A

A The first letter of the alphabet in Sanskrit and other Indian languages. It is a sacred letter, forming the first syllable of the word OM. In addition it is a name of the Hindu god VISHNU, or in some texts of BRAHMA or SHIVA. The corresponding letters in several languages, for instance ALIF in Arabic and ALEPH in Hebrew, are also considered sacred.

abdal An Arabic term in Islam which literally means ‘substitutes’. They are people whom God has sent to sustain the world. According to some accounts, there are seventy abdals, forty of whom reside in Syria and thirty elsewhere, while others state there are forty major abdals and 150 lesser ones. When one dies, God appoints another in his place. No one except God knows who they are, but one of the signs of the last day of the world, is that the abdal will come from Syria. They are mentioned in the MISHKATUL-MASABIH, a SUNNI work popular in India, as well as in other texts. This mystical theme has some similarity with the concept of KALKI, the Hindu AVATARA yet to come, and with the Theosophical theory of perfected beings who exist in the world but do not reveal themselves. According to some texts, abdals form part of a hierarchy of hidden ISLAMIC SAINTS.

Abdul Baha The eldest son of BAHAULLAH, the founder of the BAHAI religion. Born in 1844, his name was Abbas Effendi, but he took the title Abdul Baha or ‘servant of Baha’ on his father’s death in 1891. His father Bahaullah had appointed him as the head of the faith and the only authorized interpreter of the religion, after him. Abdul Baha died in 1921 and passed on the leadership to his eldest grandson, SHOGHI EFFENDI.

Abdul Haqq, Shaikh A SUFI saint who lived from 1551 to 1642, whose full name was Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dihlawi. He was initiated into the QADIRI order, but differed from other Qadiriyas in some respects and attempted to reconcile the Sufi path with the laws of the SHARIA. Though his teacher, Shaikh Musa, was favourably inclined towards the liberal policies of the Mughal emperor AKBAR, Abdul Haqq was against them, and attempted to convince the emperor Jahangir to return to the path of the Sharia. He wrote a number of books, among them Akhbarul-Akhyar, a biographical dictionary of Sufis in India, and Madarijun Nubuwwah, in which he tried to find a middle path between mysticism and rationality. He said that a Sufi should also follow Sharia laws, and that scholarship and study are essential before attempting to attain mystical states, or else Sufism would become an excuse for misconduct and licentious behaviour. His disciples included Sufis and ULAMA.

Abdul Latif, Shah A SUFI poet who lived from 1689 to 1752 and composed verses in Sindhi. His collection of poems is called Rasalo (Message).

Born near Hyderabad, Sind, now in Pakistan, he studied Arabic and Persian and later became a wandering ascetic. He visited Hindu and Muslim shrines in Sind, Baluchistan and Gujarat. He then settled near his home town, where he lived a life of prayer and meditation and composed verses on his search for God. He attracted both Hindu and Muslim disciples.

Abdul Quddus Gangohi, Shaikh A SUFI saint of the SABIRI branch of the CHISTI order, who lived from 1456 to 1537. He wrote the Anwar ul-Uyun on the teachings of the Sabiri order and popularized the DARGAH of Shaikh Alauddin Sabir, the founder of the order, at Kalyar. He also compiled the Rushd-Nama, which includes verses in Hindi written by himself and his gurus. He was influenced by the teachings of GORAKHNATHA and believed in the Sufi doctrine of WAHDAT AL-WUJUD, which sees all religions and approaches as forms of the one reality or Absolute. Reflecting these beliefs, in a letter to one of his disciples, he wrote:

Why this meaningless talk about the believer,

The kafir, the obedient, the sinner,

The rightly guided, the misdirected, the Muslim;

The pious, the infidel, the fire-worshipper

All are like beads in a rosary.

Abdul Wahid, Mir A SUFI saint who was born in 1510 and lived at Bilgram near Lucknow. He wrote Haqaiq-i Hindi, explaining the reasons for using Hindu terms in Sufi poetry. He suggested that KRISHNA, RADHA, GANGA, YAMUNA and other names of VAISHNAVISM had Islamic equivalents. For instance, Krishna symbolized the Prophet MUHAMMAD in some passages, and in others represented any person, in contrast to the abstract reality of Oneness. The GOPIS represented angels, Braj and GOKUL were the Sufi concept of the world (alam), and the rivers Ganga and Yamuna were the sea of unity (Wahdat). In other contexts, the same terms had different symbolic meanings. He died in 1608.

Abdur Rahim Chisti A seventeenth-century SUFI saint who was initiated into several Sufi orders before joining the SABIRI-CHISTI order. He believed he was an UWAISI, that is, directly initiated by Shaikh MUINUDDIN CHISTI, and lived for some time in AGRA before settling in his village of Dhaniti where he died in 1683. He wrote a number of books including the Mirat-i Madari, Miratul-asrar, and Mirat-i Masudi. In the MIRATUL-MAKHLUQAT (Mirror of the Creatures) he translated and commented on a Hindu text, explaining Hindu legends. He also translated the BHAGAVAD GITA into Persian as Miratul-Haqaiq (Mirror of Realities).

Abdur Rahim Khan-i Khanan A noble in the court of the Mughal emperor AKBAR in the sixteenth century, who was also a poet known by the name RAHIM. His verses on religious themes are still popular today.

abhanga A verse form, which literally means ‘absolute’ or ‘eternal’. The medieval Hindu BHAKTI saints JNANESHVARA, NAMADEVA, EKNATHA and TUKARAM composed abhangas to God in Marathi, the language of Maharashtra. A typical abhanga consists of four lines, each with three to eight syllables. Most abhangas were addressed to the god VITTHALA, a form of the Hindu god VISHNU.

Abhasvaras A class or GANA of divine beings mentioned in Hindu texts. Literally the word means ‘shining ones’. They consist of sixty-four deities said to preside over all forms of enlightenment. They are personifications of mental qualities and the twelve main Abhasvaras are: Atma, the soul; Jnata, the knower; Dama, restraint; Danta, patience; Shanti, peace; Jnana, knowledge; Sama, tranquility; Tapas, penance; Kama, desire; Krodha, anger; Mada, intoxication; Moha, delusion.

Abhayadeva Suri A Jain scholar of the eleventh century who wrote commentaries on nine ANGAS, the basic texts of the SHVETAMBARA sect.

abhidhamma/abhidharma A term in Buddhism which means ‘higher DHARMA’ or ‘the higher subtleties of dharma’. There are a number of abhidhamma (PALI) or abhidharma (Sanskrit) texts, which explore Buddhist doctrines in depth.

Abhidhamma Pitaka HINAYANA Buddhist texts, which form part of the PALI CANON and were composed between the second and first centuries BCE. The texts contain mainly classifications, definitions and explanations of Buddhist doctrines in the NIKAYAS. The seven texts are: DHAMMASANGANI; VIBHANGA; DHATUKATHA; PUGGALAPANATI; KATHAVATTHU; YAMAKA; PATTHANA.

The Abhidhamma Pitaka form the texts of the THERAVADA school of Hinayana Buddhism. Not all Hinayana schools accept this series of texts. The SAUTRANTIKAS dispute its authority, while the SARVASTIVADA have an entirely different ABHIDHARMA PITAKA in Sanskrit. However, in the Theravada sect the Abhidhamma is highly revered and is still studied today. Over the centuries, numerous commentaries have been written on its texts. Among the commentators were BUDDHAGHOSHA, BUDDHADATTA, Dhammapala and Upasena. An important later commentary, composed in the twelfth century, is the Abhidhammatthasangaha of Anuruddha, which summarizes Theravada ideas.

Abhidharma Pitaka HINAYANA Buddhist texts used by the SARVASTIVADA sect. The seven texts here are entirely different from the Pali ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA and were initially composed in Sanskrit, though they are preserved mainly in Chinese and Tibetan translations. They were probably compiled around the same time as the Pali Abhidhamma, during the second and first centuries BCE. The texts are: Jnana-Prasthana; Prakarana; Vijnana-Kaya; Dharmaskandha; Prajnapti-Shastra; Dhatu-Kaya; Sangiti-Paryaya.

The Jnana-Prasthana is the most important of the texts, referred to as the ‘body’ while the others form the ‘feet’ (pada).

Among the commentaries written on the Abhidharma Pitaka is the Abhidharma Mahavibhasha of the second century. This is a very long text. Shorter commentaries were composed in the third and fourth centuries, including the Abhidharma-hridaya, Abhidharma-hridaya Sutra and Samyukta-Abhidharma-hridaya. A fifth-century commentary was the ABHIDHARMAKOSHA written by VASUBANDHU.

Abhidharmakosha A Buddhist text written by VASUBANDHU in the fourth or fifth century. Vasubandhu initially belonged to the Hinayana SARVASTIVADA school but had some SAUTRANTIKA ideas. His text presents the ideas of Sarvastivada, particularly of the Abhidharma Mahavibhasha, a commentary on the ABHIDHARMA PITAKA. At the same time he criticizes these concepts from the Sautrantika point of view. As his text is rather difficult there are several commentaries on it, including some in Chinese.

Abhidharma-Samuchchaya A MAHAYANA Buddhist text written by ASANGA. It deals with understanding and analyzing various DHARMAS and is an important text of the YOGACHARA school.

abhijna A term used in Buddhism for six extraordinary powers which exist in BUDDHAS, BODHISATTVAS and ARHANTS. These are: hearing with the inner ear; entering the minds of others; seeing with the inner eye, i.e., beyond time and space; gaining the memory of former lives; and extinguishing all impurities.

Abhinavagupta A philosopher who lived from c. 950–1015 (alternative dates 975–1025, or 960–1050) and belonged to the monistic school of the Hindu sect of SHAIVISM prevalent in Kashmir. His teachers included Lakshmanagupta, who had been a student of UTPALADEVA, another notable exponent of this school.

Abhinavagupta had an encyclopedic knowledge, having studied Buddhism, Jainism and Shaivism as well as KAULA TANTRISM. Apart from describing TRIKA SHASTRA, he explained the related PRATYABHIJNA philosophy, and provided practical methods of meditation for attaining Pratyabhijna or recognition of the world as a manifestation of the god SHIVA. He wrote a number of texts on Trika and Pratyabhijna, aesthetics and aspects of Tantrism, as well as commentaries on Utpaladeva’s works. Among his books are the Malini-Vijaya-Vartika, the Paratrimsika-Vivarana, the Tantraloka and the Tantrasara..

Abhinishkramana Sutra A biography of the BUDDHA popular in China, written in about the second century.

Abu (Bu) Ali Shah A SUFI saint whose DARGAH or shrine is located at Panipat in Haryana. A number of Sufis lived in Panipat, of whom Ali Shah is the most renowned, revered by people of all religions. Born in 1209, when Qutbuddin Aibak was ruling at Delhi, Ali Shah lived through the reigns of many kings, and finally died in 1324 during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. He was once a religious scholar, but after an experience of divine ecstacy he became a QALANDAR, a wandering ascetic. Sultan Alauddin Khalji is said to have visited him frequently to seek his blessings, and so did AMIR KHUSRAU. After his death, Ghiyasuddin had a decorated marble tomb constructed for him on the outskirts of Panipat. Renovations and additions were made later, and in the time of AURANGZEB (1659–1707), a verandah and marble screen were added.

Pilgrims still visit the dargah, particularly on the occasion of the annual URS. Free food is served at this time and on every Thursday.

Abu Rehan al-Biruni A Persian scholar who came to India in the eleventh century. Abu Rehan Muhammad-ibn Ahmad al-Biruni was born in Khwarizm (now in Turkmenistan) in 973. He was one of the most learned men of his time, with a knowledge of Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, Hebrew and Syriac, as well as Arabic. He was first at the court of the Khwarizm Shahs, but later joined the court of Mahmud of Ghazni (in Afghanistan) and came to India with him around 1017. After studying India’s culture he returned to Ghazni and wrote Kitab fi Tarikh al-Hind, an analysis and description of India. In this he described Hinduism and commented on several Sanskrit texts. He differentiated between the religion of the common people and that of the educated. The latter always tried to formulate general principles and understand abstract ideas, no matter to which religion they belonged. He also described the caste system, the villages, towns and occupations of the people. He was the first outsider to write in such depth and detail on India and her customs.

Al-Biruni wrote a number of other books, including Kitab al-Athar al-Bakiyah (Chronology of Ancient Nations), At-Tafhim (Elements of Astrology), Al-Kanun al-Masudi (The Canon of Masudi), a book on astronomy dedicated to Sultan Masud of Ghazni, and Kitab as-Saydalah, a treatise on medicine. He died in 1048 at Ghazni.

Abu, Mt A hill town in Rajasthan, known for its Jain DILWARA temples. More Jain temples are located at the nearby site of Achalgarh. Mt Abu is also the headquarters of the BRAHMA KUMARIS.

Abul Fazl Allami, Shaikh A philosopher and scholar at the court of the Mughal emperor AKBAR. Born in 1551, he was the son of Shaikh Mubarak, a learned and liberal scholar. His brother FAIZI was a poet. Abul Fazl was very close to Akbar, and his influence on the emperor was resented by Akbar’s son Prince Salim (later the emperor Jahangir). In 1602, Salim caused him to be murdered.

Abul Fazl was a SUFI, known for his liberal views and for his chronicle of Akbar, his life and times in the Akbar Namah which included the Ain-i Akbari. His collected letters are included in the Maktubat-i Allami, also called the Inshayi Abul Fazl. Among his other works is the Iyar-i Danish, a new version of the Kalila wa Dimna, the Arabic Panchatantra. He wrote in Persian, but also knew Arabic.

Though a Muslim, he transcended sectarian religious beliefs, as is clear in this verse written by him:

Sometimes I frequent the Christian cloister and sometimes the mosque,

But it is Thou whom I seek from temple to temple.

The elect have no dealings with either heresy or orthodoxy;

For neither of them stands behind the screen of Thy truth.

