.

131 Peter Selz, German Expressionist Painting (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), p. 125.

132 Ben Morgan, ‘Metropolis – The Archetypal Version: Sentimentality and Self-Control in the Reception of the Film’, in M. Minden and H. Bachmann (eds), Fritz Lang’s Metropolis: Cinematic Visions of Technology and Fear (New York: Camden House, 2000), p. 299.

133 Translations by Franck Boulègue, Julien Allen and Samuel Bréan, with thanks.

134 According to Deslandes, this story was reprinted in L’impossible, 5 (November 1971), which states that Gance’s short story with the same title was first published in Le miroir #81, 12 October 1913, which Deslandes believes to be incorrect.

135 John T. Soister and Henry Nicolella, American Silent Horror, Science Fiction and Fantasy Feature Films, 1913–1929, vol. 1 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2012), p. 637.

3 Masks in Horror Film before 1970

1 Steve Neale, ‘Questions of Genre’, Screen, 31/1 (1990), 45–66 (56).

2 Harry H. Long, ‘The Phantom of the Opera’, in J. T. Soister and H. Nicolella (eds), American Silent Horror, Science Fiction and Fantasy Feature Films, 1913–1929 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2012), p. 461.

3 Long, ‘The Phantom of the Opera’, p. 461.

4 Long, ‘The Phantom of the Opera’, p. 461.

5 Nick Haslam, ‘What is Dehumanization?’, in J. Vaes, P. G. Bain and J. P. Leyens (eds), Humanness and Dehumanization (London: Taylor and Francis, 2013), p. 38.

6 Long, ‘The Phantom of the Opera’, p. 460.

7 Mark Jancovich, Horror, The Film Reader (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 73.

8 Jancovich, Horror, The Film Reader, p. 73.

9 Jancovich, Horror, The Film Reader, p. 74.

10 Sue Ellen Case ‘Tracking the Vampire’, difference, 3/2 (summer 1991), 1–20 (3).

11 Barbara Creed, The Monstrous-Feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis (New York: Routledge, 1993); Barbara Creed, ‘Horror and the Monstrous-Feminine: An Imaginary Abjection’, in Mark Jancovich (ed.), Horror, The Film Reader (London: Routledge, 2002).

12 Creed, ‘Horror and the Monstrous-Feminine’, p. 75.

13 Creed, ‘Horror and the Monstrous-Feminine’, p. 75.

14 Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1959), p. 105; Anat Zanger, Film Remakes as Ritual and Disguise: From Carmen to Ripley (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006).

15 Harry H. Long, ‘The Bat’, in J. T. Soister and H. Nicolella (eds), American Silent Horror, Science Fiction and Fantasy Feature Films, 1913–1929 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2012), p. 21.

16 S. T. Joshi, Icons of Horror and the Supernatural: An Encyclopaedia of Our Worst Nightmares. Volume 1 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2007), p. 298.

17 Alison Peirse, ‘Bauhaus of Horrors: Edgar G. Ulmer and The Black Cat’, in Gary Rhodes (ed.), Edgar G. Ulmer: Detour on Poverty Row (London: Lexington Books, 2010), p. 280.

18 Peirse, ‘Bauhaus of Horrors’, p. 280.

19 Tom Weaver, Michael Brunas and John Brunas, Universal Horrors: The Studio’s Classic Films, 1931–1946 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2007), p. 13.

20 Aija Ozolins, ‘Dreams and Doctrines: Dual Strands in Frankenstein’, Science Fiction Studies, 2/2 (1975), 103–12 (104).

21 William J. Hynes, ‘Mapping the Characteristics of Mythic Tricksters: A Heuristic Guide’, in William J. Hynes and William G. Doty (eds), Mythical Trickster Figures: Contours, Contexts, and Criticisms (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1993), p. 34.

22 Sarah Thomas, Peter Lorre: Face Maker: Stardom and Performance between Hollywood and Europe (New York: Berghahn Books, 2012), p. 3.

23 Haslam, ‘What is Dehumanization?’, p. 38.

24 The Face Behind the Mask was promoted heavily by Columbia at the time of its release as a horror film, despite being traditional crime material. See Stephen D. Youngkin, The Lost One: A Life of Peter Lorre (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2005), p. 172.

25 Ron Backer, Classic Horror Films and the Literature that Inspired Them (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2015), p. 97.

26 Jeremy Tambling, Opera, Ideology and Film (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), pp. 48–9.

27 Backer, Classic Horror Films, p. 99.

28 Mark Jancovich, Rational Fears: American Horror in the 1950s (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), p. 1.

29 Robin Wood, Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan … and Beyond (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), pp. 1–2; Jancovich, Rational Fears, p. 2.

30 Jancovich, Rational Fears, p. 2.

31 Jancovich, Rational Fears, p. 2.

32 Jancovich, Rational Fears, p. 2.

33 Jancovich, Rational Fears, pp. 262–3, 268.

34 Jancovich, Rational Fears, p. 271.

35 Bruce F. Kawin, Horror and the Horror Film (London: Anthem Press, 2012), p. 160.

36 Joel Eisner, The Price of Fear: The Film Career of Vincent Price in His Own Words (Antelope: Black Bed Sheet Books, 2013), p. 138.

37 Efrat Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, in Efrat Tseëlon (ed.) Masquerade and Identities: Essays on Gender, Sexuality and Marginality (London: Routledge, 2001), p. 20.

38 See Steven Jay Schneider and Tony Williams, ‘Introduction’, in Steven Jay Schneider and Tony Williams (eds), Horror International (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2005), pp. 1–12; Steven Jay Schneider, ‘Introduction’, in Steven Jay Schneider (ed.), Fear without Frontiers: Horror Cinema Across the Globe (Godalming: FAB Press, 2003), pp. 12–13.

39 Tino Balio, The Foreign Film Renaissance on American Screens, 1946–1973 (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2010), p. 79.

40 Richard S. Randall, ‘Censorship: From The Miracle to Deep Throat’, in Thomas Schatz (ed.), Hollywood: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies. Vol. III: Social Dimensions: Technology, Regulation and the Audience (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 216.

41 Peter Hutchings, Historical Dictionary of Horror Cinema (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2008), p. 321; Tim Bergfelder, ‘The Nation Vanishes: European Co-Productions and Popular Genre Formula in the 1950s and 1960s’, in Mette Hjort and Scott MacKenzie (eds), Cinema and Nation (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 141.

42 See Austin Fisher and Johnny Walker (eds), Grindhouse: Cultural Exchange on 42nd Street, and Beyond (New York: Bloomsbury, 2016).

43 Raymond Durgnat, Franju (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), p. 83.

44 Durgnat, Franju, p. 73.

45 Identifying features of tricksters, noted previously by Hynes, ‘Mapping the Characteristics of Mythic Tricksters: A Heuristic Guide’, p. 34.

46 David J. Skal, Screams of Reason: Mad Science and Modern Culture (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1998), p. 23.

47 Kate Ince, Georges Franju (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005), p. 104.

48 Joan Hawkins, Cutting Edge: Art-Horror and the Horrific Avant-Garde (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), p. 69.

49 Hawkins, Cutting Edge, p. 71.

50 Adam Lowenstein, Shocking Representation: Historical Trauma, National Cinema and the Modern Horror Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p. 42.

