Andal A BHAKTI saint of the Hindu Vaishnava ALVAR group. Like the other members of the group, Andal wrote verses in Tamil. She probably lived in the ninth century.

According to tradition, Vishnuchitta, one of the Alvar saints, also known as Periya Alvar, found a baby girl in a bed of sacred basil he had in his garden. He named this girl Goda, though she was also known as Nachiyar and Andal. Growing up in an atmosphere of reverence to the god KRISHNA, a form of VISHNU, she developed an intense love of the god and wanted to be united with him in marriage. She begged her father to marry her to RANGANATHA (Vishnu), the deity of the temple at SRIRANGAM. Periya Alvar did not know what to do, until he was assured in a dream that the god would accept her in marriage. Finally the marriage took place, and entering the inner shrine of the temple, Andal is said to have merged with the god in a flash, and remained part of him.

Andal is important as a woman poet and her verses form part of the NALAYIRA DIVYA PRABANDHAM. Two long poems attributed to her are Tirumozhi and Tiruppavai. Tirumozhi has 143 verses, narrating the different stages of her love for Tirumal (Krishna or Vishnu). She writes,

I rest with the golden garlands

In the garden of Tirumal

Waiting; when will I hear

The sound of the Lord’s conch

And the twang of his bow?

Finally she writes of the dream of her marriage, a divine vision.

In the Tiruppavai, she uses the form of a ceremony, where girls go to wake each other up for the morning bath. In this poem, the girls go to awaken Krishna from his divine sleep.

Andal is also considered an incarnation of Lakshmi or of BHUDEVI.

Andhra Jews A group of Jews who live in the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. Though they have recently adopted Judaism, they claim that they existed in the region from the ninth or tenth century, but were later converted to Christianity. The leader of the group is Shmuel Yakobi, earlier a DALIT Christian, who on a visit to Israel felt a cultural affinity with the Jewish people. On his return he convinced his family and several neighbours in his village of Kottareddipalli in Guntur District of their Jewish affinity, and they started living as Jews. Others in Ongole, Prakasham District, joined them as well. Led by Yakobi, they learnt Hebrew, built a small one-roomed SYNAGOGUE, and began observing the SABBATH and Jewish ceremonies. Israeli Rabbis visited them in 1994 and Yakobi’s son migrated to Israel. According to Yakobi, there are close connections between Hebrew and Telugu, indicating their ancient Jewish ancestry. They have named themselves the Council of Eastern Jewry.

Andu Masjid A mosque in Bijapur in Karnataka, constructed in 1608 by Itibar Khan, a minister of Ibrahim Adil Shah II, ruler of the kingdom of Bijapur.

It is named after its dome, which is shaped like an egg (anda). This small mosque is on the first floor of a double-storeyed building, but is not a double-storeyed mosque, with a hall being located below. The main dome, as well as the domes on the minarets, are egg-shaped.

anekantavada A concept in Jainism which indicates that everything is relative. No one except an omniscient being, a realized soul, can know the whole truth. There are seven different ways of perception, known as NAYA, and thus there are seven statements that can be made about any one thing. These lead to the related concept of SYADVADA, which deals with the probability of all knowledge.

In practical terms, anekantavada reconciles different and opposing views, and thus leads to tolerance.

Angad, Guru The second Sikh guru, who succeeded Guru NANAK. Born on 31 March 1504, he was known as Lehna, and was the son of Bhai Pheru, a Hindu trader. Lehna was a devotee of the goddess DURGA, but once, hearing a Sikh reciting the JAPJI, the morning prayer, he was attracted to Sikhism and became a disciple of Guru Nanak. For some time Lehna lived at Khadur, instructing and helping the people there, but then stayed with Guru Nanak at Kartarpur. Nanak appointed him his successor in 1539 and named him Angad, saying he was like his ‘ang’, his own limb.

Angad popularized the use of the GURMUKHI script, a simple script for writing Punjabi. He had Guru Nanak’s hymns transcribed and copied, and a biography of the guru written. He wrote a number of verses himself and sixty-two of his hymns are included in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB.

Guru Angad expanded and organized the practice of LANGAR, or community meals.

Before his death in 1552, Angad chose AMAR DAS as his successor.