Heresy to the heretic, and religion to the orthodox,

But the dust of the rose petal

Belongs to the heart of the perfume-seller.

Abul Hasan al-Hujwiri A SUFI saint of the eleventh century, whose full name was Abul Hasan Ali bin Usman al-Hujwiri and who was popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh, meaning ‘the distributor of unlimited treasure’. He came to Lahore in 1035 and lived there until his death in 1089. He wrote the KASHFUL-MAHJUB in Persian, an account of Sufi saints and practices from the time of the Prophet MUHAMMAD onwards. His work influenced the development of SUFISM in India.

Achal Sahib A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in Gurdaspur district of Punjab. According to the story associated with this shrine, it was once a centre of NATHA yogis, where a prominent yogi, Bhangar Natha lived. When Guru NANAK, the first Sikh guru and founder of Sikhism, visited the place, the yogi tried to impress him with his SIDDHIS or powers, but lost them in his presence. Guru Nanak then explained that the blessings of God were more important than miraculous powers. The Achal Sahib Gurdwara was later constructed at this spot. Guru Nanak’s dialogue with the siddhas or yogis, which possibly took place here, is recorded in the SIDDHA GOSHT of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB.

Achala One of the names of the Hindu god VISHNU and of the god KARTTIKEYA. Achala is also the name of several others, including a bull, an attendant or Parshada of Skanda or Karttikeya, and of one of the women who assisted Karttikeya in his battle against the asura TARAKA. The name means ‘the immovable’.

Acharanga Sutra The Sanskrit name of a Jain text, the AYARAMGA SUTTA.

acharya A teacher or guru. A Sanskrit word, it literally means one who teaches or knows the acharas or rules. In ancient days it referred mainly to those who taught the VEDAS and other aspects of the sacred texts. In Hinduism, SHANKARACHARYAS are leaders of large MATHAS or religious establishments. VAISHNAVA teachers of medieval days and some Jain religious leaders are also known as acharyas. The term was used particularly for Jain DIGAMBARA leaders between the first and eighth centuries. Today the title is bestowed on religious leaders and on any saintly or learned person.

Achyuta One of the names of the Hindu god VISHNU or of KRISHNA. Literally, it means ‘not fallen’, but is interpreted as ‘imperishable’.

Adam’s Bridge The name of a line of rocks and islets, with a length of about 30 km, connecting the southern tip of India with Sri Lanka. According to legend, first narrated in Gnostic sources (see GNOSTICISM) and later given in Islamic texts, when Adam was expelled from paradise, he crossed this bridge, and then stood in penance on one foot on a mountain further south in Sri Lanka. After one thousand years of standing on Adam’s Peak (also known by different names and sacred to Hindus, Buddhists, Muslims and Christians), he was reunited with Eve.

In the Indian tradition, Adam’s Bridge is connected with the story of the RAMAYANA, and is known as RAMA SETU, or Rama’s Bridge, constructed by HANUMAN and his army to enable RAMA to cross to LANKA and rescue SITA.

Usually dry, the ‘bridge’ is covered by about 1.2 m of water at high tide.

Aderbad bin Mahrespand The high priest and prime minister at the time of Shapur II (309–79) of the Sasanian dynasty of Iran. At this time Christianity was spreading in Iran and Aderbad was responsible for reviving the Zoroastrian religion. To demonstrate the superiority of the Zoroastrian faith, he performed miracles and went through an ordeal in which molten metal was poured on his chest, but he emerged unharmed. He called himself Raenidar, a PAHLAVI word, meaning spiritual leader or saviour, and held debates with other religious leaders to prove the supremacy of Zoroastrianism. A number of prayers used by Zoroastrians in India today are said to have been composed by him, including the Patet (prayer of repentance) and the Afrin (blessings), and he is revered by PARSIS.

adharma A Sanskrit term, used in different ways. Generally, it means that which is not right, the opposite of DHARMA. Adharma is also a term for a category or quality. In NYAYA philosophy, dharma and adharma are two of twenty-four qualities which respectively cause pleasure and pain. In Jainism, it is one of the ASTIKAYAS or five categories of knowledge, as well as one of the DRAVYAS or substances comprising the world. In this context adharma is the principle of rest, as opposed to movement.

adhvaryu One of the four main priests who officiated at Vedic sacrifices. The others were the HOTR, UDGATR and BRAHMAN. The adhvaryu measured the ground, built the altar, and prepared the sacrificial vessels, apart from performing other rites. While doing this, he recited verses from the YAJUR VEDA.

Adhyatma Ramayana A Sanskrit text sacred to Hindus. It is considered a part of the BRAHMANDA PURANA but is also used separately. The Adhyatma Ramayana promotes BHAKTI or devotion to the god RAMA, and in addition, contains aspects of ADVAITA, as Rama, identified with VISHNU, is considered the supreme soul. The RAMA GITA and Ramahridaya, which form part of the text, are often memorized by devotees of Rama. The text is fairly late, possibly of the fifteenth century.

Adi Buddha The first or primordial BUDDHA. This concept existed in early Buddhism, but was fully developed in the VAJRAYANA system. The Adi Buddha has been identified at different times with SAMANTABHADRA, Vajradhara or VAIROCHANA, and is at the centre of the Buddhist pantheon. He is the origin and the first of all BUDDHAS. Other Buddhas, who head families of BUDDHIST DEITIES, emanate from him.

Adi Granth The principal sacred text of the Sikhs, also known as the GURU GRANTH SAHIB. It is the main object of worship in GURDWARAS or Sikh shrines.

Adi Purana The ‘first Purana’, a name sometimes used for the BRAHMA PURANA in Hinduism.

Adi Purana, Jain A Jain text, the first part of the TRISHASHTILAKSHANA MAHAPURANA. The Adi Purana contains the story of Adinatha or RISHABHA, the first TIRTHANKARA, and of Bharata, the first Chakravartin or ruler of the world. The text is important for DIGAMBARA Jains, and has forty-seven chapters, forty-two of which were written by JINASENA of the ninth century, and five by his pupil GUNABHADRA. The Adi Purana also discusses various rituals or Samskaras to be observed from birth to death, similar to the Hindu SAMSKARAS.

A later version of the Adi Purana, focusing on the life of Rishabha, was written by the Kannada poet PAMPA who lived in the tenth century. It is one of the first great poems written in Kannada.

Adi Shankaracharya The first SHANKARACHARYA, a term used to refer to the ninth-century philosopher SHANKARA, who set up four or, according to some sources, five MATHAS or religious institutes in India.

Adina Mosque A mosque located at Pandua (also known as Firuzabad) in West Bengal, constructed in 1373 by Sultan Sikandar Shah (1357–93) of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty. One of the largest mosques in India, it measures 155 m by 87 m and is enclosed within a large courtyard. There are cloisters on three sides, as well as a number of pillars and archways, designed to form squares, each covered by a small dome. Altogether, there were 378 domes on the mosque. One part of the mosque has two stories, and is known as the Badshahka-Takht, or royal enclosure, probably reserved for the sultan and his family. While other large mosques in Bengal have regional characteristics, this was built in traditional or orthodox style.

The mosque was extensively decorated with abstract, geometric and vegetal designs. These were symmetrically placed and designed, but each was different in its details.

Sikandar Shah stated that he was the ‘most perfect of the sultans of Arabia and Persia’, and this mosque rivals contemporary structures in other parts of the world. It is now in disrepair.

Adinatha The first of the twenty-four Jain TIRTHANKARAS, who was also known as RISHABHA. Adinatha literally means ‘the first lord’ and he is said to have existed thousands, or even millions, of years before MAHAVIRA, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, who lived in the sixth century BCE.

Adinatha is also a name of the Hindu god SHIVA.

Aditi A Hindu deity, the mother of the gods, she is first mentioned in the RIG VEDA. She is the mother of the ADITYAS, a group of gods, and is said to nourish and sustain all existence. In the MAHABHARATA, she is the mother of the thirty-three DEVAS or gods, including twelve ADITYAS, eight VASUS and eleven RUDRAS. DEVAKI, mother of KRISHNA, is said to be Aditi reborn. According to the PURANAS, Aditi, one of the daughters of DAKSHA, married the rishi KASHYAPA and was the mother of all the gods. After doing penance for one thousand years, she gave birth to VISHNU, who was born to her as VAMANA.

Adityas A group of Hindu gods. In the RIG VEDA they are said to be seven or eight, and their names include MITRA, ARYAMAN, BHAGA, VARUNA, DAKSHA and AMSHA. They protect the universe, see the good and evil actions of people and punish the wicked. They are bright, golden and unwinking and provide long lives, good health and offspring to their worshippers. Some scholars feel they are similar to the AMESHA SPENTAS of Zoroastrianism, whereas others reject this theory. In the MAHABHARATA and some later texts, twelve Adityas are listed, among them being VISHNU. Other texts provide different lists of Adityas. In the VISHNU PURANA, the Adityas are Vishnu, Shakra, Aryaman, Dhuti, TVASHTR, PUSHAN, VIVASVAT, SAVITR, Mitra, Varuna, Amsha and Bhaga. They are celestial gods, and are sons of ADITI.

Advaita The philosophy of Oneness or non-duality, which forms one of the main schools of VEDANTA. Its ideas were first expressed in the UPANISHADS and later explained in the Vedanta Sutra or BRAHMA SUTRA. GAUDAPADA, a philosopher who lived in the seventh century, and SHANKARA in the ninth century, were the greatest exponents of this philosophy in ancient days. In the nineteenth century, VIVEKANANDA as well as various reform groups used the principles of Advaita in their attempts to revive and reform Hinduism. In the twentieth century, several scholars and gurus have explained Shankara’s ideas, notable among them being Swami CHINMAYANANDA and his disciples. Its main concepts are that there is only One Reality, known as BRAHMAN or the Absolute. Brahman always existed and always will exist. Beyond time and space, it never changes, grows or diminishes. The true Self, the ATMAN or individual soul within, is identical with this, while the world and identification with the ego or the individual personality, is unreal, an illusion. This unreality is known as MAYA. Realizing the Self as Brahman brings bliss, joy and freedom. JNANA or wisdom is the direct route for such realization. This philosophical system is considered the most influential in Indian society even today.

Afghan Church A church constructed by the British in MUMBAI (Bombay) in 1865 to commemorate the death of soldiers and officers in the campaigns in Sind and Afghanistan between 1835 and 1843. The church is constructed in Neo-Gothic style with a tapering spire. The font within has an intricate metal screen, and on the walls are carved the names of those who died in the campaign.

Aga Khan The spiritual leader of the Islamic NIZARI Ismaili sect. Aga Khan, meaning ‘chief commander’, was a title first granted by the Shah of Iran to Hasan Ali Shah, the governor of the Persian province of Kerman in 1818. Hasan Ali traced his descent from the Prophet MUHAMMAD through his daughter Fatimah.

Despite this honour, Hasan led a revolt against the Shah and escaped to India after his defeat. There he sided with the British in the Afghan War of 1839–42 and in the conquest of Sind, and in return was granted a pension by the British. He lived in MUMBAI (Bombay), and soon after his death in 1881, his eldest son Ali Shah became the second Aga Khan.

Ali Shah or Muhammad Ali Khan died in 1885 and was succeeded by his only son Muhammad Shah, then only eight years old. Sultan Sir Muhammad Shah gradually became a leader of Muslims in India. In 1906 he led a deputation to Lord Minto, the British viceroy, to gain concessions for Muslims. Between 1930 and 1932, he attended the Round Table Conferences in London, where several representatives from India joined in discussions with the British on more participation by Indians in government, and plans for self-government. He was India’s representative at the World Disarmament Conference in Geneva in 1932 and led the Indian delegation to the League of Nations in 1932, and again from 1934 to 1937. In 1937, he became president of the General Assembly of the League.

During the Second World War he gave up active politics and went to live in Switzerland, where he died at Versoix in 1957. His grandson, Karim Al-Hussain Shah, who was born on 13 December 1936 in Geneva, took over as Aga Khan IV. He provided a new direction to the Nizari Ismaili sect and asked them to become citizens of the countries in which they lived. Karim Aga Khan still directs the community of Nizari Ismailis in a number of countries, including India and Pakistan. In India his followers include the KHOJAS.

Agamas A class of texts. Agama is literally ‘that which has come down’. In Hinduism Agamas refer to non-Vedic texts which were accessible to all, unlike the VEDAS, which were meant only for the three higher castes. Most commonly, they are used for Shaivite Tantric texts, and traditionally, there are twenty-eight SHAIVA AGAMAS. Apart from these, other works, including some VAISHNAVA and Shakta texts, are referred to as Agamas.

In Jainism, the sacred texts of the SHVETAMBARAS are known as Agamas.

In Buddhism, Agamas are texts of the Sutra Pitaka (Pali: SUTTA PITAKA) written in Sanskrit. The four main Buddhist Agamas include the Dirgha Agama, Madhyama Agama, Samyukta Agama and Ekottara Agama, corresponding to the DIGHA NIKAYA, MAJJHIMA NIKAYA, SAMYUTTA NIKAYA, and ANGUTTARA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON.

Agastya A sage or RISHI who is said to have lived in ancient days. There are several legends and stories concerning him in the RAMAYANA, MAHABHARATA, and other ancient texts.

Agastya was rather short and has been described as ‘dwarfish’. However, he was very learned, well versed in the VEDAS and in the use of various magical weapons. Though he was an ascetic, he finally married because he was told that only those with sons who could perform their ancestral rites would enter heaven. Out of the essence of all living beings, he created a beautiful girl named Lopamudra and gave her as a daughter to the king of Vidarbha. It was this Lopamudra whom he later married. They had a son named Dridhasyu, also called Idmavaha, who chanted the Vedas at birth.