51 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 42.

52 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 43.

53 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 48.

54 Octavia Paz, The Labyrinth of Solitude (1959; New York: Grove Press Inc., 1985), p. 29.

55 Alexandra Mendoza Covarrubias, ‘Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead)’, in María Herrera-Sobek (ed.), Celebrating Latino Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Cultural Traditions, Volume 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2012), p. 403.

56 Tseëlon, ‘Reflections on Mask and Carnival’, p. 20.

57 See S. V. Lutes, ‘The Mask and Magic of the Yaqui Paskola Clowns’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), pp. 81–92; N. Ross Crumrine, ‘Mask Use and Meaning in Easter Ceremonialism: The Mayo Parisero’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), pp. 93–101; Frances Gillmor, ‘Symbolic Representation in Mexican Combat Plays’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), pp. 102–10; Victoria R. Bricker, ‘The Meaning of Masking in San Pedro Chenalho’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), pp. 111–15; J. Brody Esser, ‘Tarascan Masks of Women as Agents of Social Control’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), pp. 116–27.

58 Walter Sorell, The Other Face: The Mask in the Arts (London: Thames and Hudson, 1973), p. 213.

59 Doyle Greene, Mexploitation Cinema: A Critical History of Mexican Vampire, Wrestler, Ape-Man and Similar Films, 1957–1977 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2005), p. 8.

60 Greene, Mexploitation Cinema, p. 8.

61 Gabrielle Murray, ‘El Santo: Wrestler, Saint and Superhero’, Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media (December 2006), http://refractory.unimelb.edu.au/2006/12/04/el-santo-wrestler-saint-and-superhero-gabrielle-murray/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

62 Murray, ‘El Santo’.

63 Murray, ‘El Santo’.

64 Evan Lieberman, ‘Mask and Masculinity: Culture, Modernity, and Gender Identity in the Mexican Lucha Libre films of El Santo’, Studies in Hispanic Cinemas, 6/1 (December 2009), 3–17 (3).

65 Fotonovellas are comic books that featured actual photographs of actors/actions instead of illustrations.

66 Murray, ‘El Santo’.

67 Lieberman, ‘Mask and Masculinity’, 3.

68 Peter T. Markman and Roberta H. Markman, ‘The Mask as Metaphor’, in Peter T. Markman and Roberta H. Markman (eds), Masks of the Spirit: Image and Metaphor in Mesoamerica (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. xix.

69 Murray, ‘El Santo’.

70 Murray, ‘El Santo’.

71 Murray, ‘El Santo’.

72 Greene, Mexploitation Cinema, p. 101.

73 For example, Santo vs. the Zombies (Santo Contra los Zombis, Benito Alazraki, 1961), Santo in the Hotel of Death (Santo en el hotel de la muerte, Federico Curiel, 1963), Santo vs. the Diabolical Hatchet (El Hacha diabólica, José Díaz Morales, 1965), Santo Attacks the Witches (Atacan las brujas, José Díaz Morales, 1968), Santo and Dracula’s Treasure (Santo en El tesoro de Dracula, René Cardona, 1969), Revenge of the Vampire Women (La venganza de las mujeres vampire, Federico Curiel, 1970) and Santo and the Vengeance of the Mummy (Santo En La Venganza De La Momia, René Cardona, 1971).

74 Greene, Mexploitation Cinema, p. 103.

75 Greene, Mexploitation Cinema, p. 104.

76 Lieberman, ‘Mask and Masculinity’, 5.

77 Murray, ‘El Santo’.

78 Lieberman, ‘Mask and Masculinity’, 3.

79 Murray, ‘El Santo’.

80 See, for instance, Hercules and the Masked Rider (Golia e il cavaliere mascherato, Piero Pierotti, 1963) and Terror of the Red Mask (Il terrore della maschera rossa, Luigi Capuano, 1960).

81 Mikel J. Koven, La Dolce Morte: Vernacular Cinema and the Italian Giallo Film (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2006), p. 6.

82 Gary Needham, ‘Playing with Genre: An Introduction to the Italian Giallo’, in Ernest Mathijs and Xavier Mendik (eds), The Cult Film Reader (Maidenhead: McGraw Hill, 2008), p. 296.

83 Koven, La Dolce Morte, pp. 7, 159.

84 Leon Hunt, ‘A (Sadistic) Night at the Opera’, in Ken Gelder (ed.), The Horror Reader (London: Routledge, 2000), p. 330.

85 Hunt, ‘A (Sadistic) Night at the Opera’, p. 330.

86 Hunt, ‘A (Sadistic) Night at the Opera’, p. 330.

87 Peter Bondanella, A History of Italian Cinema (New York: Continuum, 2009), p. 310.

88 Martyn Conterio, Black Sunday (Leighton Buzzard: Auteur, 2014), p. 71.

89 Conterio, Black Sunday, p. 71.

90 Zvika Serper, ‘Shindô Kaneto’s Films Kuroneko and Onibaba: Traditional and Innovative Manifestations of Demonic Embodiments’, Japan Forum, 17/2 (2005), 231–56 (231).

91 Serper, ‘Shindô Kaneto’s Films’, 232, 233.

92 Serper, ‘Shindô Kaneto’s Films’, 232.

93 Serper, ‘Shindô Kaneto’s Films’, 232.

94 Serper, ‘Shindô Kaneto’s Films’, 247.

95 Colette Balmain, Introduction to Japanese Horror Film (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008), p. 59.

96 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 87.

97 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 87.

98 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 88.

99 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 93.

100 Neale, ‘Questions of Genre’, Screen, 31/1 (1990), 45–66 (56).

4 Skin Masks: Ritual, Power and Transformation

1 See Christina Pratt, An Encyclopedia of Shamanism (New York: Rosen, 2007), p. 263; Cunera Cornelia Maria Buijs, Furs and Fabrics: Transformations, Clothing and Identity in East Greenland (Leiden: Center of Non Western Studies, 2004).

2 See John Schechter, Popular Theatre: A Sourcebook (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013), p. 84; Dennis Kennedy (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Theatre and Performance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 376; Antonio Fava, The Comic Mask in the Commedia Dell’Arte: Actor Training, Improvisation, and the Poetics of Survival (Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 2007), p. 15.

3 Ricki Stefanie Tannen, The Female Trickster: The Mask That Reveals – Post-Jungian and Postmodern Psychological Perspectives on Women in Contemporary Culture (Hove: Routledge, 2007), p. 279.

4 W. Anthony Sheppard, Revealing Masks: Exotic Influences and Ritualized Performance in Modernist Music Theater (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 28.

5 Sheppard, Revealing Masks, p. 28.

6 John E. Parnum, ‘The Abominable Dr. Phibes and Dr. Phibes Rises Again (1971/1972)’, in G. J. Svehla and S. Svehla (eds), Vincent Price (Baltimore: Luminary Press, 1998), p. 247.

7 Rick Worland, ‘Faces Behind the Mask: Vincent Price, Dr. Phibes, and the Horror Genre in Transition’, Post Script, 22/2 (winter–spring 2003), 20–33 (20).

8 Patricia MacCormack, Cinesexuality (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), p. 108.

9 Steve Chibnall, ‘A Heritage of Evil: Pete Walker and the Politics of Gothic Revisionism’, in Steve Chibnall and Julian Petley (eds), British Horror Cinema (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 162.