Angas, Buddhist A classification of Buddhist texts into nine, and later twelve, categories. The nine Angas are mentioned in the SUTTA PITAKA, and were Sutta (discourses in prose), Geyya (discourses in mixed prose and verse), Veyya-karana (expositions), Gatha (verses), Uddana (sayings), Itivuttaka (quotations), Jataka (birth stories), Abbhutadhamma (mysterious phenomena), and Vedalla (dialectical analysis). Three more categories were added for Sanskrit texts.

Angas, Jain A series of eleven Jain texts which are the main texts of the SHVETAMBARA sect. The name of a twelfth Anga is known, but the contents are lost. These texts are based on fourteen Puvvas (PURVAS), comprising the original teachings of MAHAVIRA.

According to Shvetambara tradition, their leader BHADRABAHU was the last to know the teachings of MAHAVIRA. On his death, a council was called by STHULABHADRA at PATALIPUTRA, and the Purvas were reconstructed into twelve Angas. Other councils followed, and finally the texts were written down at Valabhi (Gujarat) in the fifth century, along with the UVANGAS and other works. Of these the Ayaramga and Suyagadamga are thought to record the earliest traditions. The Angas are:

(1) AYARAMGA SUTTA (ACHARANGA SUTRA)

(2) SUYAGADAMGA (Sutrakritanga)

(3) THANAMGA (Sthananga)

(4) SAMAVAYAMGA

(5) BHAGAVATI VIYAHAPANNATI (Vyakhya-Prajnapti)

(6) NAYADHAMMAKAHAO (Jnatadhar-mahkatha)

(7) UVASAGADASAO (Upasakadasah)

(8) AMTAGADADASAO (Antakriddasah)

(9) ANUTTAROVAVAIYADASAO (Anutara-upapati-kadasah)

(10) PANHAVAGARANAIM (Prashna-Vyakaranani)

(11) VIVAGASUYAM (Vipaka-Shrutam)

(12) DITTHIVAYA (Drishtivada) (This text is lost.)

(The above names are in ARDHA-MAGADHI, while those in SANSKRIT are within brackets.)

angels The concept of angels as messengers of God exists in several religions. The word ‘angel’ comes from the Greek angelos, meaning messenger. In Zoroastrianism, the FRAVASHI, or farohar, is something like a guardian angel. Some classify the AMESHA SPENTAS and YAZATAS of Zoroastrianism as angels, though yazatas are actually minor deities.

According to the BIBLE, angels not only served as God’s messengers, but watched over people and were at times instruments of God’s justice. Judaism accepts the existence of angels and they are described in rabbinical literature, but the MISHNAH and some orthodox Jewish literature does not mention them. They are important in Jewish mysticism, particularly in the MERKABAH.

Angels are a part of Christian tradition, described in the Old and New Testament, and also known through legends and tradition. Three main categories of angels are Seraphim, Cherubim and Archangels. In the sixth century CE angels were classified into nine groups by a theologian who used the name Dionysius the Areopagite (known as the pseudo-Areopagite). The highest of the nine groups are the Seraphim, followed by the Cherubim. Others were Thrones, Dominations, Virtues, Powers, Principalities, Archangels and Angels. His work was used extensively for further discussions and analyses of angels, though many do not agree with his categorization.

The tradition of angels exists in Islam as in Judaism and Christianity. In fact, the QURAN was revealed to the Prophet MUHAMMAD by the Angel Jibril (Gabriel).

Angels are known in Islam by the Arabic word malak, or MALAIKA, similar to the Hebrew word malakh, and in Persian as firishtah. They are said to be created of light and endowed with life, speech and reason.

Angiras A great RISHI or sage, described in the RIG VEDA. He is the first sacrificer, associated with fire rituals, and a teacher of divine knowledge (brahma vidya). In later texts, he is one of the mind-born sons of the Hindu god BRAHMA. He is also said to be one of the sixteen PRAJAPATIS created by Brahma, who then created the universe. His sons include AGNI and BRIHASPATI, while his daughters, SINIVALI, Kuhu, RAKA and ANUMATI, are lunar deities. He also had sons by the wife of a childless KSHATRIYA, who were personifications of light, and are known as ANGIRASAS. In some texts, Angiras is the son of Agni.