An important legend recounts how Agastya subdued the Vindhya mountains and went to south India. The Vindhyas decided to teach a lesson to Mount MERU, who had become too proud. They wanted to show Meru that they could be taller than it, and so they grew higher and higher, so that even the sun and moon could not pass over them. Agastya went to the Vindhyas and told them he was going to the south. He requested them to remain low until he returned. The Vindhyas agreed, but Agastya, building his ashram at Malayachala or Agastyakuta in south India, never returned to the north. Agastya is still worshipped in some temples, particularly in the south. He is the traditional author of various texts, including the Agastya Gita, which forms part of the VARAHA PURANA; the Agastya Samhita in the SKANDA PURANA; and the Dvaidha-Nirnaya Tantra. The THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA included him in their mystical hierarchy and believe he exists and takes care of India even today. For historians, the myth of his journey across the Vindhyas is associated with the spread of Vedic and Brahmanical ideas in the south.

Aghora A name of the Hindu god SHIVA, and also of a TANTRIC Shaivite sect. Aghora means ‘the non-fearful’.

Aghoreshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA, dating back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, located at Ikkeri in District Shimoga, Karnataka. Constructed at the time of the Keladi Nayakas, the architecture of the temple revives some Hoysala forms. The inner shrine leads to a spacious hall or MANDAPA, surrounded by a passageway. The inner walls of the mandapa have carved friezes. Above is a pyramidal tower, surmounted by a domed roof. Subsidiary shrines include a NANDI pavilion. Ikkeri was the Nayaka capital, and the temple was a royal monument.

agiary A Gujarati term used by PARSIS for a Zoroastrian fire temple in India. It refers to the second or third grade of ZOROASTRIAN TEMPLES, also known as Atash Adaran, Dar-e Meher, Atash Kadeh or Atash Dadgah.

Agni A Hindu deity, the personification of the sacrificial fire. He is the second most important god in the RIG VEDA (the first being INDRA) to whom over 200 hymns are dedicated, while he is mentioned in many more. Adjectives used to describe him are related to sacrificial ceremonies in which offerings of butter and ghi are made. Thus he is described as butter-backed, butter-faced or butter-haired. He has sharp or burning jaws, golden or shining teeth and resembles gold. Wood or ghi (clarified butter) is his food and melted butter is his drink. He is brilliant and shines like the sun. His chariot is of lightning, luminous and golden, and his steeds are tawny and ruddy, but the path he makes in his journey is black. Agni has a threefold nature, born of heaven, men and the waters, a precursor of the later trinity of BRAHMA, VISHNU and SHIVA. He protects his worshippers behind a hundred iron walls, preserves them from calamities and is the deliverer and friend of those who worship him. He bestows every kind of boon, particularly in the sphere of domestic welfare, offspring, and property.

Agni takes on many forms, just as fire does. He exists wherever there is fire on earth or lightning in the heavens. He is the god of fire sacrifices and the god of the domestic hearth.

Numerous legends are narrated about Agni in the MAHABHARATA, RAMAYANA and later texts. In the Mahabharata he is said to have seven faces, seven red tongues, and a chariot drawn by seven horses, with the wind for its wheels. In the HARIVAMSHA, Agni is said to have four arms and to wear black clothes. Smoke is his banner, and he holds a fiery spear. The seven winds form the wheels of his chariot, and he is accompanied by a goat or ram (AJA).

In later times Agni lost the importance given to him in the VEDAS and became one of the eight DIKAPALAS, or guardians of the world. His description as lord of the south-east quarter is given in the VISHNU-DHARMOTTARA PURANA. He is bearded with four arms, four tusks and three eyes. His chariot is drawn by four parrots and driven by the wind, and his consort SVAHA sits on his lap. He holds flames, a trident and rosary.

In the PURANAS he is the son of Brahma, or of the Virat-Purusha. On earth he was born from Vasubharya and DHARMA. He had three sons, who in turn had forty-five sons. Along with Agni, these are the ‘forty-nine fires’.

In iconography Agni is often depicted with a goat or ram, holding a mala or rosary and a water-vessel. He usually has a beard, and flames surround him.

Though Agni is only a Dikapala today, he is still an important deity as he is invoked in every sacrificial fire.

Agni Purana A Sanskrit text, one of the eighteen major PURANAS of Hinduism. The god AGNI is said to have narrated this text to the rishi VASISHTHA. It is an encyclopedic work, which is classified as a SHAIVITE Purana, though it begins with a section on VISHNU, and has several other topics. TANTRIC rites are described, as well as the mystic cult of the LINGA and the worship of the goddess DURGA. There are GANESHA rituals, methods of making and consecrating images, sections on death, transmigration and YOGA. It has a summary of the BHAGAVAD GITA and of the Yama Gita, relating to the god YAMA. In addition it deals with politics, the art of war, law, medicine, literature, grammar, poetry, drama, architecture, astronomy and geography, apart from the usual sections on cosmology and genealogy. In its present form it has 12,000 verses and probably dates from the ninth century.

agnikulas The ‘fire families’, a term used for four Rajput clans. There are several legends about their origin. According to one version, long ago, all the KSHATRIYAS or warriors of the earth were destroyed by PARASHURAMA, a BRAHMANA who was one of the incarnations of the Hindu god VISHNU, and there was no one left to defend the land. Some brahmanas therefore conducted a sacrifice at Mt ABU (present-day Rajasthan) and out of the fire pit (agni kunda) of the sacrifice arose four strong warriors. These were the ancestors of the four warrior Rajput clans, the Paramaras, Pratiharas, Chahamanas and Solankis. The Rajputs, who ruled over much of the area of Rajasthan from the seventh century onwards, are said to have been a mixture of Indian and foreign groups. This story therefore has been taken to suggest that certain purificatory sacrifices were conducted to give them a higher status, and indicates how outsiders were integrated into the CASTE system.

agnishtoma A fire sacrifice in Hinduism, lasting five days. It is performed at the request of a BRAHMANA householder for religious merit.

Agnishvattah A pitri gana, or class of PITRIS or ancestors mentioned in Hindu texts. They were the ancestors of the DEVAS or gods.

Agra A city located on the river Yamuna in western Uttar Pradesh, best known for its famous Mughal monument, the TAJ MAHAL. Agra was occupied from ancient days but the foundations of the present city were laid by Sultan Sikandar Lodi, who made it his capital city in 1505. It was also one of the capitals of the Mughal emperor AKBAR, and continued to be an important Mughal city up to the middle of the eighteenth century. Agra was taken over by the British in 1803 and remained under British control till 1947.

Apart from the Taj Mahal, Agra has several other religious monuments. Among these are the JAMA MASJID, the MOTI MASJID, the DARGAH and mosque of the SUFI saint Shah Vilayat (d. 1540) and of Jalal-ud-din Bukhari (d. 1647), as well as the Fatehpuri Masjid of the seventeenth century. There is also a Chhatri of Raja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur, built at the time of the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB, in addition to other old monuments and historic tombs. The ANGLICAN Church of St. George, the first Anglican church constructed in India, was built here in 1826. The city has an ARMENIAN chapel and graveyard dating from the seventeenth century. Agra is also important as one of the main centres of the RADHASOAMI sect. Fatehpur Sikri nearby has the tomb of the renowned Sufi saint, Shaikh SALIM CHISTI.

agricultural rites Early agrarian societies all over the world had rituals associated with agriculture, with the acts of ploughing, sowing and harvesting the crop, and with fertility in general. There were also prayers and sacrifices for rain and special deities associated with agriculture. In India, too, fertility rites and deities associated with agriculture existed from the earliest days. MOTHER GODDESS figurines, presumed to be associated with the concept of fertility, date back to 7000 BCE. A seal of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500–1800 BCE) depicts a woman, possibly a deity, with a plant growing from between her legs. In Vedic texts INDRA, PARJANYA, and others were gods associated with rain. The ATHARVA VEDA has chants and spells to bring rain. In the RAMAYANA, SITA, who was born in a furrow, is connected with agriculture. In later times, the goddess DURGA as SHAKAMBHARI was worshipped as a goddess of vegetation. Several NAGA or snake deities are worshipped when sowing the fields. SHAKTI and TANTRIC cults, with their emphasis on the union of male and female, are also indirectly associated with agrarian fertility. These are only some of the innumerable agrarian rituals and deities, many of which remain popular today. Harvest festivals such as BAISAKHI, BIHU and others continue to be celebrated and YAJNAS (sacrifices) and other rites are still performed during times of drought.

Ahi Budhnya/Ahirbudhnya A Hindu deity. In the RIG VEDA he is the serpent of the deep, or of the atmospheric ocean, invoked as a divine being. Later, it becomes the name of RUDRA or SHIVA. In the MAHABHARATA, Ahi Budhnya is one of the eleven RUDRAS, born to Sthanudeva, the son of BRAHMA. He is also mentioned as one of the MARUTS. According to the VISHNU PURANA, Ahi Budhnya was a son of VISHVAKARMA, the divine architect.

ahimsa The principle of non-violence, which is an important element in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain thought. Ahimsa is important in Hinduism in general, and is elaborated on in the system of YOGA where it is the first of the YAMAS, or basic ethical principles. Ahimsa, at one level, means non-injury to any living being. In the later Vedic period (beginning approximately 1000 BCE), sacrifices in which animals were killed became common. Later, there was an aversion to this and BHAGAVATISM or VAISHNAVISM arose, which did away with such sacrifices. Buddhism and Jainism were also against sacrifices and emphasized non-violence. In MAHAYANA Buddhism, ahimsa was raised to the level of loving compassion and sacrifice of oneself for the welfare of every living being. Ahimsa is the essence of Jainism and the killing of any creature, including insects, is forbidden. Several kings passed laws for the welfare of living beings. Among them was ASHOKA, the Mauryan emperor (ruled 269–232 BCE), who reduced the killing of animals for his royal kitchen and provided a list of animals and creatures (including the queen ant) who were not to be killed at any time. The Western Gangas, a dynasty of southern India who ruled between the fifth and tenth centuries, were influenced by Jainism, and the later kings had strict laws against killing animals. AKBAR, the Mughal emperor (ruled 1556–1605), was also against eating meat or killing animals. There are other such instances in India’s history.

However, ahimsa implies far more than non-injury. Passages in the PURANAS and other ancient texts explain its implications. For instance, according to the DEVI BHAGAVATA PURANA, ‘Ahimsa (non-injury) is what is most righteous. Even those who come to kill you should not be harmed.’ The MANU SMRITI states that whoever does not injure any living being, but desires the good of all, obtains endless bliss.

In modern times, Mahatma GANDHI summed up the higher meaning of the ancient tradition of non-violence when he said that ahimsa meant a love for all, even for those who injured one. Applying the concept both to his personal life and to the freedom movement against the British, he frequently stopped or withdrew political movements when his followers became violent. However, ahimsa was not an excuse for cowardice, and those who practised it must have the strength to resist all wrong. Gandhi said: ‘Literally speaking, ahimsa means non-violence. But to me it has a much higher, infinitely higher meaning. It means that you may not offend anybody; you may not harbour uncharitable thoughts even in connection with those who consider themselves your enemies. To one who follows this doctrine, there are no enemies… If you express your love, ahimsa, in such a manner that it impresses itself indelibly upon your so-called enemy, he must return that love.’

Ahl-e-Hadis/Ahl-i-Hadith An Islamic group that started in India in the second half of the nineteenth century and was an offshoot of the Tariqa-i Muhammadiya, founded by Sayyed AHMAD BARELVI. It uses only the HADIS for interpreting the QURAN and SHARIA, and denies the authority of the schools of law (FIQH). The life of the Prophet MUHAMMAD is the model for followers of this path. They are also against the cult of saints and PIRS. Among former leaders of this group, one of the most outstanding was Maulana Syed Nazir Husain (d. 1902), who founded an institute for instruction in Hadis in Delhi. The group developed its own form of NAMAZ and came in conflict with the DEOBAND SCHOOL, leading to the setting up of separate mosques. They were called WAHHABIS by their opponents because of their rejection of the HANAFI school of law.

Ahl-e-Hadis are still present in India. The largest and oldest Ahl-e-Hadis madrasa in India, is the Jamia Salafia at Varanasi. Other madrasas of the sect were affiliated to it in 2004. In Pakistan, there are several different Ahl-e-Hadis groups.

Ahl-i-Quran An Islamic group founded in India in the nineteenth century. It emphasized direct recourse to the QURAN, rather than to traditions (HADIS) or Islamic law. Maulana Abdullah Chakralwi was one of its main leaders. The group still exists in India.

Ahmad Barelvi, Sayyed A soldier and mystic who started an Islamic movement. Born in 1786, he joined the army of an Afghan, Amir Khan, who was made the nawab of Tonk in 1818. Ahmad Barelvi returned to Delhi and started the Tariqa-i Muhammadiya, a movement to purify Islam. He was helped by two of his disciples, Muhammad Ismail Shahid (1781–1831), and Abdul Hayy (d. 1828). They compiled his teachings into two books in Persian, Sirat al-Mustaqim and Radd al-Ishraq. Part of the second was translated into Urdu and known as Taqwiyat al-Iman. Barelvi condemned the worship of PIRS or saints, and some SUFI practices, though he was not entirely against Sufism. He preached his ideas in DELHI and on tours into the rural areas of the Gangetic plains, asking people to practice pure Islam, give up worshipping saints, DARGAHs, and objects such as TAZIYAs. In 1822–23 he went to Mecca, and there made a vow to undertake JIHAD against unbelievers. Returning to India in 1826, he started a war against the Sikhs of the north-west, and for a short time founded an Islamic state, which he ruled, calling himself Amir al-Muminin. He faced hostility not only from Sikhs, but from Muslim Afghan tribes in the area, and was defeated and killed in a battle against a Sikh army in 1831. His tomb is located at Balakot. Though one of his aims was to eliminate the worship of saints, he himself is considered a saint, and ironically his dargah is still worshipped.

British writers and his opponents in India called him a WAHHABI, claiming that he derived his inspiration from the Arabian Wahhabis, though recent scholars feel his ideas were developed independently. There is, nevertheless, a similarity with Wahhabi ideas.