10 Parnum, ‘The Abominable Dr. Phibes’, p. 247.

11 Richard Schechner, Performance Theory (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 45.

12 Larry Ellis, ‘Trickster: Shaman of the Liminal’, Studies in American Indian Literatures, 5/4 (winter 1993), 55–68 (57).

13 William J. Hynes, ‘Mapping the Characteristics of Mythic Tricksters: A Heuristic Guide’, in William J. Hynes and William G. Doty (eds), Mythical Trickster Figures: Contours, Contexts, and Criticisms (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1993), p. 34.

14 Karen Hollinger, The Actress: Hollywood Acting and the Female Star (New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 28.

15 Fernando G. Pagnoni Berns and Amy M. Davis, ‘From Jigsaw to Phibes: God, Free Will and Foreknowledge in Conflict’, in James Aston (ed.), To See the Saw Movies: Essays on Torture Porn and Post-9/11 Horror (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2013), p. 79.

16 Pagnoni Berns and Davis, ‘From Jigsaw to Phibes’, p. 80.

17 Pagnoni Berns and Davis, ‘From Jigsaw to Phibes’, p. 80.

18 Pagnoni Berns and Davis, ‘From Jigsaw to Phibes’, p. 80.

19 MacCormack, Cinesexuality, p. 108.

20 MacCormack, Cinesexuality, p. 108.

21 Victor Turner, ‘Frame, Flow and Reflection: Ritual and Drama as Public Liminality’, in Michael Benamou and Charles Caramello (eds), Performance and Postmodern Culture (Milwaukee: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Press, 1977), pp. 41–2.

22 Tony Williams, Hearths of Darkness: The Family in the American Horror Film (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), p. 171.

23 Claire Sisco King, ‘Acting Up and Sounding Off: Sacrifice and Performativity in Alice, Sweet Alice’, Text and Performance Quarterly, 27/2 (April 2007), 124–42 (125–6, 124).

24 Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), p. 25.

25 Brian Albright, Regional Horror Films, 1958–1990: A State-by-State Guide with Interviews (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2012), p. 232.

26 Aalya Ahmad and Sean Moreland, ‘Introduction: Horror in the Classroom’, in Aalya Ahmad and Sean Moreland (eds), Fear and Learning: Essays on the Pedagogy of Horror (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2013), p. 14. While no sequel exists, there were rumours in 2016 of a remake. See John Squires, ‘Dante Tomaselli Provides Update on Alice, Sweet Alice Remake’, Dread Central (24 May 2016), www.dreadcentral.com/news/167951/dante-tomaselli-provides-update-alice-sweet-alice-remake/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

27 Tannen, The Female Trickster, p. 39.

28 See Peter Hutchings, The A to Z of Horror Cinema (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2009), p. 294; Mikel J. Koven, Film, Folklore, and Urban Legends (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2008), p. 113.

29 Christopher Sharrett, ‘The Idea of Apocalypse in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre’, in Barry Keith Grant and Christopher Sharrett (eds), Planks of Reason: Essays on the Horror Film (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2004), p. 301.

30 Pagnoni Berns and Davis, ‘From Jigsaw to Phibes’, p. 84.

31 Robin Wood, ‘An Introduction to the American Horror Film’, in Barry Keith Grant and Christopher Sharrett (eds), Planks of Reason: Essays on the Horror Film (Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2004), p. 129.

32 Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1959), p. 105.

33 Sharrett, ‘The Idea of Apocalypse’, pp. 315–16.

34 James Rose, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (Leighton Buzzard: Auteur, 2013), p. 72.

35 Rose, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, p. 72.

36 Sharrett, ‘The Idea of Apocalypse’, p. 308.

37 See Richard Eves, ‘Shamanism, Sorcery and Cannibalism: The Incorporation of Power in the Magical Cult of Buai’, Oceana, 65/3 (March 1995), 212–33; Charles Stépanoff, ‘Devouring Perspectives: On Cannibal Shamans in Siberia’, Inner Asia, 11 (2009), 283–307.

38 Stefan Jaworzyn, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Companion (London: Titan Books, 2003), p. 79.

39 Jaworzyn, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Companion, p. 81.

40 Buijs, Furs and Fabrics, p. 74.

41 Maria Tamboukou, Gendering the Memory of Work: Women Workers’ Narratives (London: Routledge, 2016), p. 130.

42 Johan Höglund, The American Imperial Gothic: Popular Culture, Empire, Violence (London: Routledge, 2014), p. 76.

43 Rose, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, p. 78.

44 Jaworzyn, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Companion, p. 81.

45 Sharrett, ‘The Idea of Apocalypse’, p. 317.

46 Robin Wood, Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan … and Beyond (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), pp. 63–84.

47 Thomas Sipos (Horror Film Aesthetics: Creating the Visual Language of Fear (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2010), p. 63) and Butler (‘Faces of Rage: Masks, Murderers, and Motives in the Canadian Slasher Film’, in Julia Petrov and Gudrun D. Whitehead (eds), Fashioning Horror: Dressing to Kill on Screen and in Literature (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), p. 208) privilege this scene, describing it as a ‘crone’ mask, neither acknowledging the historically derogatory nature of the term (Karen Rauch and Jeff Fessler, When Drag is Not a Car Race: An Irreverent Dictionary of Over 400 Gay and Lesbian Words and Phrases (New York: Fireside/Simon & Schuster, 1997), p. 21; M. A. Yadugiri and B. Naidu, Understanding Literature (Hyperabad: Orient Longman, 1996), p. 6), although it has been reclaimed in Wicca and neo-pagan circles – see Dorothy Morrison, In Praise of the Crone: A Celebration of Feminine Maturity (St Paul: Llewellyn Worldwide, 1999).

48 Butler, ‘Faces of Rage’, p. 210.

49 Butler, Gender Trouble, p. 25.

50 Barbara Creed, The Monstrous-Feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis (New York: Routledge, 1993), p. 2.

51 Sarah Allison Miller, ‘Virgins, Mothers, Monsters: Late-medieval Readings of the Female Body Out of Bounds’ (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2008), 55.

52 Miriam Bernard, Pat Chambers and Gillian Granville, ‘Women Ageing: Changing Identities, Challenging Myths’, in Miriam Bernard, Val Harding Davies, Linda Machin and Judith Phillips (eds), Women Ageing: Changing Identities, Challenging Myths (Florence: Taylor and Francis, 2005), p. 2.

53 Deborah Jermyn and Su Holmes, ‘Introduction: A Timely Intervention — Unravelling the Gender/Age/Celebrity Matrix’, in Deborah Jerym and Su Holmes (eds), Women, Celebrity and Cultures of Ageing: Freeze Frame (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), p. 1.

54 Deborah Jermyn, ‘“Get a Life, Ladies. Your Old One is Not Coming Back”: Ageing, Ageism and the Lifespan of Female Celebrity’, Celebrity Studies, 3/1 (2012), 1–12 (4).