Angirasas The descendants of the rishi ANGIRAS, or sometimes of the Hindu god AGNI. They were a class of fire-priests and interpreters of traditional and magical rites.

Angkor The name of a kingdom in Cambodia that existed from around the ninth to the fifteenth centuries. The kingdom was also known as Kambuja. The Khmer dynasty who ruled there claimed descent from India. Their kings had Indian names and their towns and cities were named after Hindu deities. A number of Hindu temples were constructed here from the ninth to the twelfth centuries. Among these were several SHIVA temples including the Preah Ko (sacred bull) Shiva temple of the ninth century, the Bakong Shiva temple and the Lolei Shiva temple, also of the ninth century. The Baphuon Shiva temple was constructed in the middle of the eleventh century. The greatest and best-known monument, however, is the VISHNU temple at Angkor, known as ANGKOR WAT (Wat = temple). After the twelfth century, Buddhism predominated and Buddhist temples were built.

Angkor Wat A temple of the Hindu god VISHNU, located in Cambodia. It was constructed by Suryavarman (1112–52) of the Khmer dynasty. Angkor Wat is the largest of the monuments at Angkor, and is a temple as well as a mausoleum for the king after his death. This huge complex, in Dravidian temple style, covers an area of about 210 hectares, its enclosure wall being surrounded by a moat 200 m wide. The moat is crossed by a bridge which is 250 m long and 12 m wide, and built of sandstone blocks. The entrance is from the west through a large GOPURAM. At the entrance is a large standing image, once of Vishnu, later converted into the BUDDHA. The temple rises to a height of 65 m, with three tiers, and steps leading to successive levels. Each level is progressively smaller. From the third level, five towers rise, capped with domes. Within the temple are columned MANDAPAS and passageways carved with scenes from the RAMAYANA and MAHABHARATA. As the temple was later made a Buddhist monument, there are also Buddhist images. The central shrine, which once had a Vishnu image, is 42 m above the upper level.

Anglican Church An Anglican organization founded in 1964. ANGLICANS existed in India from the time of the British, but the majority joined the CHURCH OF SOUTH INDIA and the CHURCH OF NORTH INDIA. Some of the local converts to Christianity, particularly from Kerala, were not happy with the uniformity imposed by the Church of South India, and re-established the Anglican Church as a separate entity in 1964.

There are thirteen Anglican dioceses in India. Their bishops form the Synod, which governs their activities. Their headquarters are at Kottayam in Kerala.

Anglicans A Christian denomination who are considered PROTESTANTS, though their ideology contains both CATHOLIC and Protestant elements. Its church administration or organization is through bishops, while worship is based mainly on the Book of Common Prayer of 1662, and on new prayers introduced after 1965. As the Anglican Church was the official Church of England since the time of the REFORMATION, it had an impact on India with the arrival of the British. The Church Mission Society (CMS) was founded in England in 1799, and its missionaries first reached India in 1814, though there were some Anglican priests in India even in the seventeenth century. The same year the first Anglican See was established, while the first Anglican cathedral, ST. PAUL’S in Kolkata (Calcutta) was constructed in 1847. Anglican churches had been built earlier, from the seventeenth century onwards, notable among them being St. George’s Church in Agra (1826) and St. Mary’s Church, Chennai (1680). Apart from Kolkata, dioceses were founded in Mumbai (Bombay) and Chennai (Madras). CMS missionaries had reached the Kerala region by 1816, and in 1879 a separate diocese was formed for Travancore–Cochin, the two princely states in that area. In 1928, the Anglican Church of India and adjacent regions became autonomous, and was known as the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon. After Independence and Partition in 1947, it was known as the Church of India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. The same year in south India, it joined together with other churches of Protestant denominations to form the CHURCH OF SOUTH INDIA. Other Anglican groups joined the CHURCH OF NORTH INDIA, formed in 1970. A separate ANGLICAN CHURCH was established in 1964. The Anglicans were associated with the orthodox churches of Kerala, and influenced the founding of the MAR THOMA CHURCH.