Ahmad Khan, Syed A Muslim leader and reformer. Born in 1817, he began his career as a clerk in the East India Company in 1837, but his two main interests were religion and education. His writings on religion include Essays on the Life of Muhammad, as well as commentaries on the BIBLE and several volumes on the QURAN. In his writings on Islam he tried to correlate modern scientific concepts with Islamic beliefs. He established schools which were open to all, and initially worked for Hindu-Muslim unity. Later, however, he felt the two communities could not be united, and aimed at improving the position of Muslims through educational and social reforms. He started a journal called Tahzib al-Akhlaq (Social Reform), and in 1875 established a Muslim school at Aligarh, which was converted into the Anglo-Oriental College and later developed into Aligarh Muslim University. In 1886 he organized the All-India Muhammadan Educational Conference, which met annually and discussed ways to promote education among Muslims, as well as other issues concerning the community. The educational and social reform begun by him is known as the ALIGARH MOVEMENT.

Ahmad Sirhindi, Shaikh A SUFI saint of the NAQSHBANDI order, who claimed to be the MUJADDID or renewer of Islam, and was known as Mujaddid Alf-i Sani.

Born at Sirhind in 1564, he was initiated by his father Shaikh Abdul Ahad into the CHISTI and QADIRI orders. When he visited Fatehpur Sikri, for some time the capital of the Mughal emperor AKBAR, he found the atmosphere at the court too rational and philosophical. He wanted to emphasize the importance of prophets and miracles, and wrote short books on this theme, among which was Isbat al-Nubuwwa. After his father’s death in 1599 he decided to visit Mecca. On the way he reached DELHI where he met Khwaja Baqi Billah, leader of the Naqshbandi order, who initiated him into the sect. Though Sirhindi had first followed WAHDAT AL-WUJUD beliefs, he now became an expert in WAHDAT AL-SHUHUD and wrote the Mabda-wa-maad on this system. After Akbar’s death, he appealed to the emperor Jahangir to reimpose the JIZYA and do away with Akbar’s liberal policies. He was also against the SHIAS, and his work Radd-i Rawafiz criticizes them. He was equally critical of worldly ULAMA and materialistic SUFIS. He said he was the renewer (mujaddid) of Islam and had been sent by God to restore its purity. He stated that he had had several mystical experiences, and even described his ascent to heaven. As he could not substantiate his mystical claims, he was imprisoned by Jahangir for twelve months and on his release he was allowed to live either at Sirhind or in the imperial camp. He lived at the camp for three years, preaching to all who were there and writing letters to his sons and disciples. He claimed to be the disciple of God, as well as ‘God’s desire’, and seemed to consider himself a prophet. There was considerable opposition to this, but he continued with his claims. He died in 1624, and his sons Muhammad Masum and Khwaja Muhammad Said carried on his mission.

Ahmadiya An Islamic sect, founded in 1889 by Mirza GHULAM AHMAD, who lived from 1839 to 1908 and was based at Qadian in Punjab. Ahmad claimed that he was the MAHDI and the messiah and suggested that he was the reincarnation of the Prophet MUHAMMAD, inbued with the spirit of JESUS and of KRISHNA.

In a time when India was changing and the ARYA SAMAJ was gaining ground in Punjab, Ghulam Ahmad aimed to revive and spread Islam. He wrote a four-volume work, Proofs of the Ahmadiya, to explain the QURAN in a rational, logical and systematic way. He preached that JIHAD involved a non-violent method of convincing unbelievers. He also spoke against the Arya Samaj and Hindu revivalism. He began to accept bayah, or an oath of allegiance, and Ahmadiyas gradually became a distinct sect, discouraged from marrying outside it or praying behind a non-Ahmadiya IMAM. The Ahmadiyas thus came in conflict with SUNNIS and other Muslim groups. After Ghulam Ahmad’s death in 1908, he was succeeded by Mawlawi Nuruddin. On the latter’s death in 1914, the Ahmadiya sect split into two factions, the Qadiani and Lahori. The Qadiani believed their’s was the only true religion and recognized Ahmad as the Prophet, while the Lahori felt Ahmad was only a MUJADDID who revived and renewed the religion.

Ahmadiyas also started missionary activities and spread the movement to other countries. After 1947, they moved to Pakistan, but faced opposition from the ULAMA and were regarded as heretics. In a case against them in 1953–54, the judge at the court upheld their rights as Muslims, though Sunnis continued to oppose them. In 1974, however, they were declared to be a non-Muslim minority. In the 1980s, the head of the Qadianis, Mirza Tahit Ahmad, moved to London. Ahmadiyas continue to have a missionary zeal and project themselves as modern or forward-looking Muslims. Some Ahmadiyas still live in Pakistan, though they are not recognized as Muslims there and face discrimination.

Ahmadiya is also a name for some SUFI sects, the most important named after Ahmad al Badawi of Egypt (thirteenth century).

Ahobalam A town in Andhra Pradesh, known for the worship of the Hindu god NARASIMHA, a form of VISHNU. There are a number of Narasimha shrines located here, some dating back to the eleventh century or earlier. It is the only place where nine forms of Narasimha are worshipped. Some of these forms relate to the story of PRAHLADA, such as Prahladavarada Narasimha, or Narasimha blessing Prahlada; Yogananda Narasimha, Narasimha teaching YOGA to Prahlada; Guha Narasimha, where Narasimha conceals himself. Other forms include Kroda Narasimha, the angry form, in which Narasimha is worshipped as a boar; Malola Narasimha, where he sports with his consort LAKSHMI; and Jwala Narasimha, where he emits flames of anger. Ahobalam is mentioned in the hymns of the Vaishnava ALVAR saints and is the centre of a Vaishnava MATHA. It is also considered sacred by the CHENCHU tribe.

Ahriman The evil spirit in Zoroastrianism, the later PAHLAVI term for ANGRA MAINYU. Ahriman is described at length in the BUNDAHISHN, where he is finally defeated. His defeat is also mentioned in the KHORDEH AVESTA, the book of daily prayers, and in some YASHTS. In later related literature, Ahriman is described in modern terms as ‘a shadow of the mind’.

Ahum Bis A term meaning healer of life, a title of AHURA MAZDA, the name of God in Zoroastrianism, and of his prophet, ZARATHUSHTRA.

Ahuna Vairya The first and most important prayer in Zoroastrianism, which is also known as the Yatha Ahu Vairyo. It states that spiritual teachers in the world have the same power as the supreme lord, through the righteousness (ASHA) that they have practised. The gifts of VOHU MANA, the good mind, and KHSHATHRA, divine strength, descend on those who serve and help others.

This prayer emphasizes the importance Zoroastrianism gives to not merely following the right path inwardly, but performing good actions in the world.

ahura A term in Zoroastrianism, which indicates a god or deity. It is derived from the root ahu, or life. Its equivalent in Sanskrit is ASURA, which in the RIG VEDA meant a divine being, though in later Hinduism, asura came to mean a demon. In pre-Zoroastrian Iran, there was a group of deities known as Ahuras, of whom AHURA MAZDA was later chosen as the supreme deity.

Ahura Mazda The name of God in Zoroastrianism. Literally, the name has been translated as ‘the Lord of life and wisdom’. The GATHAS state that Ahura Mazda is the creator of the world, of life and of truth. He is eternal, and through his supreme wisdom he leads a person on the path of truth. He blesses and helps all living beings. He has six powers or aspects, which are truth, the good mind, strength, loving devotion, perfection and immortality. These aspects were personified as the AMESHA SPENTAS. In later PAHLAVI literature, Ahura Mazda was known as Ohrmazd or Hormazd, and was identified with SPENTA MAINYU, the good spirit. This led to the interpretation of the religion as dualistic, with Ahura Mazda and ANGRA MAINYU, the personification of evil, being almost coexistent.

Ahura Mazda is also known from other sources. He is mentioned in an inscription of Darius I (522–486 BCE) of Persia and by later kings. After Alexander’s conquest, Ahura Mazda was associated with Zeus in some areas. A god known as Zeus Oromazdes is known from finds of the first century BCE at Commagene in Asia Minor. Oromozdo has also been depicted on Kushana coins of the king Huvishka (first to second century CE). In the early centuries CE a form of Ahura Mazda was worshipped in Sogdiana (Tajikistan/Uzbekistan). His worship in one form or another was thus quite widespread.

Certain scholars and groups of Zoroastrians still interpret the religion as dualistic, with ZURVAN or time being the source of creation, while other Zoroastrians believe the texts show that Ahura Mazda is an all powerful God, the sole creator of all.

Aihole A small town in District Bijapur, Karnataka, known for its early temples. Once an ancient capital and commercial centre, Aihole has about a hundred temples dating to between the sixth and twelfth centuries, when it was under the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Half the temples are within an old fort, while the others are outside it. The temples include those dedicated to the Hindu deities VISHNU and SHIVA, as well as Buddhist and Jain shrines, and have a diversity of architectural features, including early Buddhist, and northern and southern elements. Among the main temples are the Lad Khan Temple and the DURGA TEMPLE in the central complex, the Chikki Temple and Ravana Phadi Temple to the north-east, and Jain and Buddhist temples to the south. Further north-east is the Huchimalli Temple, as well as a number of temples known as the Mallikarjuna group.

Airavata A divine elephant, the vehicle of the Hindu god INDRA. Airavata is white with four tusks and is the king of the elephants. There are several stories about the origin of Airavata. According to one version, Airavata emerged at the time of the churning of the ocean for AMRITA. Another story makes him the cause of the DEVAS’ misfortunes. It states that when the rishi DURVASA gave Indra a garland, he handed it to Airavata, who threw it down, either because he did not like the smell, or because there were bees in it. Angry at the disrespect shown to his gift, Durvasa cursed the devas who suffered and declined. Their fortunes were only revived after they had drunk the Amrita obtained from the ocean. Airavata is also said to have been created by BRAHMA, as one of the eight male guardian elephants, or ASHTADIGGAJAS.

Airavateshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located at Darasuram in District Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. Probably constructed by Rajaraja II (1150–72) of the Chola dynasty, the temple complex has two gateways or GOPURAMS. The main temple is in the centre, with an inner shrine, an ante-chamber and two MANDAPAS. Within the shrine is a LINGA, known as Raja-rajeshvaram-udayar. There are also niches containing different forms of Shiva, DURGA and other deities, as well as depictions of stories from the lives of the Shaiva saints. Some of these have labels in Tamil. The whole temple has exquisite sculptures and carvings. A six-headed KARTTIKEYA, ARDHANARISHVARA, four-armed NAGARAJA, BHAIRAVA, the sage AGASTYA, dance and musical scenes are among the numerous sculptures. The roof is pyramidal, with three diminishing storeys, capped with a dome. This is one of the most important Chola temples.

Aja (1) A name of several Hindu deities including VISHNU, KRISHNA, BRAHMA, SHIVA and SURYA. It means ‘unborn’ or ‘eternal’.

(2) The name of a class of RISHIS or sages, who obtained svarga (heaven) through self-study, as well as the name of one of the sons of the third MANU, Uttama.

(3) Aja also means ‘goat’ and is a male goat or ram which is the VAHANA or vehicle of some of the Hindu deities. (Ajaa is a female goat). In the RIG VEDA, Aja is associated with PUSHAN. In the HARIVAMSHA, Aja is associated with AGNI. Aja also has a role to play in the ASHVAMEDHA sacrifice, and leads or guides the sacrificial horse to the next world.

Ajamukhi (1) A Hindu deity, a goat-faced goddess. She is a MATRIKA or mother goddess, one of the animal-headed mothers represented in early Indian art.

(2) An ASURA, the daughter of KASHYAPA and Surasa, and the sister of TARAKA. The Hindu god Skanda or KARTTIKEYA was born in order to vanquish Taraka, who had grown too powerful.

Ajanta Caves Buddhist rock-cut caves located near Ajanta village in District Aurangabad of Maharashtra. The caves are excavated along the semi-circular scarp of a cliff-face overhanging a stream. Dating between c. 150 BCE and 650 CE, the caves include CHAITYAS or halls of worship, and VIHARAS or monks’ cells. The interiors are decorated with sculptures and paintings for which the caves are world famous. The early caves of the second and first centuries BCE have fragments of paintings, while the second period begins in the fourth to fifth centuries. It is not known who caused the earlier caves to be excavated, but the later caves were made mainly by feudatories of the Vakataka dynasty, and some by the Rashtrakutas. The themes of the paintings are mainly religious, centring around the BUDDHA, BODHISATTVAS and incidents described in the JATAKAS. The depiction of Jataka stories includes representations of daily life, street scenes, king’s courts, hermitages, people of all kinds wearing different types of clothes and jewels, warriors and weapons, musicians and their instruments.

The base for the paintings was made with a layer of ferruginous earth, mixed with various substances and coated with lime wash. The colours used include red and yellow ochre, lamp black and lapis lazuli, while the binding medium for the colours seems to have been glue.

The caves are of both the HINAYANA and MAHAYANA schools of Buddhism. The chaityas copy earlier constructions in wood and have barrel-shaped ceilings with stone ribs, galleries, columns and sun-windows. Doorways, windows, capitals and pedestals are richly carved. Within are not merely paintings, but also sculptures.

XUANZANG (Hieun Tsang), the Chinese pilgrim of the seventh century, provided an account of these caves. He said there was a temple here, 31 m high, in which there was a Buddha image of about 22 m.

The caves were made known to the world by a British officer, John Smith, who rediscovered them in the nineteenth century.

Ajatashatru (1) The ruler of the kingdom of MAGADHA between 494 and 460 BCE. He was the son of king BIMBISARA, who was a patron of the BUDDHA. According to Buddhist texts, he conspired with DEVADATTA, the Buddha’s cousin, to overthrow his father and at the same time kill the Buddha. The plot did not succeed and Ajatashatru was repentant. Pardoned by his father and the Buddha, he ascended the throne. Later, however, he is said to have imprisoned his father, though he became favourably inclined towards Buddhism. The first BUDDHIST COUNCIL after the death of the Buddha was held during his reign.