55 Jermyn and Holmes, ‘Introduction’, p. 1.

56 Roger Ebert, Life Itself: A Memoir (New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2011), p. 53; Ann Hornaday, ‘Harvey Weinstein Embodies a Culture Whose Power is on the Wane’, Sydney Morning Herald (10 October 2017), www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/news-and-views/harvey-weinstein-embodies-a-culture-whose-power-is-on-the-wane-20171008-gywr20.html (accessed 28 February 2019); Deborah Martinson, Lillian Hellman: A Life with Foxes and Scoundrels (New York: Counterpoint, 2005), p. 124.

57 Jim Rutenberg, Rachel Abrams and Melena Ryzikoct, ‘Harvey Weinstein’s Fall Opens the Floodgates in Hollywood’, The New York Times (16 October 2017), https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/16/business/media/harvey-weinsteins-fall-opens-the-floodgates-in-hollywood.html (accessed 28 February 2019).

58 Earlier in the film, one of the women’s partners, Peter, wears a stocking mask over his head during their consensual ‘rape-play’ seduction scene: the mask here is gendered distinctly feminine (a stocking), subverted as a symbol of gendered violence and power.

59 Reynold Humphries, The American Horror Film: An Introduction (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002), p. 18.

60 Humphries, The American Horror Film, p. 149.

61 Julie A. Ruth and Cele C. Ontes, ‘Consumption Rituals’, in Daniel Thomas Cook and J. Michael Ryan (eds), The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Consumption and Consumer Studies (Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2015), pp. 187–9.

62 Cynthia Hendershot, The Animal Within: Masculinity and the Gothic (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998), p. 85; H. C. Erik Midelfort, A History of Madness in Sixteenth-Century Germany (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), p. 7.

63 Adam Rockoff, The Horror of It All: One Moviegoer’s Love Affair with Masked Maniacs, Frightened Virgins, and the Living Dead (New York: Scribner, 2015), p. 68.

64 Sorcha Ní Fhlainn, ‘Sweet, Bloody Vengeance: Class, Social Stigma and Servitude in the Slasher Genre’, in Holly Lynn Baumgartner and Roger Davis (eds), Hosting the Monster (Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi, 2008), p. 179.

65 Ní Fhlainn, ‘Sweet, Bloody Vengeance’, p. 179.

66 Ní Fhlainn, ‘Sweet, Bloody Vengeance’, p. 186.

67 Vera Dika, Games of Terror: Halloween, Friday the 13th and the Films of the Stalker Cycle (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990), p. 104.

68 Dika, Games of Terror, p. 104.

69 Dika, Games of Terror, p. 104.

70 Dika, Games of Terror, p. 105.

71 Martha Sims and Martine Stephens, Living Folklore: An Introduction to the Study of People and Their Traditions (Logan: Utah State University Press, 2011), p. 102.

72 Dika, Games of Terror, p. 105.

73 Dika, Games of Terror, p. 105.

74 Jason L. Jarvis, ‘Digital Image Politics: The Networked Rhetoric of Anonymous’, in Matthew Johnson and Samid Suliman (eds), Protest – Analysing Current Trends (London: Routledge, 2014), p. 218.

75 Jarvis, ‘Digital Image Politics’, p. 218.

76 Cole Stryker, ‘Go to Bed, Tao Lin’, Rhizome (21 March 2012), https://rhizome.org/editorial/2012/mar/27/tao-lin/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

77 Stryker, ‘Go to Bed, Tao Lin’.

78 Jarvis, ‘Digital Image Politics’, p. 218.

79 E. Gabriella Coleman, ‘Phreaks, Hackers and Trolls: The Politics of Transgression and Spectacle’, in Michael Mandiberg (ed.), The Social Media Reader (New York: New York University Press, 2012), p. 115.

80 Bettina Kluge, ‘The Collaborative Construction of an Outsider as a Troll in the Blogosphere of Latin American Immigrants to Quebec, Canada’, in Kristina Bedijs, Gudrun Held and Christiane Maaß (eds), Face Work and Social Media (Zurich: Lit Verlad, 2014), p. 326.

81 Whitney Phillips, This Is Why We Can’t Have Nice Things: Mapping the Relationship Between Online Trolling and Mainstream Culture (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2015), pp. 56, 57.

82 Stryker, ‘Go to Bed, Tao Lin’.

83 Phillips, This Is Why We Can’t Have Nice Things, p. 88.

84 Dorothy M. Bollinger and Merle Horowitz, Cyberbullying in Social Media Within Educational Institutions (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), p. 84.

85 Lizbeth Goodman, Literature and Gender (Abingdon: The Open University/Routledge, 1996), p. 110.

5 Blank Masks: Ritual, Power and Transformation

1 Elizabeth Tonkin, ‘Mask’, in Richard Bauman (ed.), Folklore, Cultural Performances, and Popular Entertainments – A Communications-centered Handbook (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 230.

2 Ski masks are mentioned further in chapter 6 as they also intersect with the repurposed mask category. Blank masks appear in films including Litan (Jean-Pierre Mocky, 1982), Edge of the Axe (José Ramón Larraz, 1988), Cut (Kimble Rendall, 2000), Cinderella (Bong Man-dae, 2006), The Cabin in the Woods (Drew Goddard, 2012), Cruel Tango (Salvatore Metastasio, 2014), Goddess of Love (Jon Knautz, 2015), Brakenmore (Chris Kemble and J. P. Davidson, 2016), Tragedy Girls (Tyler MacIntyre, 2017) and House of Sweat and Tears (Sonia Escolano, 2018).

3 In Franco’s oeuvre, this includes The Awful Dr. Orloff (1962) and Faceless (1988). Almodóvar cited Franju as a direct influence on The Skin I Live In (2011), see Gonzalo Suárez López, ‘Interview with Pedro Almodóvar’, Cineuropa (19 May 2011), cineuropa.org/it.aspx?t=interview&lang=en&documentID=203802 (accessed 28 February 2019).

4 Catherine Russell, Narrative Mortality: Death, Closure, and New Wave Cinemas (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), p. 194.

5 Thomas Schatz, ‘Hollywood Genres: Film Genre and the Genre Film’, in Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen (eds), Film theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 564.

6 Andrew Scahill, ‘Serialized Killers: Prebooting Horror in Bates Motel and Hannibal’, in Amanda Ann Klein, R. Barton Palmer (eds), Cycles, Sequels, Spin-offs, Remakes, and Reboots: Multiplicities in Film and Television (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2016), p. 322; Charles Derry, Dark Dreams 2.0: A Psychological History of the Modern Horror Film from the 1950s to the 21st Century (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2009), p. 311.

7 Christina Pratt, An Encyclopedia of Shamanism (New York: Rosen, 2007), p. 396.

8 Mircea Eliade, Rites and Symbols of Initiation (Putname: Connecticut Springs Publications, 2003), p. 6.

9 Umberto Eco, ‘Innovation and Repetition: Between Modern and Post-Modern Aesthetics’, Daedalus, 11/4/4 (fall 1985), 161–84 (167).

10 Anat Zanger, Film Remakes as Ritual and Disguise: From Carmen to Ripley (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006), p. 16.

11 Kendall R. Phillips, Dark Directions: Romero, Craven, Carpenter and the Modern Horror Film (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2012), p. 144.

12 Reynold Humphries, The American Horror Film: An Introduction (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002), p. 140.