Angra Mainyu The name of the evil spirit in Zoroastrianism, known as AHRIMAN in later texts. He is always in opposition to SPENTA MAINYU, the good spirit. The concept of Angra Mainyu or Ahriman changed over time. The GATHAS, the earliest Zoroastrian texts, state that God, known as AHURA MAZDA, created the twin spirits, the good and the bad. They established life (gaya) and non-life (ajyaiti), so that creation’s purpose might be fulfilled. Angra Mainyu chose to perform the worst deeds, while Spenta Mainyu chose the path of good and the way of Ahura Mazda. Similarly, these two aspects are within all people who have a choice between good and bad actions. When people choose rightly, guided by the AMESHA SPENTAS or powers of God, they become Hamkaras, or helpers of God, and help to bring about the perfect existence, or FRASHOKERETI. Later PAHLAVI texts such as the BUNDAHISHN seem to equate Spenta Mainyu with Ahura Mazda, while Ahriman has an independent existence as an evil being. This led Western scholars to interpret Zoroastrianism as a dualistic religion, though even in these texts Ahura Mazda is shown as superior in several ways. In these later texts, Ahriman is finally defeated, after thousands of years of strife.

Anguttara Nikaya A HINAYANA Buddhist text of the PALI CANON, literally ‘the collection of suttas or discourses arranged in ascending order’. The Anguttara Nikaya forms part of the SUTTA PITAKA and consists of 2308 suttas in eleven sections, each organized around a number. The first section has discourses relating to one, the second to two, etc. For instance section two has discourses on topics such as two things which must be avoided, two kinds of Buddhas, or two reasons to go to the forest to live; the section on four has suttas on the four things which lead to liberation from existence, four things that lead to heaven, four things that lead to hell, etc. In the course of this, Buddhist ethics and principles are enumerated, including simple topics such as the value of gratitude and respect for parents.

animals in religion Animals are closely associated with deities in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, and are also mentioned in other religions. In Hinduism animals are the VAHANAS or vehicles of various deities and are worshipped in temples. Legends, stories and myths personify animals, who may be wise and cunning, self sacrificing, devotees of god, or incarnations of the divine. In Buddhism, animals play a major role in both HINAYANA and MAHAYANA schools. In the JATAKAS, a text of the PALI CANON, several stories recount the life of BUDDHA in his previous births as an animal. In MAHAYANA Buddhism, BODHISATTVAS dedicate themselves to save all beings, including animals and plants, while in the Buddhist pantheon, animals are associated with various deities. In Jainism, different animals are associated with TIRTHANKARAS and lesser deities. In all three religions, animals also have souls and can reincarnate as humans. Deities and sages can transform themselves into animals for various purposes. Animals at times have symbolic meanings. Some of the more common associations are given below:

Ass: The ass or donkey is associated with the the Vedic deities, the ASHVINS, and with the later Hindu goddess JYESHTHA. Of course, the donkey is also significant in Christianity, for its role in carrying Christ.

Bear: In the RAMAYANA, bears, led by JAMBAVAN, are among those who help RAMA.

Boar: In the RIG VEDA, RUDRA, the MARUTS and VRITRA are figuratively referred to as boars. In the later Vedas, PRAJAPATI, in the form of a boar, raises the earth out of the waters. VARAHA, the boar, is an incarnation of the Hindu god VISHNU, while VARAHI, his consort, is one of the MATRIKAS or mother goddesses.

Buffalo: The buffalo is the mount of the Hindu god YAMA. MAHISHASURA, the buffalo demon, is killed by the goddess DURGA. The buffalo has an important role in the religion of some tribal groups, including the TODAS, and the representation of the buffalo as a demon may be linked with the absorption of tribal cults into Brahmanism.

Cat: The cat is rarely associated with deities in India though it is popular in other parts of the ancient world. Cats are sometimes associated with the goddess Shashthi and with the cat-faced mother-goddess, Bidali.

Deer: The deer is associated with SHIVA in his DAKSHINAMURTI form.

Goat: The goat is known as AJA in Vedic texts, and draws the chariot of the god PUSHAN. Aja Ekapad is a divine being in the Rig Veda, while in later Vedic texts, the goat is associated with AGNI. AJAMUKHI is a goat-faced Hindu goddess, and in Jainism NAIGAMESHA is a goat-faced deity.