Ajatashatru also patronized Jainism and is described in Jain texts.

(2) An early king of KASHI who was also a philosopher.

Ajita Keshakambalin The founder of a non-orthodox sect who lived at the time of the BUDDHA in the sixth century BCE. ‘Kesha-kambalin’ means hair-blanket, which is evidently what he and his followers wore.

Ajita believed a person consisted of four elements. At the time of death, the earth element returned to earth, the water to water, the fire or heat to fire, and the air to air. The various faculties (indrayani), including the five senses and the mind, returned to space (akasha). He said that there was no life after death, and no consequence of one’s deeds, whether good or evil. Thus there was no point in sacrifices, offerings, or reverence of one’s parents. No person had attained any knowledge of the next world.

Some of Ajita’s followers were monks, though their type and level of asceticism is not described. Accounts of this sect are found in early Jain and Buddhist texts.

Ajitas A GANA or group of lesser Hindu deities who lived in Maharloka, one of the several LOKAS or worlds. Fourteen Ajitas are listed in some PURANAS, while others list ten.

ajiva One of the two categories of the universe in Jainism. Ajiva signifies non-living beings, the other category being JIVA, or beings with life. Ajiva consists of the following DRAVYAS or substances: PUDGALA or matter, DHARMA, ADHARMA, AKASHA or space, and KALA or time. Ajiva is divided into two categories, those without form or rupa, and those with form. Pudgala is in the latter category.

Pudgala can be perceived by the senses. It consists of minute atoms, or paramanus, which when combined form SKANDHAS or aggregates. (This is somewhat different from the Buddhist concept of skandhas.) Paramanus cannot be perceived by the senses, as they are too small.

Dharma and adharma dravyas indicate the principles of motion and of rest. Dharma dravya does not act, but makes action possible. Adharma enables rest. Dharma and adharma sustain the universe and prevent its disintegration into chaos. Akasha or space is infinite and accomodates the material world. Kala or time is another essential component of the universe, which enables change and evolution to take place.

Ajivika An ancient non-orthodox sect which existed from before the time of the BUDDHA. It was probably founded by Nanda Vachchha who was succeeded by Kisa Samkichcha, but became widespread under Makkhali GOSALA, also known as Gosala Maskariputra, who lived in the sixth century BCE at the time of the Buddha and MAHAVIRA. Gosala was at first a follower of Mahavira, but later founded his own sect. There are no Ajivika texts existing, but records of their practices are found in Buddhist and Jain sources. Ajivikas are also mentioned in inscriptions.

The Jain BHAGAVATI SUTRA states that the Ajivika scriptures consisted of ten Puvvas (PURVAS), while the early Jain texts comprised fourteen Puvvas. The language too was similar to the ARDHA MAGADHI of the Jain texts. Tamil sources mention an Ajivika text called the Navakadir (Nine Rays), probably a translation into Tamil from the original.

Gosala believed that living beings had no force or power of their own and were completely controlled by niyati or fate. There were six classes (sangati) of beings, and their experiences depended on the class to which they belonged, and their inherent nature. There were also five classes of atoms, which are eternal: air, water, fire, earth and life. Of these, only life is endowed with knowledge. A living being passed through 84,00,000 maha or great KALPAS (aeons), followed by twenty-eight lives including seven as a deity, after which the being finally attained bliss. Nothing could be done to speed up the process. No one could attain perfection by his own efforts, nor could anyone help another. Existence was like a ball of yarn, slowly unwinding, the end of the yarn being similar to the end of the series of lives.

Despite this fatalistic attitude, Ajivika monks wandered about nude and practised strict moral observances. They abstained from eating plants with roots, as well as certain types of fruit.

The Bhagavati Sutra also states that they worshipped various deities, while according to a Tamil text, they worshipped the Ashoka tree. Gosala was revered as a deity in south India.

The Ajivikas lived in several parts of India. Initially in the north, they moved to the region at the foot of the Vindhyan mountains and to south India. Two caves of the Barabar hills near GAYA have inscriptions recording that they were dedicated by ASHOKA, the Mauryan emperor, and his successor Dasharatha, to Ajivika monks.

Ajmer A city in Rajasthan with several historic monuments, best known for the DARGAH of the SUFI saint Shaikh MUINUDDIN CHISTI.

Ajmer was occupied from ancient days, but the foundations of the present city were probably laid by Ajayadeva, a Rajput ruler of the Chauhan dynasty. The city came under the Delhi sultans, the Mughals and the Marathas, with intermittent periods of Rajput rule. It was finally ceded to the British in 1818 and remained under their control till 1947.

Apart from Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti’s dargah which attracts thousands of pilgrims, monuments here include the ARHAI DIN KA JHOPRA MOSQUE, the AKBARI MOSQUE, and a nineteenth-century Jain temple known as Nasiyan, with wooden images of Jain deities.

Ajna Chakra One of the seven main CHAKRAS or invisible energy centres within the body. The Ajna Chakra is located in the centre of the forehead, and represents the so-called third eye. TANTRIC texts state that this chakra is white like the moon, and has two petals, with the Sanskrit letters ha and ksha written on it. Within is the subtle mind, manas, and the inner ATMA or soul, shining with its own light. Within is also the divine word, OM. Meditation on this chakra brings tranquility and manifests higher intelligence (buddhi). The person becomes all-knowing and all-seeing, the creator, destroyer and preserver of the three worlds, and realizes his unity with BRAHMAN, the Absolute.

Akal Purakh ‘The eternal One’, a name of God in Sikhism. It was used by Guru GOBIND SINGH in his description of God, and is still used today.

Akal Takht ‘The Eternal Throne’, the symbol of Sikh spiritual authority. The Akal Takht is located opposite the GOLDEN TEMPLE or HAR MANDIR SAHIB in AMRITSAR, and is the place where spiritual decisions are taken and orders given. The concept of a permanent centre of authority was thought of by Guru HARGOBIND, the sixth guru. He began to take decisions seated on an earthen mound on this spot, over which a platform was built in 1606. From here he is said to have issued the first Hukamnama or order to Sikh centres in all parts of the country. A building, known as Akal Banga, was built on the spot. After Guru Hargobind moved to KIRATPUR in 1635, the Akal Takht and other shrines in Amritsar came under the descendants of Prithi Chand, the hostile elder brother of Guru ARJAN DEV, but were regained by Guru GOBIND SINGH in 1699. Between 1762 and 1764, the Akal Takht and the Golden Temple were destroyed by the Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali, but in 1774 the ground floor of the building was reconstructed. Four storeys were added to the structure by Maharaja RANJIT SINGH. By this time spiritual and temporal authority were separated.

In the Akal Takht, the GURU GRANTH SAHIB is located on the first floor, where the Jathedar, or head of the Takht, also sits. There are four other main TAKHTs, the Takht Sri Keshgarh Saheb at ANANDPUR, Punjab, the Takht Sri Harimandir Sahib at Patna, Bihar, the Takht Sri Damdama Sahib at TALWANDI SABO, Punjab, and the Takht Sachkhand Huzur Sahib at Nanded, Maharashtra. The heads of the Takhts are known as Jathedars and are chosen by the SHIROMANI GURDWARA PRABANDHAK COMMITTEE. The Takhts deal with crises affecting the Panth or community, and with enforcing spiritual discipline.

Akalanka A Jain philosopher who wrote a commentary on the TATTVARTHADHIGAMA SUTRA of UMASVAMI, entitled Tattvartha-rajavarttika.

Akalanka is considered one of the great DIGAMBARA Jain ACHARYAS of Karnataka. His name is mentioned in an inscription at SHRAVANA BELAGOLA, and according to Jain tradition, he lived around the third or fourth century, while some scholars place him in the eighth century.

His other works include the Ashtashati, a commentary on SAMANTABHADRA’s Aptami-mamsa, and works on Jain logic, the Nyayavi nishchaya, Laghiyastraya and Svarupasambodhana. Several commentaries were in turn written on his works.

Akalanka’s views were opposed by the Brahmana KUMARILA, a philosopher of the eighth century.

Akali A term used to refer to Sikhs, indicating a devotee of AKAL PURAKH or God. In a historical context, it was also used for Sikh warriors who joined Sikh suicide squads during protest movements. The first such group appeared in 1690. The AKALI MOVEMENT started in the twentieth century, the aim being to free the GURDWARAS or Sikh shrines from the hold of corrupt priests. The Shiromani Akali Dal was a political party which began at this time, and though it has gone through several changes and splits, it still exists and is important in Punjab.

Akali Movement A Sikh religious movement which started in the early twentieth century, and gradually acquired a political dimension. At this time the GURDWARAS or Sikh shrines were controlled by mahants (priests), who had lost touch with the Sikh community. Some of them were part of the UDASI sect and had introduced idol worship and other Hindu rituals. The Sikh shrines had huge incomes, both from offerings and from lands attached to them, and some corrupt mahants had appropriated these. The posts had also become hereditary. After the movement started, some mahants voluntarily handed over the shrines, but in 1920 a political component was introduced. India was in turmoil after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre by the British and the beginning of the non-cooperation movement against British rule. In this atmosphere, the British supported the mahants, who preached loyalty to them. The SHIROMANI GURDWARA PRABANDHAK COMMITTEE, an elected committee, and the Shiromani Akali Dal, a political party, were set up to organize and direct the movement. After a long struggle, the Sikh demands were finally conceded and the Gurdwara Act was passed in 1925, giving the reformers control over the gurdwaras. Over 30,000 had been imprisoned, several hundred killed, and thousands wounded during the agitation.

akasha A Sanskrit term which means ‘space’, atmosphere or ‘ether’. In early Indian philosophy it signifies an ethereal substance permeating the world, the vehicle of sound and life. In Jainism, it is one of the DRAVYAS or substances. It can be divided into two categories, the part occupied by the created world, or Lokakasha, and the space beyond it, Alokakasha, which is an empty void.

Akbar A Mughal emperor who ruled in northern India from 1556 to 1605 and is known not only for his conquests and administrative reforms, but also for his liberal policy towards Hindus and his eclectic views on religion. Akbar was the son of Humayun and grandson of Babar, who had first established Mughal rule in India in 1526. Humayun had lost his territory to the Afghan Sher Shah, and regained it only in 1555, one year before his death. Born in 1542, Akbar was thirteen years old when he took over as king. He embarked on a series of conquests until most of north India was under his control. He extended his conquests into Afghanistan and to the Deccan in the south.

His religious views developed over time. Initially, he was an orthodox Muslim, but gradually he changed. Though he was a SUNNI, he is said to have been influenced by his tutors, Bairam Khan and Abdul Latif, who had liberal views.

Akbar abolished the pilgrim tax in 1563 and removed the JIZYA tax, which was levied on non-Muslims, in 1564. He made a number of alliances, particularly with the Rajputs, married Rajput princesses, and appointed Rajputs to high posts. He was influenced by SUFI views and revered Shaikh SALIM CHISTI and Shaikh MUINUDDIN CHISTI. His courtiers ABUL FAZL, FAIZI, and their father Sheikh Mubarak also influenced him.

In 1575 he began discussions at the IBADAT KHANA in Fatehpur Sikri with members of different Islamic sects, and finding conflicting views among them, in 1579 he declared that he himself was the final authority for settling religious disputes. Later, discussions continued with representatives of different religions and sects, including Sufis, Christian fathers, Zoroastrians, Jains and Hindus.

He believed in the concept of SULH-I KUHL, or absolute peace, and became familiar with the doctrine of WAHDAT AL-WUJUD, or universal oneness. He even founded a new religion, or rather a new way of worship, known as the DIN-I ILAHI or Tauhid Ilahi, which included sun worship and the recognition of the emperor as God’s representative on earth. For some time he seemed to be against Islam and traditional Islamic methods of worship, and this was used by his son Salim to gather support when he started a revolt against his father.

Akbar celebrated Hindu festivals at court, though this was not unique, as other Muslim rulers followed this practice as well. He was against killing animals for food and prohibited the killing of animals on certain days. He only drank GANGA water, which was despatched from the river in sealed jars.

Apart from his liberal religious views, Akbar was socially progressive and attempted to stop the practice of SATI. He patronized artists, poets and musicians, and sponsored new trends in architecture, representing a fusion of Hindu and Islamic styles. A number of Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian on his orders.

He died in 1605 and was succeeded by his son Salim, who became the emperor Jahangir.

Akbari Mosque A mosque located at AJMER in Rajasthan, near the DARGAH or tomb of the SUFI saint, MUINUDDIN CHISTI. The Mughal emperor AKBAR visited the dargah several times, and built this large mosque in 1571. It was repaired in 1901 by Nawab Ghafoor Ali of Danapur, and one of its wings now houses the Monis Usmani Darul-Uloom, a MADRASA.

Not many mosques were constructed during Akbar’s reign, and the erection of the Akbari Mosque here is a mark of his reverence and appreciation of the saint.

Akhand Path A term referring to the non-stop ceremonial recitation of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB, the sacred book of the Sikhs. This recitation continues for two days, that is for forty-eight hours, and is performed at religious festivals and other important functions. A Saptah Path, or reading in seven days, takes place in private homes and temples.

Akhnur The site of the ruins of a Buddhist monastery located in the Jammu region of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, on the banks of the river Chenab. Antiquities found at the site date back to the sixth century, indicating the continued existence of Buddhism in the area, from early days.

akshara A Sanskrit term, which means imperishable, unchanging, or eternal. It designates BRAHMAN or the Absolute. Its other meanings include a letter of the alphabet, a word or sound, a sacrifice or religious austerity.