13 J. P. Telotte, ‘Through a Pumpkin’s Eye: The Reflexive Nature of Horror’, in Gregory Albert Waller (ed.), American Horrors: Essays on the Modern American Horror Film (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), p. 119.

14 Murray Leeder, Halloween (Leighton Buzzard: Auteur, 2014), p. 98.

15 Leeder, Halloween, p. 29.

16 David Roche, Making and Remaking Horror in the 1970s and 2000s: Why Don’t They Do It Like They Used To? (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2014), p. 175.

17 Adapted from Kôji Suzuki’s 1991 novel, Ringu inspired sequels and remakes internationally such as Kim Dong-bin’s The Ring Virus from South Korea in 1999 and a US remake The Ring (Gore Verbinski, 2002) and sequel The Ring Two (Hideo Nakata, 2005), a BBC One radio play in 2015, as well as other novels and videogames.

18 Adam Lowenstein, Shocking Representation: Historical Trauma, National Cinema and the Modern Horror Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p. 102.

19 Tim Cross, ‘Staging the Local and Sacramental: Yamakasa as New Noh’, in Andrew Cobbing (ed.), Hakata: The Cultural Worlds of Northern Kyushu (Leiden: Brill, 2013), p. 214.

20 Colette Balmain, Introduction to Japanese Horror Film (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008), p. 169.

21 A rich strand of Japanese film history that featured the work of film-makers Hiroshi Teshigahara, Nobuhiko Obayashi, Toshio Matsumoto and Seijun Suzuki.

22 Celia’s complex relation to genre is discussed at length in Craig Martin, ‘Trust Your Instinct: An Interview with Ann Turner’, Senses of Cinema, 81 (December 2016), sensesofcinema.com/2016/beyond-the-babadook/ann-turner-interview/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

23 Dennis Fischer, ‘George Romero on Bruiser, Development Hell and Other Sundry Matters’, in Tony Williams (ed.), George A. Romero: Interviews (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2011), p. 124.

24 Barry Keith Grant, ‘Rich and Strange: The Yuppie Horror Film’, in Barry Keith Grant and Christopher Sharrett (eds), Planks of Reason: Essays on the Horror Film (Lanham: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004), p. 153.

25 Grant, ‘Rich and Strange’, pp. 162, 167.

26 Grant, ‘Rich and Strange’, p. 153.

27 Kendall R. Phillips, Dark Directions: Romero, Craven, Carpenter and the Modern Horror Film (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2012), p. 47.

28 Phillips, Dark Directions, p. 54.

29 Steve Neale, ‘Questions of Genre’, Screen, 31/1 (1990), 45–66 (56).

30 The film’s coda shows future Henry with counter-culture identifying long hair and a tie-dye t-shirt, who reveals the return of his white mask when being hassled by his boss in a new job as a mail room clerk, implying both a return to his senses of dehumanisation and his capacity to fill the ‘empty’ space with violence.

31 See Steve Barton, ‘Stephen King Gets Loud About Hush’, Dread Central (21 April 2016), www.dreadcentral.com/news/162737/stephen-king-gets-loud-hush/ (accessed 28 February 2019); Scott Weinberg, ‘Hush is a Cool, Quiet, Creepy Thriller’, Nerdist (9 April 2016), https://nerdist.com/review-hush-is-a-cool-quiet-creepy (accessed 28 February 2019); Eric Kohn, ‘Netflix’s Horror Movie Hush Proves the Effectiveness of the Blumhouse Model’, IndieWire (15 March 2016), www.indiewire.com/2016/03/sxsw-2016-review-netflixs-horror-movie-hush-proves-the-effectiveness-of-the-blumhouse-model-58031/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

32 Peter Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination: Balzac, Henry James, Melodrama, and the Mode of Excess (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), p. 59.

33 Brooks, The Melodramatic Imagination, p. 56.

34 Linda Williams, Playing the Race Card: Melodramas of Black and White from Uncle Tom to O. J. Simpson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 101; Christine Gledhill, ‘Rethinking Genre’, in Christine Gledhill and Linda Williams (eds), Reinventing Film Studies (London: Arnold, 2000), p. 227.

35 I discuss the relationship to muteness as a simultaneous sign of weakness and an empowering device in the case of the rape-revenge film in my monograph Ms. 45 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017).

6 Animal Masks: Ritual, Power and Transformation

1 Walter Sorell, The Other Face: The Mask in the Arts (London: Thames and Hudson, 1973), p. 9.

2 Sorell, The Other Face, p. 9.

3 John W. Nunley and Cara McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1999), p. 329.

4 Elizabeth Tonkin, ‘Mask’, in Richard Bauman (ed.), Folklore, Cultural Performances, and Popular Entertainments – A Communications-centered Handbook (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 228.

5 Georges Bataille, ‘The Mask’, LVNG, 10 (2002), 63–7.

6 Richard Schechner, Performance Theory (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 96.

7 Thomas Schatz also drew parallels between Jaws and slasher movies: see Thomas Schatz, ‘The New Hollywood’, in Graeme Turner (ed.), The Film Cultures Reader (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 191.

8 Michel Weemans and Bertrand Prévost, ‘Introduction’, in Walter Melion, Bret Rothstein and Michel Weemans (eds), The Anthropomorphic Lens: Anthropomorphism, Microcosmism, and Analogy in Early Modern Thought and Visual Arts (Leiden: Brill, 2014), p. 1.

9 Weemans and Prévost, ‘Introduction’, p. 4.

10 William Wynn Yarbrough, Masculinity in Children’s Animal Stories, 1888–1928 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2014), p. 4.

11 Filippo Menozzi, Postcolonial Custodianship: Cultural and Literary Inheritance (New York: Routledge, 2014), p. 162.

12 Weemans and Prévost, ‘Introduction’, p. 1.

13 Leviticus 11:7.

14 Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 5.

15 Carol J. Clover, Men, Women and Chain Saws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 28.

16 John Kenneth Muir, Horror Films of the 1980s (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2007), p. 111.

17 Shaun Kimber, ‘“Meat’s Meat, and a Man’s Gotta Eat” (Motel Hell, 1980): Food and Eating Within Contemporary Horror Cultures’, in Peri Bradley (ed.), Food, Media and Contemporary Culture: The Edible Image (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), p. 126.

18 See National Folk Museum of Korea, Encyclopedia of Korean Seasonal Customs: Encyclopedia of Korean Folklore and Traditional Culture Vol. 1 (Seoul: The National Folk Museum of Korea, 2009), p. 71; Mauro Van Aken, ‘Virtual Water, H2O and the De-socialisation of Water – A Brief Anthropological Journey’, in Marta Antonelli and Francesca Greco (eds), The Water We Eat: Combining Virtual Water and Water Footprints (Cham: Springer, 2015), p. 115.

19 Maggie Nolan, ‘Displacing Indigenous Australians: Freud’s Totem and Taboo’, in Joy Damousi and Robert Reynolds (eds), History on the Couch: Essays in History and Psychoanalysis (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2003), pp. 60–71.

20 Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2009), p. 5.

21 Christina Pratt, An Encyclopedia of Shamanism (New York: Rosen, 2007), p. 498.

22 Pratt, An Encyclopedia of Shamanism, p. 498.

23 Daniel Martin, ‘South Korean Horror Cinema’, in Harry M. Benshoff (ed.), A Companion to the Horror Film (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2014), p. 424; Linda Williams, Playing the Race Card: Melodramas of Black and White from Uncle Tom to O. J. Simpson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 16.