Akshardham Temple A temple dedicated to Lord SWAMINARAYAN, a Hindu saint who lived from 1781 to 1830 and is considered an incarnation of the god VISHNU. The main temple, located at Gandhinagar in Gujarat, was inaugurated in 1992. The image of Swaminarayan, considered the Supreme God, is installed in the Hari Mandir, a hall on the ground floor of the temple. On either side are images of Gunatitanand Swami, representing Aksharbrahman or god’s divine abode, and Gopalanand Swami, representing Aksharmuktas or redeemed souls. On the upper floor the Vibhuti Mandir has some of the sayings of Swaminarayan etched on glass circles edged with gold.

The structure rises to a height of 32.93 m and is 73.15 m long and 39.93 m broad. It is constructed out of 6000 tonnes of pink sandstone, along with some yellow stone, white marble and granite. There are over a hundred carved pillars with sculptures of gods and goddesses, as well as trellised windows and delicate stone screens.

There are several Swaminarayan temples in Gujarat, other parts of India and abroad. The central image in these temples may be of some other form of Swaminarayan or Vishnu, but represents the Supreme Deity. A large Akshardham Temple also exists in Delhi.

Akshobhya A celestial BUDDHA, also referred to as a DHYANI BUDDHA, who heads a group or family of Buddhist deities. Literally, his name means ‘immovable’, and he is described in both MAHAYANA and VAJRAYANA texts. His direction is the east, and he reigns over Abhirati, the eastern paradise. The Akshobhya Vyuha, an early text available in Chinese and Tibetan translations, provides a detailed account of this paradise. According to legend, while Amitabha was a BODHISATTVA, he vowed never to feel anger towards any living being, and thus became a Buddha. Usually he is depicted as dark blue or sometimes golden. He holds a VAJRA (thunderbolt) in his right hand, and touches the earth with his left (bhumisparsha-mudra), and his vehicle is a pair of elephants. The Bodhisattva associated with him is Vajrapani, and his Shakti or consort is Lochana.

Among the gods who emanate from him are HERUKA, HAYAGRIVA, Yamari, Chanda-roshana, Buddhakapala and Vajradaka. Among the goddesses are Mahachina-Tara, Janguli, Ekajata, PRAJNAPARAMITA, Vajracharchika, Mahaman-tranusarini, Mahapratyangira, Dhvajagrakeyura and Nairatma. In general, all deities who are blue and dwell in the eastern direction belong to this family. In MANDALAS they are in the south-east (Agni) corner.

Alagar/Azhagar A Hindu deity, a name of the god VISHNU in south India.

Alagar Koil A temple of the Hindu deity ALAGAR or VISHNU, located 21 km north-east of MADURAI in Tamil Nadu, at the foot of the Alagar hills. According to the legendary account in the Sthala Purana of the temple, the god YAMA prayed there, and was blessed by NARAYANA (Vishnu). Yama then insisted that Vishnu reside there, and asked VISHVAKARMA, the divine architect, to construct the temple. The temple is mentioned in the Paripadal, a Tamil text, and in the hymns of the ALVAR saints. According to another story, Vishnu descended here from VAIKUNTHA, his heaven, to give his sister MINAKSHI in marriage to Sundareshvara (SHIVA). Alagar is also known as Sundararaja (the beautiful), or Kallalagar, as he was worshipped by the Kalla caste. He is depicted in various postures, seated, standing and reclining. The main image is flanked by BHU DEVI and SHRI DEVI. There are several other shrines nearby, including SHAIVITE shrines. The guardian deity of the temple is the local god Karuppan.

This temple and the legends associated with it indicate attempts to bring the Shaivites and Vaishnavites together. The god has an important role in the Chittirai festival of the MINAKSHI TEMPLE at Madurai.

Alai, Shaikh A Muslim saint who lived in the sixteenth century and was a leader of the MAHDAWI movement. Originally from Bengal, his family settled near AGRA. Pious and learned from his youth, he gathered followers around him and claimed to be the MAHDI. For some time he gave up his claims in favour of Shaikh Abdullah Niyazi, a disciple of Mir Sayyid Muhammad of Jaunpur, but later he reasserted himself as a divine leader. He converted several people and as his influence spread, the emperor Islam Shah Sur, the son of Sher Shah, was persuaded by others at the court that Alai was a threat to his power. He ordered his punishment, but Alai, already weak from illness, died. It is said that at the time of his death in 1550, a huge storm arose, and when it abated his body was covered in flowers. People prophesied that now Islam Shah’s rule would not last, and indeed it came to an end in 1554. Soon after this, Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, who had been ousted from power by Sher Shah, recaptured DELHI in 1555.

Alakananda The name of the sacred river GANGA, when it flows through Deva Loka, the world of the gods. Alakananda is also a real river, forming a headstream of the Ganga.

Alakshmi A Hindu deity, a form of the goddess LAKSHMI, worshipped primarily in Bengal. Alakshmi is inauspicious and brings misfortune. She is worshipped on the night of DURGA PUJA and rituals are performed to clear the house of Alakshmi, and bring in Lakshmi, the auspicious one, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. Alakshmi is also known as JYESHTHA, and in this form was once popular in south India. She is sometimes identified with DHUMAVATI, one of the MAHAVIDYAS or TANTRIC goddesses.

Alara Kalama An ascetic whom Siddhartha Gautama, later the BUDDHA, came in contact with, in the sixth century BCE, before achieving enlightenment. Alara Kalama had reached the seventh stage of meditation, in which the mind seeks nothing. He taught Siddhartha certain techniques of YOGA, but dissatisfied with these, Siddhartha continued his wanderings and his search.

Alchi Temples Buddhist shrines located at Alchi in LADAKH in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, constructed between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. There are five shrines in a courtyard, with a path leading to the Dukhang, the main temple. Several CHORTENS, small structures containing holy relics, are in the courtyard. Balconies, doorways and windows are made of wood, and finely carved and painted. The walls are rock, covered with mud, and the flat roofs have stone tiles. Inside, the walls and ceilings are plastered, overlaid with paintings of MANDALAS and Buddhist deities in brilliant colours. The five temples are the SUMTSEK, Dukhang, Lhakang Soma, Lotsawa Lakhang, and Manjushri Lakhang. The Dukhang, the oldest, has a central image of the Buddha VAIROCHANA, while the Sumtsek, just slightly later, is a large temple with three stories.

Aleph/Alef The first letter of the Hebrew alphabet, which is considered sacred. In the mystical KABBALAH of Judaism, it is considered the spiritual root of all letters, including in its essence the whole alphabet, and therefore all that is.

Alif A letter of the Arabic alphabet, considered sacred in Islam, as the word ALLAH begins with it. Alif, the first letter of the alphabet, signifies oneness. According to legend, a SUFI saint, after learning only this letter in school, understood the unity of the universe.

Aligarh Movement An Islamic reform movement in India in the nineteenth century. Led by Syed AHMAD KHAN, it advocated the modernization of education for Muslims. This movement resulted in the foundation of the Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875, which became a university in 1920. Known as Aligarh Muslim University, it is today a prominent centre of education with departments in all branches of learning.

alim An Arabic term meaning ‘one who has knowledge’, used for a person learned in Muslim canonical law. Its plural is ULAMA.

Allah The Arabic name of God in Islam. The QURAN states that there is no God but Allah, and that MUHAMMAD is his prophet. Several passages in the Quran describe the nature of Allah. He is the living and the everlasting. All that is in the heavens and earth belong to him. He is all-hearing, all-knowing, and the protector of believers (2.255–57). He is the light of the heavens and the earth (24.35). There is no God but He, the creator of all; he is to be served, for he is the guardian of everything. The eyes cannot attain Him, but He attains the eyes; He is the All-subtle, the All-aware (6.102–03).

Allah has ninety-nine names, among them being Ar-Rahman, the merciful, and Ar-Rahim, the compassionate.

God in Islam is also known by the Persian word, Khuda. However, in all formal prayers, the word Allah is used.

Allahabad The ancient PRAYAGA, mentioned in texts and inscriptions. At this sacred spot the streams of the GANGA and YAMUNA unite, and according to tradition the SARASVATI river joins them underground, forming the Triveni, or meeting of three streams.

Prayaga was a prosperous place until around the seventh century, after which it declined. AKBAR, the third Mughal emperor, rebuilt the city in the sixteenth century, naming it Allahabad. It came under the British in 1801. There are several historic monuments in the city, including an ASHOKA pillar which was once located at the site of KAUSHAMBI nearby. Religious monuments include mosques, among which is a JAMI MASJID, as well as churches and a cathedral. There are also innumerable temples, though most of them are not very old. Among them are the Adi Madhava temple, Adishesha Bhagvan temple, Bharadvaj temple, HANUMAN temple at Triveni Sangam and Veni Mata temple. Allahabad is one of the four places where the KUMBH MELA is held, once in twelve years.

Allahu Akbar An Arabic phrase in Islam, which means ‘God is great’. The AZAN or call to prayer, made five times a day, begins with this phrase.

Allasani Peddana A poet at the court of Krishnadeva Raya, ruler of the Vijayanagara kingdom from 1509 to 1529. Allasani Peddana is best known for his work Svarochisha-Sambhava or Manucharitra, based on a variant of a story from the MARKANDEYA PURANA. Allasani’s story is of an orthodox BRAHMANA, named Pravara, who refuses the love offered to him by Varuthini, an APSARA. A GANDHARVA takes the form of Pravara and lives with Varuthini, and from their union, the second MANU, Svarochisha, was born. (Other PURANAS have different stories on the birth and origin of Svarochisha.) Allasani is known as Andhrakavi-pitamaha, the grandfather of Telugu poetry.

Alphonsa, Sister A Christian nun who was made a saint on 12 October 2008.

Sister Alphonsa was born on 2 August 1910, in Kudumallur, a village in kerala. She lost her mother soon after her birth, and was brought up by her mother’s sister. Originally known as Anna Muttathupadathu, she refused to marry, joined the convent in 1925 and was ordained in 1927. She did not live long, and at the time of her death in 1946, she was almost unknown.

However, soon after this, children from a nearby school who knew her used to visit her grave, reported that any prayers they made there were answered. Others began to go there, and soon many miracles of cures and other blessings were reported. She was beatified in 1986, and after investigation of some of the reported miracles, she was declared a saint in 2008.

She is the only woman saint from India.

Alvars/Azhwars VAISHNAVA saints who lived in south India between the sixth and tenth centuries. They composed songs and verses of love and devotion, mainly in Tamil, to the Hindu god VISHNU, which are collected in the NALAYIRA DIVYA PRABANDHAM (The Book of Four Thousand Sacred Hymns). Traditionally, there were twelve main saints. The term Alvar means one who has an instinctive knowledge of God, and Alvar was usually added to the names of the saints. The twelve saints are: Poigai, Bhutattalvar, Pey, Tirumazhisai, Kulashekhara, Periya Alvar, Tondaradippodi, Tiruppan, TIRUMANGAI, NAMMALVAR, Madhura Kavi and ANDAL, a woman. These BHAKTI saints have different origins. According to traditional literature, the first three were born in a miraculous way. Tirumazhisai was the son of a rishi. Periya, Tondara and Mathura were BRAHMANAS. Kulashekhara was a KSHATRIYA, Nammalvar, a cultivator, and Tirumangai, a Kalla (lower caste).

The Alvar saints popularized Vaishnavism in the south.

Amalorpavadoss, Father D.S. An Indian Christian priest and theologian. Born in 1932, he founded the National Biblical, Catechital and Liturgical Centre at Bangalore in Karnataka, and later the Anjali Ashram, a Christian ashram, at Mysore. He propagated Indian forms of worship and helped in the liberalization of the CATHOLIC CHURCH in India. He also analyzed the role of Christianity in India and its relationship with other Indian religions, and among his books on this theme are Gospel and Culture, and Integration and Interiorization. He died in 1990.

Amar Das, Guru The third Sikh guru who succeeded Guru ANGAD. Born on 5 May 1479, he became the guru in 1552, at the age of seventy-three.

Amar Das was originally a VAISHNAVITE Hindu, but after meeting Guru Angad, became his devoted follower. Another disciple of Angad, called Gobind, built a township known as Goindwal on the river Beas for his guru. Amar Das was sent to supervise the construction and then to stay in the completed town. Despite the displeasure of his sons, Angad chose Amar Das as his successor, and he became the next guru after Angad’s death in 1552. Simultaneously Angad’s son Datu proclaimed himself the guru, but could not acquire a following, and Amar Das was persuaded to continue.

Amar Das expanded the institution of LANGAR, or the free community meal, where people of all castes and religions ate together. He trained a number of people to spread the Sikh religion, and established twenty-two MANJIS, or spiritual divisions. Each Manji consisted of a group of Sikhs under a spiritual leader. This system helped to consolidate and spread Sikhism. Guru Amar Das also constructed a sacred baoli (step-well) at Goindwal, which became a centre of pilgrimage, and introduced Sikh rituals for birth and death. He was known to be against SATI and other social evils.

He composed hymns which are included in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB. In the Anand Sahib, included in the daily prayers, he describes the joy of discovering god. He says:

The true name, abiding in my heart,

Has given me peace and joy. (Trans. Gopal Singh)

He chose as his successor his son-in-law Jetha, whom he renamed RAM DAS.

He died in 1574, at the age of ninety-five.

Amarakosha A Sanskrit dictionary compiled in the fourth or fifth century CE by Amarasimha. As it gives synonyms of many words and multiple names of each deity, it is a useful text for understanding Hindu gods and goddesses.

Amaravati (1) A divine city of the Hindu god INDRA, located on Mt MERU.

(2) A city in Andhra Pradesh, where the AMARESHVARA TEMPLE and the AMARAVATI STUPA are located.

Amaravati Stupa A Buddhist STUPA, located at AMARAVATI in Andhra Pradesh, constructed between 200 BCE and 250 CE. The whole complex once covered an area of about 600 sq. m. The stupa itself had a height of 35 m and a diameter of 45 m. Around it was a stone railing, with four elaborately carved gateways in the four cardinal directions. At Amaravati, the BUDDHA was depicted in human form and large Buddha images, some more than 2 m high, are preserved in the museum. The railings and cross beams are intricately carved with depictions of JATAKA stories, miniature stupas, foliage and other scenes. The stone used is greenish-white limestone, and the carving is usually in BHARHUT style, though there is some influence of GANDHARA and MATHURA art as well.

The stupa was deserted in the fifth century and rediscovered by a British officer in the late eighteenth century. Several large sculptures were transported to Britain and are still in the British Museum.

Amardad An AMESHA SPENTA or deity in Zoroastrianism, the later name of AMERETAT or immortality.

Amareshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located on the Krishna river, at AMARAVATI in Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh. Evidence indicates there was once a Buddhist shrine at this spot, as the foundation slabs are characteristically Buddhist. Constructed in the tenth or eleventh century, it is dedicated to Shiva in the form of Amareshvara, the eternal Lord. In the main shrine is a white marble LINGA, about 2.8 m high. Amareshvara’s consort, also woshipped in the temple, is the goddess Bala Chamundika. There are other shrines dedicated to minor deities. The sanctity of Amaravati is described in the PURANAS. One legend states that when the DEVAS were being harassed by the RAKSHASAS, they took refuge here, and therefore it was called Amaravati, the place of immortals. The temple is in Dravidian style architecture, with towering GOPURAMS and a VIMANA or tower above the central sanctuary. There are inscriptions of the Kota kings of Dhanyakataka (eleventh to thirteenth centuries), the Reddi kings of Kondavidu and the Vijayanagara rulers. In the late eighteenth century the temple was renovated by a local chief, Raja Sri Vasireddi Venkatadri Nayudu, who also provided for its income and maintenance.

The temple still attracts thousands of pilgrims, the main festivals being at SHIVARATRI, the NAVARATRAs and Kalyana Utsavas. Nearby is the famous AMARAVATI STUPA.

Amarkantak A sacred spot on the Maikala range on the border of Madhya Pradesh/Chhattisgarh, where the river NARMADA originates. Temples dedicated to the Hindu god SHIVA and the river goddess Narmada were constructed to mark this spot in the time of the Marathas in the eighteenth century. The image of Narmada is of black stone, with silver eyes. Opposite is the linga of Amarkanteshvara Shiva, said to be svayambhu, or self-created, near which is an image of Parvati. There are other shrines, of Surya, Vishnu, Gorakhnatha and the eleven Rudras. The source of the river is in the courtyard of the main temple, and is surrounded with marble slabs. To the east is the source of the Sone river, marked by the Sonakshi Shaktipitha Temple. The sanctity of Amarakantak is described in the Skanda Purana, Vishnu Samhita, and other texts. Amarkantak is a major center of pilgrimage.

Amarnath A natural cave located in the Liddar valley of Kashmir, sacred to the Hindu god SHIVA. At a height of 3962 m, the large cave, 25 m deep, has an ice formation similar to the LINGA of Shiva. It is considered a self-formed (svayambhu) linga. According to legend, the cave was first discovered in ancient days when the rishi KASHYAPA drained the Kashmir valley of water. SHANKARA went there in the ninth century, and the site is mentioned in the NILAMATA PURANA and Rajatarangini, the old chronicles of Kashmir. The king ZAIN UL ABIDIN visited it in the fifteenth century, but after this it was unknown for a few hundred years. In the nineteenth century, it was rediscovered by a Muslim shepherd, Buta Malik, of village Batakoot. According to the story, a sadhu gave Malik a sack of coal, but opening it, he found gold coins. He went to search for the sadhu to thank him, but instead discovered the cave. Until recently a percentage of the donations made here were given to the descendants of Malik, who still act as guides for pilgrims visiting the caves.

In this cave, it is said Shiva told PARVATI the story of creation. A pair of doves overheard it and still live there, reborn endless times. Two more ice lingas in the cave are believed to be of Parvati and GANESHA.

Thousands of pilgrims visit the Amarnath cave every year. The Amarnath Yatra, or journey to the cave, is organized in June/July every year.

amavasya A Sanskrit term, which literally means ‘to dwell together’. It refers to the night of the new moon, when the sun and the moon are said to dwell together, or the first day of the first quarter when the moon is invisible. Certain Hindu festivals are celebrated at amavasya, and offerings are made to the PITRIS or ancestors.

Amba A Hindu goddess, a form of DURGA. She is worshipped particularly in Gujarat. A major temple of Amba Mata is located on the Girnar hill near Junagadh in Gujarat. As Amba means ‘mother’, the word is sometimes used for other goddesses as well. Amba also represents the first syllable of the sacred mantra OM.

In early texts, Amba was one of the daughters of the king of KASHI and her sisters were AMBIKA and Ambalika.

Ambedkar, B.R. A dalit and Buddhist leader. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, popularly known as ‘Babasaheb’, was a lawyer and jurist, and one of the framers of the Indian Constitution. In addition, he was a leader of backward and lower castes, particularly Scheduled Castes, today known as DALITS. In 1956 he led them in a mass conversion to Buddhism to escape from the oppressive nature of the CASTE system in Hindu society.

Born on 14 April 1891 at Mhow in Madhya Pradesh, he was of the Mahar caste of untouchables. He completed school at Satara and Mumbai (Bombay) and obtained a BA degree from Bombay University, He then went to the USA for further studies on a scholarship offered by the Gaekwad (ruler) of Baroda, where he gained a PhD degree. Later, he went to England where he gained a Dsc degree and also studied law before returning to India. In India he held important positions both before and after Independence.

Despite his unusually privileged position at a time when less than 10 per cent of the population had access to education, Ambedkar never forgot his less fortunate brethren and worked unceasingly to improve their condition. After a lifetime of effort, Ambedkar came to believe that lower castes would never achieve equality within Hinduism. He was attracted by the social equality of Buddhism, and studied it for several years before deciding to convert to it. The conversion ceremony took place at Nagpur on 14 October 1956, and an estimated 2,00,000 of his followers joined him in this. Not long after this, Ambedkar died on 6 December 1956. However, he had begun a movement of conversion to Buddhism which continues even today. These converts are often known as NEO-BUDDHISTS.

Ambedkar wrote a number of books, including The Buddha and His Dhamma, which was published posthumously and later translated into Hindi and Marathi. This book, a reinterpretation of Buddhism to suit the times, is the main text read and studied by Neo Buddhists. It includes sections from texts of the PALI CANON retold by Ambedkar, along with his commentaries and interpretations. Among his other books are Who were the Shudras? and The Untouchables: A Thesis on the origins of Untouchability.

Ambedkar Jayanti, celebrating his birthday, is an important festival. Dhamma Diksha day, commemorating the first conversion on 14 October, is also celebrated by his followers along with other Buddhist festivals. Ambedkar is revered by dalits and considered their saviour. Statues of him have been set up in several places.

Ambika A Hindu goddess, a form of SHAKTI, PARVATI or DURGA. Ambika is mentioned in the VAJASENEYI SAMHITA and the Taittiriya Brahmana as the sister of RUDRA. In the Taittiriya Aranyaka she is his consort, whereas in later texts she is a form of Parvati or Durga. In other texts, she was one of the daughters of the king of KASHI. There are several temples of Ambika, particularly in western India. An important temple of Ambika, a SHAKTA PITHA, is located at Arasur in the Aravali hills of north Gujarat. Here the deity is represented symbolically by a YANTRA. Another famous Ambika shrine is the Jagat Mata temple at Udaipur, Rajasthan, which has seventeen turrets and a gabled roof. It is a centre of pilgrimage, particularly at the time of the March-April NAVRATRAS, when the GANGAUR festival takes place.

Ambika, Jain A Jain deity, associated with the twenty-second Tirthankara ARISHTANEMINATHA. She is also known as Kushmandini, and her consort is Gomedha. She is usually depicted riding a lion, and has four hands, in which she holds a bunch of mangoes, a noose, a child and an elephant goad. She thus had similarities with the Hindu goddess DURGA, whose names include AMBIKA and Kushmanda.

Ameretat A power of AHURA MAZDA, the name of God in Zoroastrianism. She is personified as an AMESHA SPENTA, representing immortality. aThe word Ameretat is similar to the Sanskrit AMRITA, the nectar of immortality. Ameretat is the twin of HAURVATAT, or perfection. According to the GATHAS, perfection and immortality come to those whose words and actions are in harmony with the Truth. In PAHLAVI texts Ameretat is known as Amardad. She is said to preside over the vegetable kingdom and her symbol is the white frangipani flower.

Amesha Spentas A term in Zoroastrianism for immortal beings through whom AHURA MAZDA, or God, pervades the cosmos. Created by him, they are his powers, but were later personified and treated as independent deities. They are ASHA or cosmic order, VOHU MANA or the good mind, KHSHATHRA or strength, ARMAITI or loving devotion, HAURVATAT or perfection, and AMERETAT or immortality.

The GATHAS, verses ascribed to ZARATHUSHTRA, mention and describe these powers. The later PAHLAVI term for them is Amshaspand or Amahraspand. The term is often translated as ‘bounteous immortals’ or ‘beneficent immortals’.

The Amesha Spentas are spiritual guides that help people reach perfection. They are also internal powers that dwell within each human being, and as such are similar to the CHAKRAS, or hidden energy centres.

Amir Ali, Syed A Muslim leader who settled in England and wrote on Islam. Born on 6 April 1849 in Cuttack, Orissa, he claimed to be descended from the Prophet MUHAMMAD. He obtained degrees in law from Kolkata (Calcutta) and England and then returned to Kolkata to practise law. He became a judge of the Calcutta High Court in 1890.

In 1877 he founded the National Mohammadan Association to protect Muslim interests. He wrote works on Islam in English, and his books include The Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mohammad, and The Spirit of Islam.

He moved to England in 1904, and remained there till his death in 1928.

Amir Husain A SUFI saint who lived in the thirteenth century, and was a disciple of Shaikh Sadruddin Arif. He wrote Zadul Musafirin and other works on the Sufi doctrine of WAHDAT AL-WUJUD.

Amir Khusrau A poet, musician, historian and SUFI mystic. Amir Khusrau was born in 1253 at Patiali in present district Etah of Uttar Pradesh, and was the court poet of several of the DELHI Sultans. His father Amir Saifuddin Mahmud, was a noble at the court of Sultan Iltutmish, and was descended from the Turkish Hazara clan, while his mother was Indian. Khusrau wrote several romantic and historical works in Persian, Hindi and Urdu and made major contributions to the development of Hindustani music. In 1284 he became a disciple of NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA, a Sufi saint who lived in Delhi, and began to compose poems on mystical themes. In one of his verses he said, ‘Though the Hindu is not like me in religion, he believes in the same thing I do’. He said that though Hindus worshipped stones, plants, animals and the sun, they recognized that these were all creations of the one God. He praised Islam compared with Hinduism, but said that even so Hindus were better than materialists, star-worshippers and Christians.

Khusrau was away when Nizamuddin died. When he learnt of the saint’s death he became almost mad with grief, and lived only another six months.

Considered the best of the Persian poets in India, he was known as ‘Parrot of Hind’. He is said to have written ninety-nine books, or in some sources 199. Around twenty of his works are known today. The Persian works include five diwans or poetry collections, ten masnawis (rhyming verse compositions) and three prose works. Five masnawis are in response to those of the Prsian poet Nizami Ganjavi. These are: Matla-eul-Anwar (The Rising of the Lights), a mystical work; Shirin-Khusrau and Laila Majnu, both love poems; Hasht Bihisht (The Eight Paradises), on the adventures of Bahram; Aina-e-Sikandari, (The Mirror of Alexander) an account of Alexander. Five other masnawis are Qiran-us-sadain (The Conjunction of Ten Auspicious Planets), an allegorical work; Dewal Rani Khizr Khan, a historical romance; Nuh Sipihr (The Nine Heavens); Mifta-ul-futuh; and Tughlaq Nama. Three prose works are Aijaz-e-khusravi; Khazian-ul Fatuh also known as Tarikh-i-Alai; and Afzal-ul-Fawaid.

Amir Khusrau developed the qawwali style of singing, as the khayal and tarana. The origin of the sitar and the tabla are traditionally attributed to him. He died in 1325 and is buried near the tomb of the Sufi saint, Nizamuddin Auliya, in Delhi.

Amitabha A celestial BUDDHA, also referred to as a DHYANI BUDDHA. One of the five main Buddhas, he heads a group of BUDDHIST DEITIES. His name means boundless light. He was earlier known as Amitayus, meaning eternal life, and is described in MAHAYANA and VAJRAYANA texts. Amitabha is the Buddha embodying compassion, and worshipping him leads to rebirth in his paradise. His direction is the west, and he rules over the western paradise, Sukhavati. Specific texts describing this paradise are two Sukhavati Vyuhas, both different in content, one longer than the other. Another text relating to Amitabha is the Amitayur Dhyana Sutra, preserved in its Chinese translation. According to legend, Amitabha was once a monk named Dharmakara who made forty-eight vows, and after perfecting himself in succeeding births, became a Buddha.

In iconography and art, Amitabha is depicted as red in colour and holding a lotus. His vehicle is a pair of peacocks. In TANTRIC texts he is associated with the Bodhisattva Padmapani, also known as AVALOKITESHVARA, and his consort or Shakti is Pandara. Other deities associated with him include Lokeshvara, Mahabala, Saptashatika-Hayagriva, Kurukulla, Bhrikuti, Mahasitavati, Amitaprabha, Bhadrapala, Chandraprabha, Jaliniprabha, Kapalini, Mukunda, Mahodadhi, Maheshvara and Niladanda. In addition to these are all gods and goddesses who are red and associated with the west. In MANDALAS they are assigned to the north-west (Vayu) direction.

Amitabha is also associated with BHAISHAJYAGURU, the healing Buddha.