24 Martin, ‘South Korean Horror Cinema’, p. 438.

25 Ben Singer, Melodrama and Modernity: Early Sensational Cinema and Its Contexts (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), p. 44.

26 Williams, Playing the Race Card, p. 25.

27 Cathy Rose A. Garcia, ‘Meet Miffy at Hangaram Design Museum’, Korea Times (10 July 2009), www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/art/2019/03/691_48249.html (accessed 28 February 2019).

28 The Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature (Seoul: The National Folk Museum of Korea, 2014), p. 240.

29 The Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature, pp. 362, 240.

30 The Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature, p. 336.

31 Danielle Kirby, Fantasy and Belief: Alternative Religions, Popular Narratives and Digital Cultures (London: Routledge, 2013), p. 35.

32 André Loiselle, ‘Cinema du Grand Guignol: Theatricality in the Horror Film’, in André Loiselle and Jeremy Maron (eds), Stages of Reality: Theatricality in Cinema (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), p. 74.

33 Loiselle, ‘Cinema du Grand Guignol’, p. 74.

34 Loiselle, ‘Cinema du Grand Guignol’, p. 74.

35 See Lesli J. Favor, Italy: A Primary Source Cultural Guide (New York: PowerPlus Books, 2004), p. 49; Carol King, ‘Top 13 Italian Superstitions’, Italy Magazine (31 October 2013), www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/top-13-italian-superstitions (accessed 28 February 2019).

36 Desmond Morris, Owl (London: Reaktion Books, 2009), p. 28.

37 Morris, Owl, p. 28.

38 Michael Rice, The Power of the Bull (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 113.

39 Michael Patella, Lord of the Cosmos: Mithras, Paul, and the Gospel of Mark (New York: T & T Clark, 2006), p. 12.

40 Rice, The Power of the Bull, p. 112.

41 Rice, The Power of the Bull, p. 113.

42 Rice, The Power of the Bull, p. 114.

43 Rice, The Power of the Bull, p. 112.

44 Mike Gingold, ‘Q&A: The Conspiracy Writer/Director Christopher MacBride’, Fangoria (29 August 2013), https://web.archive.org/web/20170221224609/www.fangoria.com/new/qa-the-conspiracy-writerdirector-christopher-macbride/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

45 Mr Disgusting, ‘Go Down the Rabbit Hole with The Conspiracy Director Christopher MacBride!’, Bloody Disgusting (6 August 2013), bloody-disgusting.com/news/3247319/interview-go-down-the-rabbit-hole-with-the-conspiracy-director-christopher-macbride/; (accessed 28 February 2019).

46 Mr Disgusting, ‘Go Down the Rabbit Hole’.

47 Thom Burnett and Alex Games, Who Really Runs the World? The War between Globalization and Democracy (New York: Conspiracy Books, 2007), p. 1917.

48 Jack Fritscher, Popular Witchcraft: Straight from the Witches Mouth (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2004), p. 65.

49 Alice Von Kannon and Christopher L. Hodapp, Conspiracy Theories and Secret Societies for Dummies (Hoboken: Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2008), p. 343.

50 Tim Lucas, ‘Matters of Life and Death’, Sight and Sound, 21/3 (2011), 88.

51 Ian MacAllister McDonald, ‘Lost Girls: A Conversation about Fantastical Filmmaker Jean Rollin’, Los Angeles Review of Books (29 April 2017), https://blog.lareviewofbooks.org/interviews/lost-girls-conversation-fantastical-filmmaker-jean-rollin/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

52 Hal Foster, Compulsive Beauty (London: MIT Press, 1993), p. xvii.

53 Sigmund Freud, ‘The Uncanny’, in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (London: The Hogarth Press, 1955), pp. 219, 224–5.

54 Freud, ‘The Uncanny’, p. 245.

55 David Bate, Photography and Surrealism: Sexuality, Colonialism and Social Dissent (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2004), p. 39.

56 Jean Rollin, ‘For an Illogical and Nonsensical European Cinema’, in Ernest Mathijs and Xavier Mendik (eds), Alternative Europe: Eurotrash and Exploitation Cinema Since 1945 (London: Wallflower, 2004), p. 12.

57 Rollin, ‘For an Illogical and Nonsensical European Cinema’, p. 12.

58 Budd Wilkins, ‘Flesh and Blood: The Cinema of Jean Rollin’, Slant Magazine (27 January 2012), https://www.slantmagazine.com/features/article/flesh-and-blood-the-cinema-of-jean-rollin (accessed 28 February 2019).

59 Rollin, ‘For an Illogical and Nonsensical European Cinema’, p. 13.

60 Danny Shipka, Perverse Titillation: The Exploitation Cinema of Italy, Spain and France, 1960–1980 (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2011), p. 277.

61 Paul Coates, Screening the Face (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), p. 2.

62 Jeanne Dubino, ‘Introduction’, in Jeanne Dubino, Ziba Rashidian and Andrew Smyth (eds), Representing the Modern Animal in Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), p. 2.

7 Repurposed Masks: Ritual, Power and Transformation

1 John Mack, ‘Introduction’, in John Mack (ed.), Masks: The Art of Expression (London: British Museum Press, 1994), p. 31.

2 Laura Makarius, ‘The Mask and the Violation of Taboo’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), p. 197.

3 John W. Nunley and Cara McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1999), p. 328.

4 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 17.

5 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 17.

6 Ski masks – which also feature qualities of blank masks, as noted in chapter 5 – appear in films including Terrified (Lew Landers, 1963), Death Walks on High Heels (Luciano Ercoli, 1971), Torso (Sergio Martino, 1973), Haunts (Herb Freed, 1977), The Toolbox Murders (Dennis Donnelly, 1978), Prom Night (Paul Lynch, 1980), Deadly Games (Scott Mansfield, 1982), Iced (Jeff Kwitny, 1988) and Cry Wolf (Jeff Wadlow, 2005). Gas masks appear in The Prowler (Joseph Zito, 1981), Nigel the Psychopath (Jim Larsen, 1994), Anti Gas Skin (Bangdokpi, Gok Kim and Sun Kim, 2010), Vile (Taylor Sheridan, 2011), Found (Scott Schirmer, 2012), Avatar (Abatâ, Atsushi Wada, 2011) and both The Crazies (George A. Romero, 1973) and Breck Eisner’s 2010 remake of the same name. Masks employed in workplace contexts also appear in Mardi Gras Massacre (Jack Weis, 1978), X-Ray (Boaz Davidson, 1982), Sweatshop (Stacy Davidson, 2009), Pet Peeve (Fuan no tane, Toshikazu Nagae, 2013), while sport safety masks appear in The Snorkel (Guy Green, 1958), Asylum of Terror (George Demick, 1988), Bloody Murder (Rafe M. Portilo, 2000) and The Unravelling (Thomas Jakobsen, 2015).

7 Richard Nowell, Blood Money: A History of the First Teen Slasher Film Cycle (New York: Continuum, 2011), p. 53.

8 Caelum Vatnsdal, They Came from Within: A History of Canadian Horror Cinema (Winnipeg: Arbeiter Ring Publishing, 2004), p. 147.