The concept of Amitabha probably originated in north-west India or Central Asia, but became popular in China, Tibet and Japan. Pure Land schools of Buddhism, still popular in Japan, believe that worshipping Amitabha will enable them to be reborn in his paradise, known as the ‘Pure Land’.

amma A term which meams ‘mother’, used respectfully for women in south India. It is also a generic term for a MOTHER GODDESS, particularly in the south.

Amoghasiddhi A celestial BUDDHA, also known as a DHYANI BUDDHA, whose name means ‘unfailing success’. Amoghasiddhi is described in MAHAYANA and VAJRAYANA texts, and is associated with the northern direction. In iconography and art he is depicted as green in colour, holding a vishvavajra or double thunderbolt. His VAHANA or vehicle is a pair of GARUDAS. He is one of the five main Buddhas and is associated with the BODHISATTVA Vishvapani. Other Bodhisattvas connected with him are Amitaprabha and Vajragarbha. His consort is TARA. Among the deities emanating from him are Khadirvani Tara, Vashya Tara, Sita Tara, Dhanda Tara, Parnashabari, MAHAMAYURI, Vajrashrinkhala, Amitaprabha, the twelve Dharinis, Gandha-Tara, Gandha-Karmavajri, Mahabala, Muraja, Nritya, Priyadarshana, Rasavajra, Sparshavajra, Vishkambhin, Vighnantaka, Vajrasaumya and Vajraghanta, as well as all deities who are green in colour.

amrit In Sikhism, sweetened water, representing divine nectar. Amrit-sanskar is the term for the initiation ceremony of the KHALSA.

amrita A Sanskrit word meaning immortal or imperishable, it normally refers to the divine drink of immortality. The word is etymologically similar to the Greek ambrotos, the ambrosia of the gods, and also related to the Latin immortalis. In Zoroastrianism, the deity AMERETAT is derived from the same source.

In the ATHARVA VEDA, amrita is said to have been created from the cooking of the sacrificial rice-gruel. The most popular story of its origin in the MAHABHARATA and the PURANAS, is that it was obtained from the churning of the ocean of milk. This story is told in several texts with some variations. One version of the story states that the rishi DURVASA gave a garland to the god INDRA, who gave it to his elephant AIRAVATA. Airavata threw it on the ground as it attracted bees which troubled him. Angry at the disrespect shown to his gift, Durvasa cursed the DEVAs or gods, and everything declined, withered and grew dull in DEVALOKA, the world of the devas. VISHNU advised the devas on how to restore their glory. He told them to unite with the ASURAS and put all kinds of herbs in the ocean of milk, and then to churn it using Mt MANDARA as the churning staff and the serpent Vasuki as the rope. Vishnu provided the base, in the form of KURMA, the tortoise. Amrita finally emerged from the ocean, and Vishnu promised he would not allow the asuras to get it. Many wonderful things came out of the ocean as it was churned, including KAMADHENU, the wish-fulfilling cow, the goddess Varuni with dreamy eyes, PARIJATA, the divine tree, a number of beautiful APSARAS, the moon, the divine horse UCCHAISHRAVAS, poison or venom, and finally the sage DHANVANTARI, carrying amrita in a vessel. The asuras first snatched it, but later the devas retrieved it. Drinking it, they regained their former glory.

While the amrita was being carried, drops of it fell on the earth. The four places in India where it fell were HARDWAR, NASHIK, UJJAIN and PRAYAGA. In commemoration of this, the KUMBH MELA is held at these sites.

Amritananda, Mata A world-famous guru popularly known as Amma. The daughter of Sugunandan, a fisherman, Mata Amritanandamayi was born in a village in Kollam district of Kerala. Her fiftieth birthday was celebrated on 27 September 2003, though she states she is uncertain about her age. She has received no formal education, but even as a child she communicated with god and went into spiritual trances.

Amma speaks in Malayalam, the language of Kerala, and her theme is love. She hugs every one of her devotees and disciples, who are attracted by the divine love that radiates from her. She advocates both meditation and studying the scriptures, but the focus of her path is BHAKTI and service. Amma says, ‘The beauty and charm of selfless love and service should not die away from the earth… Through selfless action we can eradicate the ego that conceals the Self.’ She has set up a MATHA at the village of Vallikav in Kollam which receives large donations every year, much of it from foreign disciples. This money has been used to set up schools, colleges, medical and engineering institutes, hospitals, rural clinics, orphanages, oldage homes and other charitable institutions. The educational institutions come under Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeeth, a deemed university.

The matha runs ASHRAMS in more than thirty countries, as well as in various parts of India.

Amritsar A city in Punjab, particularly holy to the Sikhs and linked with their history. The foundations of the present city were laid by the fourth Sikh guru, RAM DAS, in 1577 and hence it was once known as Ramdaspur. The city was destroyed by Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Afghan invader, in 1761–62, but was soon rebuilt. The HAR MANDIR SAHIB, or Golden Temple, the most sacred Sikh shrine, is located here, as well as the AKAL TAKHT, the centre of Sikh religious authority. Among other shrines are temples, mosques and churches.

Amsha A Vedic deity. In the RIG VEDA, he is one of the ADITYAS, almost synonymous with BHAGA.

amsha-avatara A partial AVATARA or incarnation of a deity. Several of the characters in the MAHABHARATA were amsha-avataras, including the five PANDAVAS, BHISHMA and DURYODHANA. The PURANAS mention a number of other amsha-avataras.

Amtagadadasao (Skt: Antakrid-dasah) A Jain text, the eighth of the twelve ANGAS. The Thanamga, the third ANGA, indicates that its contents were once different, but it now consists of stories of Jain saints. Many of the stories are very briefly stated, with references to their longer form in other texts. Of the longer stories, the most interesting is the story of KRISHNA, which is based on the MAHABHARATA, but in this text is a pious Jain.

Amuktamalyada A poem on a VAISHNAVA saint, written in Telugu by Krishnadeva Raya, a ruler of the Vijayanagara dynasty from 1509 to 1529. The long poem describes the life of Periya ALVAR, also known as Vishnuchitta, and the love between his daughter ANDAL or Goda, who is identified with the goddess Lakshmi or Bhudevi, and the god RANGANATHA. It explains Vaishnava philosophy and simultaneously comments on principles of administration. The text has six cantos and the language is highly Sanskritized.

Anagarika Dharmapala The name adopted by Don David Hewaviratne (1864–1933), when he became a Buddhist. He was originally a Christian from Sri Lanka, but came to India and founded the MAHABODHI SOCIETY OF INDIA.

Anagra Raochao A term in Zoroastrianism for the everlasting light in which the God AHURA MAZDA dwells. The later form of the term was Aneran.

Anahata Chakra One of the seven main CHAKRAS or invisible energy centres of the body. Commonly known as the ‘heart chakra’ it is located within the body in the centre of the chest. Anahata literally means ‘unstruck’, and in this centre the unstruck sound, or the divine sound, anahata nada, is heard. According to TANTRIC texts, the chakra has twelve petals, the colour of the bandhuka flower (red), and on its twelve petals are inscribed the Sanskrit letters ka, kha, ga, gha, anga, cha, chha, ja, jha, jna, ta, tha. Within it is smoky grey, with a million flashes of light. Also within is the HAMSA, known as the jivatma or individual soul, which is like the flame of a lamp in a windless place. Meditation on this chakra fulfills all desires and enables one to protect and destroy the worlds.

Ananda Marga A religious organization started in 1955 by Prabhat Ranjan SARKAR. It was known as the Ananda Marga Pracharak Sangh, and aimed at initiating people into the ‘path of bliss’ (ananda = bliss, marga = path). Sarkar, later known as Ananda Murti, modified and simplified TANTRIC practices to make them available for all, and was against dogma, superstition and caste. The headquarters of the organization was first at Jamalpur in Bihar, but later shifted to Anand Nagar, in Purulia district of West Bengal. Within a few years it had gained popularity in Bihar and West Bengal, and gradually opened centres in various parts of India and abroad. A structure was given to the organization, with four grades of disciples, the highest being avadhoots, who dedicated their lives to the organization. In 1962, the first monk was initiated by Sarkar and in 1966, the first nun. Apart from engaging in spiritual practices, these devotees also spend time in social and charitable works. Most Ananda Margis, however, are lay followers or sadhaks. The Ananda Marga organizes welfare and relief works, and in 1963 the Education, Relief and Welfare Section was opened, and the first schools run by the Ananda Marga were inaugurated. The Ananda Marga Universal Relief Team was begun in 1965 for relief from natural and man-made calamities. It also set up a political wing, the Proutist Bloc of India.

Despite some initial problems, the organization has branches in 160 countries, and over a million followers.

ananda A Sanskrit term implying internal happiness or bliss, which can be reached through contact with the higher Self. Each person also has a anandamayi KOSHA or body of bliss, which can be realized through meditative and other practices. Ananda has sometimes been identified with BRAHMAN, the eternal self and underlying reality of the world. According to the UPANISHADS, ananda is the highest state, where the knower, the known, and knowledge, are One.

Ananda The closest disciple of the BUDDHA, who was also his cousin. He is said to have been born on the same day as the Buddha. There are several descriptions of him and his dialogues with the Buddha are recorded in PALI texts. While women were generally considered inferior, Ananda championed their cause and persuaded the Buddha to admit them into the SANGHA. Monasteries for women were then set up. It was to Ananda that the Buddha gave instructions that after his death there was no need for a leader or teacher for the monks. ‘Be a light unto yourselves’, said the Buddha.

Ananda was known for his perfect memory. Soon after the Buddha’s death, the First BUDDHIST COUNCIL was held at RAJAGRIHA, and Ananda was asked to recite all the sermons of the Buddha. Ananda, however, busy for most of his life in the service of the Buddha, had not gained enlightenment, which was a requirement for all participating monks. The night before the Council was held, he achieved his goal. He recited all the Buddha’s sermons, which were collected as the SUTTA PITAKA. According to tradition, Ananda lived to the age of 120.

Anandamayi Ma A mystic and realized soul. Her original name was Nirmala Sundari and she was the daughter of a VAISHNAVA brahmana, Bipin Bihari Bhattacharya. Born in 1896 in East Bengal, now Bangladesh, she began to have visions and trances as a young girl. Married at the age of thirteen, she later went to live with her husband, who became her first disciple. An electric currrent emanating from her was said to prevent any man from approaching her too closely.

In a spontaneous manner without any preparation or deliberate action, she performed various YOGA asanas or postures, and went through other divine experiences. She had healing powers and soon became known as a spiritual person. In 1926 she began to travel, and wherever she went, crowds came to receive her DARSHANA or blessings. She was given the name Anandamayi Ma, and until her death in 1982, she continued to travel, speak and answer questions.

Her early photographs show a young woman of divine beauty, but Anandamayi remained detached from her body. She became so disassociated from it that her disciples had to do everything for her, from feeding to dressing and bathing her. Her talks reveal the Advaitic concept of the One Reality, the Divine Self, and have much in common with those of other mystics and philosophers. She spoke in Bengali and Hindi, and her talks and discussions have been collected and translated into several languages. In a typical statement, she said: ‘In this whole universe, in all states of being, in all forms, is He. All names are His Names, all shapes His shapes, all qualities and all modes of existence are truly His.’ Anandamayi Ma had founded more than thirty ashrams and still has thousands of followers.

Anandpur Sahib A city in Punjab, sacred to the Sikhs. Its name means ‘city of bliss’ and it has a number of GURDWARAS. It is closely connected with the tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH.

It is here that Guru Gobind Singh founded the KHALSA on the day of the BAISAKHI festival in 1699. The Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib, one of the TAKHTS or centres of authority of the Sikhs, is located here. Among the gurdwaras in the city are the Gurdwara Guru ka Mahal, originally the residence of Guru TEGH BAHADUR, the Gurdwara Sisganj, where the head of the martyred Tegh Bahadur was cremated, and the Gurdwaras Keshgarh, Anandgarh and Lohgarh, where fortresses once stood, constructed by Guru Gobind Singh for the defence of the Sikhs.

Ananta (1) A divine serpent, also known as Shesha or Adishesha. He has 1000 heads with 1000 gems that illuminate all the regions. He dwells in PATALA or the nether world and has great powers. The Hindu god VISHNU rests or sleeps on him, between the cycles of creation.

(2) Ananta, meaning ‘without end’ is also one of the names of several Hindu deities, including SURYA, VISHNU, SHIVA and KRISHNA.

Anathapindaka A wealthy banker who lived at the time of the BUDDHA. He constructed the JETAVANA monastery at SHRAVASTI, where the Buddha lived during the rainy season for the last twenty-five years of his life. He gradually gave away all his wealth to the SANGHA or Buddhist community.

anatman/anatta A Buddhist concept, meaning ‘no-self’. It challenged the idea prevalent in the UPANISHADS and other texts that there was a permanent entity, the ATMAN. The Self was rather an impermanent being composed of five SKANDHAS (aggregates). However, rebirth did take place, and KARMA did exist, but what was reborn and how, was a subject of debate in the various schools of Buddhism. One theory was that SAMSKARAS, mental tendencies that existed at the time of death, were transmitted into a new being, another that rebirth was like the flame of a lamp lighting another lamp.

ancient sects, non-orthodox Several sects in ancient India, denied the authority of the VEDAS and were not part of either Jainism or Buddhism. These sects no longer exist but had a following in ancient days. The leaders included religious teachers described by the BUDDHA as heretical (annatitthiya), or those who were opposed to the theory of KARMA (akriyavada or akiriyavada). These included Purana Kassapa, Pakudha Kachchayana, Makkhali GOSALA, AJITA KESHAKAMBALIN, Sanjaya Belatthiputa, and Nigantha Nataputta. Among them Makkhali Gosala’s AJIVIKA sect was the most widespread and long-lasting. In addition there was the Barhaspatya or CHARVAKAS, also known as Lokayats.

anda kataha According to Hindu mythology, the shell or covering of the whole universe, also known as BRAHMANDA or the cosmic egg, which contains a number of worlds or LOKAS.