9 Vatnsdal, They Came from Within, p. 148.

10 Rose Butler, ‘Faces of Rage: Masks, Murderers, and Motives in the Canadian Slasher Film’, in Julia Petrov and Gudrun D. Whitehead (eds), Fashioning Horror: Dressing to Kill on Screen and in Literature (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), p. 204.

11 Jim Harper, Legacy of Blood: A Comprehensive Guide to Slasher Movies (Manchester: Critical Vision/Headpress, 2004), p. 128.

12 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 331.

13 Finis Dunaway, Seeing Green: The Use and Abuse of American Environmental Images (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2015), p. 49.

14 Dunaway, Seeing Green, p. 52.

15 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 31.

16 Dunaway, Seeing Green, p. 52.

17 ‘Coal Mining’, n.d. Nova Scotia Museum of Industry website, https://museum ofindustry.novascotia.ca/nova-scotia-industry/coal-mining (accessed 28 February 2019).

18 Ricki Stefanie Tannen, The Female Trickster: The Mask That Reveals – Post-Jungian and Postmodern Psychological Perspectives on Women in Contemporary Culture (Hove: Routledge, 2007).

19 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 332.

20 Anne Balay, Steel Closets: Voices of Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Steelworkers (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), p. 102.

21 Kimberly Monteyne, Hip Hop on Film: Performance Culture, Urban Space, and Genre Transformation in the 1980s (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2013), p. 189.

22 Mary Ann Doane, ‘Film and the Masquerade: Theorizing the Female Spectator’, in Amelia Jones (ed.), The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 66.

23 Mary Ann Doane, Femmes Fatales: Feminism, Film Theory, Psychoanalysis (New York: Routledge, 1991), p. 37.

24 Hilary Neroni, The Violent Woman: Femininity, Narrative, and Violence in Contemporary American Cinema (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005), p. 95.

25 Kath Woodward, Embodied Sporting Practices: Regulating and Regulatory Bodies (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 68.

26 Susan Birrell, ‘Sport as Ritual: Interpretations from Durkheim to Goffman’, Social Forces, 60/2 (December 1981), 354–76 (354).

27 Kendall Blanchard, The Anthropology of Sport: An Introduction (Westport: Bergin & Garvey, 1995), p. 51.

28 Bruce F. Kawin, Horror and the Horror Film (London: Anthem Press, 2012), p. 145.

29 Anne Bolin and Jane Granskog, ‘Pastimes and Presentimes: Theoretical Issues in Research on Women in Action’, in Anne Bolin and Jane Granskog (eds), Athletic Intruders: Ethnographic Research on Women, Culture, and Exercise (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003), p. 254.

30 This can also be seen in Hannibal Lector’s famous mask from Jonathan Demme’s The Silence of the Lambs (1991), discussed in chapter 1. While not exactly a hockey mask, it shares aspects of its design but with an altogether different purpose – to literally imprison the mouth of that film’s cannibal antagonist. The mask here unites the hockey mask with what appears to be an animal muzzle, the latter adding even further to the dehumanising aspects of Lector’s taboo affinity for eating human flesh.

31 I discuss this film in my monograph Rape-Revenge Films: A Critical Study (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2011), pp. 64, 72.

32 David Grove, Making Friday the 13th: The Legend of Camp Blood (Godalming: FAB Press, 2005), p. 82.

33 Grove, Making Friday the 13th, p. 100.

34 Grove, Making Friday the 13th, p. 100.

35 Nunley and McCarty, Masks: Faces of Culture, p. 332.

36 Vera Dika, Games of Terror: Halloween, Friday the 13th and the Films of the Stalker Cycle (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990).

37 Michael Dylan Foster, Pandemonium and Parade: Japanese Monsters and the Culture of Yokai (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), p. 185.

38 Yoki Inagi, ‘Kuchisake Onna (2007)’, in Salvador Murguia (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Japanese Horror Films (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016), pp. 176–8 (pp. 176–7).

39 Foster, Pandemonium and Parade, p. 185.

40 Inagi, ‘Kuchisake Onna’, pp. 176–7.

41 Alan Leddon, A Child’s Eye View of Ghosts and Hauntings (Madison: Spero Publishing, 2014), p. 43.

42 Foster, Pandemonium and Parade, p. 185.

43 Foster, Pandemonium and Parade, p. 186.

44 Alan Dundes, Bloody Mary in the Mirror: Essays in Psychoanalytic Folkloristics (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002), pp. 83–4.

45 Gail De Vos, Tales, Rumors, and Gossip: Exploring Contemporary Folk Literature in Grades 7–12 (Westport: Libraries Unlimited, 1996), p. 58.

46 See Dundes, Bloody Mary in the Mirror, p. 84; De Vos, Tales, Rumors, and Gossip, p. 67; Robin Potter, ‘Bloody Mary or I Believe in Mary Worth’, in Christopher R. Fee and Jeffrey B. Webb (eds), American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore (Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2016), pp. 129–31.

47 Inagi, ‘Kuchisake Onna’, p. 178.

48 Jim Harper, ‘Shiraishi, Kōji’, in Salvador Murguia (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Japanese Horror Films (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016), p. 288.

49 Thy Phu, Picturing Model Citizens: Civility in Asian American Visual Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011), pp. 124, 123.

50 Adam Burgess and Mitsutoshi Horii, ‘Risk, Ritual and Health Responsibilisation: Japan’s “Safety Blanket” of Surgical Face Mask-Wearing’, Sociology of Health & Illness, 34/8 (2012), 1184–98 (1184).

51 Burgess and Horii, ‘Risk, Ritual and Health Responsibilisation’, 1184.

52 Azriel Perel, ‘Surgical Masks: Evidence, Image, and Art’, BJA: British Journal of Anaesthesia, 99/6 (2007), 918.

53 Perel, ‘Surgical Masks’, 918.

54 Adam Lowenstein, Shocking Representation: Historical Trauma, National Cinema and the Modern Horror Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p. 166.

55 William Beard, The Artist as Monster: The Cinema of David Cronenberg (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), p. 252.

56 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, p. 146.

57 Beard, The Artist as Monster, p. 252.

58 Steven Shaviro, ‘Bodies of Fear: The Films of David Cronenberg’, in Brian Massumi (ed.), The Politics of Everyday Fear (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), p. 133.

59 Lowenstein, Shocking Representation, pp. 2–3.

60 Steffen Hantke, ‘Germany’s Secret History: Stefan Ruzowitzky’s Anatomie (Anatomy, 2000)’, Kino Eye, 1/1 (September 2001), www.kinoeye.org/01/01/hantke01.php (accessed 28 February 2019).

61 Alexandra Ludegwig, ‘Screening Nazism and Reclaiming the Horror Genre: Stefan Ruzowitzky’s Anatomy Films’, in Robert von Dassanowsky and Oliver C. Speck (eds), New Austrian Film (New York: Bergahn, 2011), p. 287.

62 Linnie Blake, The Wounds of Nations: Horror Cinema, Historical Trauma and National Identity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2008), pp. 2–3.

63 Peter Hutchings, ‘Northern Darkness: The Curious Case of the Swedish Vampire’, in Leon Hunt, Sharon Lockyer and Milly Williamson (eds), Screening the Undead: Vampires and Zombies in Film and Television (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), p. 62.

64 Ludegwig, ‘Screening Nazism’, p. 279.

65 Ludegwig, ‘Screening Nazism’, p. 280.

66 Ludegwig, ‘Screening Nazism’, p. 280.

67 Ludegwig, ‘Screening Nazism’, p. 281.

68 Steven P. Remy, The Heidelberg Myth: The Nazification and Denazification of a German University (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 107. Anatomy also explicitly references another real-world link to the University of Heidelberg through its inclusion of medical school graduate Gunther von Hagens’s ‘plastination’ process of solidifying real human biological samples for educational use and public display (Ludegwig, ‘Screening Nazism’, p. 284).

8 Technological Masks: Ritual, Power and Transformation

1 Montserrat Ginés Gibert, ‘Introduction’, in Montserrat Ginés Gibert (ed.), The Meaning of Technology: Selected Readings from American Sources (Barcelona: Edicions UPC, 2003), p. 9.

2 Heather Margaret-Louise Miller, Archaeological Approaches to Technology (Florence: Taylor and Francis, 2016), p. 227.

3 N. Ross Crumrine, ‘Masks, Participants, and Audience’, in N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds), The Power of Symbols: Masks and Masquerade in the Americas (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983), p. 3.

4 Christina Pratt, An Encyclopedia of Shamanism (New York: Rosen, 2007), p. xiii.

5 John Bowen, ‘Gothic Motifs’, British Library (15 May 2014), https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gothic-motifs (accessed 28 February 2019).

6 Jeffrey Sconce, Haunted Media: Electronic Presence from Telegraphy to Television (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000), p. 16.

7 Sconce, Haunted Media, p. 10.

8 Miller, Archaeological Approaches to Technology, p. 5.

9 Miller, Archaeological Approaches to Technology, p. 6.

10 Shohini Chaudhuri, Feminist Film Theorists: Laura Mulvey, Kaja Silverman, Teresa de Lauretis, Barbara Creed (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 34.

11 Carol J. Clover, Men, Women and Chain Saws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 169.

12 Michele Aaron, ‘Looking On: Troubling Spectacles and the Complicitous Spectator’, in Geoff King (ed.), The Spectacle of the Real: From Hollywood to ‘Reality’ TV and Beyond (Bristol: Intellect Books, 2004), p. 216.

13 Kaja Silverman, The Acoustic Mirror: The Female Voice in Psychoanalysis and Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), p. 32.

14 Clover, Men, Women and Chain Saws, p. 169.

15 See Steve Chibnall and Julian Petley (eds), British Horror Cinema (London: Routledge, 2002); Ian Onley, Euro Horror: Classic European Horror Cinema in Contemporary American Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013).

16 Elana Del Ray, ‘The Body of Voyeurism: Mapping a Discourse of the Senses in Michael Powell’s Peeping Tom’, Camera Obscura, 15/3 (2001), 114–49 (115–16).

17 Del Ray, ‘The Body of Voyeurism’, 117.

18 Vivian Sobchack, Carnal Thoughts: Embodiment and Moving Image Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), p. 62.

19 Clover, Men, Women and Chain Saws, p. 170.

20 Quoted in Adam Lowenstein, Shocking Representation: Historical Trauma, National Cinema and the Modern Horror Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p. 61.

21 Caelum Vatnsdal, ‘Monsters Up North: A Taxonomy of Terror’, in Gina Freitag and André Loiselle (eds), The Canadian Horror Film: Terror of the Soul (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015), p. 28.

22 Ray Zone, 3D Revolution: The History of Modern Stereoscopic Cinema (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2012), p. 250.

23 Martin Harris, ‘You Can’t Kill the Boogeyman: Halloween III and the Modern Horror Franchise’, Journal of Popular Film and Television, 32/3 (2004), 98–109 (100).

24 Robert C. Cumbow, Order in the Universe: The Films of John Carpenter (Lanham: The Scarecrow Press, 2000), p. 69.

25 Tony Williams, Hearths of Darkness: The Family in the American Horror Film (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), p. 218.

26 Williams, Hearths of Darkness, p. 219.

27 Harris, ‘You Can’t Kill the Boogeyman’, 104.

28 William J. Hynes, ‘Mapping the Characteristics of Mythic Tricksters: A Heuristic Guide’, in William J. Hynes and William G. Doty (eds), Mythical Trickster Figures: Contours, Contexts, and Criticisms (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1993), p. 34.

29 Helena Bassil-Morozow, The Trickster in Contemporary Film (London: Routledge, 2012), p. 30.

30 Thomas Sipos, Horror Film Aesthetics: Creating the Visual Language of Fear (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2010), p. 63.

31 Harris, ‘You Can’t Kill the Boogeyman’, 105.

32 Harris, ‘You Can’t Kill the Boogeyman’, 103.

33 Alexandra Heller-Nicholas, Found Footage Horror Films: Fear and the Appearance of Reality (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2014).

34 David Lyon, Surveillance Studies: An Overview (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007), p. 11.

35 Lyon, Surveillance Studies, p. 13; Adam L. Penenberg, ‘The Surveillance Society’, Wired, 9/12 (December 2001) http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/surveillance.html (accessed 28 February 2019).

36 Trevor J. Blank, Folk Culture in the Digital Age: The Emergent Dynamics of Human Interaction (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2012), n.p.

37 Harold Bell, ‘Social Media Masquerade: A Digital Age of Identity Masks’, Silicon Valley De-Bug (11 June 2012), archives.siliconvalleydebug.org/articles/2012/06/11/social-media-masquerade-digital-age-identity-masks (accessed 28 February 2019).

38 Armina Dinescu, ‘Negotiating Identities in a Randomized Video-chat’, Ethnographic Encounters, 1/1 (2012), 27–39 (34).

39 Dinescu, ‘Negotiating Identities’, 34.

40 Ninja Dixon, ‘Månguden (1988)’, Ninja Dixon blog (25 March 2010), ninjadixon.blogspot.se/2010/03/manguden-1988.html (accessed 28 February 2019).

41 Cinezilla blog, ‘Månguden’ (18 May 2010), cinezilla.blogspot.se/2010/05/manguden.html?zx=89d44ba062875ab2 (accessed 28 February 2019).

42 Pidde Andersson, Blue Swede Shock! The History of Swedish Horror Films (n.p.: The TOPPRAFFEL! Library, 2009), unpaginated.

43 Cinezilla blog, ‘Månguden’.

44 Walid El Khachab, ‘Cinema as a Sacred Surface: Ritual Rememoration of Transcendence’, Kinephanos: Journal of Media Studies and Popular Culture (2013), www.kinephanos.ca/2013/sacred-surface/ (accessed 28 February 2019).

45 El Khachab, ‘Cinema as a Sacred Surface’.

46 John Mack, ‘Introduction’, in John Mack (ed.), Masks: The Art of Expression (London: British Museum Press, 1994), p. 10.

47 Mack, ‘Introduction’, p. 10.

48 Jim Harper, ‘This Carnival of Venice Mask Has a Dark Origin’, Historic Mysteries (6 June 2016), https://www.historicmysteries.com/plague-doctor (accessed 28 February 2019).