Jackal: The jackal is often portrayed in PANCHATANTRA stories as being wily and wise, but is worshipped at the KALADUNGAR TEMPLE associated with DATTATREYA.

Lion: The lion is the mount of the goddess DURGA. One of Vishnu’s incarnations is NARASIMHA, half-man, half-lion, and the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, MAHAVIRA, has a lion as his emblem.

Monkey: Monkeys are generally venerated even today, as HANUMAN is the monkey deity who led the monkeys who helped RAMA in the RAMAYANA.

Mouse: The mouse is the vahana or mount of GANESHA, the elephant-headed deity, while rats are worshipped in a temple in Rajasthan.

Tiger: The tiger, first portrayed on seals of the INDUS CIVILIZATION, is also sometimes depicted as the vahana or mount of DURGA. The tiger is revered in several tribal religions.

Animals that play a significant role include the BULL, COW, DOG, ELEPHANT and HORSE.

Among reptiles, the iguana is associated with the goddess CHANDI. In the VEDAS, the tortoise, as Kashyapa, is identified with PRAJAPATI, while later KASHYAPA is the progenitor of all the beings in the world. The tortoise, known as KURMA, is an incarnation of the god VISHNU. In the Vedas, frogs are associated with rain and possess magical powers. NAGAS or snakes and snake deities have innumerable cults of their own. A variety of BIRDS, fish and mythical animals also find a place in religion.

Animal SACRIFICES are recorded in ancient texts, and still continue to a limited extent today.

animisha A Sanskrit word, meaning ‘unblinking’. In Hindu myths the gods did not blink, and when they took on various forms while attempting to seduce the wives of humans, they could be identified by this trait. Greek myths also refer to this as a characteristic of the gods.

anitya A Buddhist concept meaning ‘impermanence’, i.e., that everything is in a state of change. The BUDDHA preached this in his second sermon.

Anjana Devi A Hindu goddess, the mother of HANUMAN. Anjana is considerd a form of Devi or SHAKTI. There are several temples dedicated to her.

Anjaneya A name of the Hindu god HANUMAN. He was called this because he was the son of Anjana.

Annapurna A Hindu deity, a benevolent form of the goddess DURGA. Her worship in the household ensures plenty of food. There are several temples dedicated to the deity, particularly in hill areas. Her worship is also popular in eastern India.

Anu Gita A Sanskrit text which forms part of the fourteenth parva of the MAHABHARATA. In it, after the great war is over, the Hindu god KRISHNA summarizes the philosophy he had put forward in the BHAGAVAD GITA.

Anumati A Hindu deity. Literally ‘the favour of the gods’, in two places in the RIG VEDA she is personified as a goddess. In the ATHARVA VEDA she is the goddess of love, presiding over propagation. In later texts she is a lunar deity, the daughter of the rishi ANGIRAS.

Anuogadara (Skt: Anuyogadvarani) A Jain text of the SHVETAMBARA canon. It is sometimes listed with the PAINNAS, but is usually not connected to any group of texts. It has an encyclopedic content, similar to the NANDI SUTTA, but is arranged in a question-and-answer form.

Anuttarayoga Tantra The fourth and highest class of Buddhist TANTRIC texts. In the Tibetan Canon, it is part of the KAGYUR, and includes twenty-two volumes and over 300 texts. The most important of these are the GUHYASAMAJA TANTRA and the HEVAJRA TANTRA.

Anuttarovavaiyadasao (Skt: Anuta-raupa-patikadasah) A Jain text, the ninth of the twelfth ANGAS. It consists of stories of Jain saints who reached the highest level and practised the rite of starving themselves to death (SALLEKHANA), as prescribed in Jainism.

Apadana A HINAYANA Buddhist text which forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON. It consists of Buddhist stories on ARHATS, a term used to describe an advanced monk or Buddhist saint. Apadana (Sanskrit: Avadana) means heroic deed, or glorious deed. The Apadanas are written in verse and begin with a Buddhapadana, on all the BUDDHAS. This is followed by the Pachchekabuddh-apadana, on Pachcheka (Sanskrit: Pratyeka) or solitary Buddhas, who achieve enlightenment through their own solitary paths. The rest of the text consists of Thera and Theri Apadanas. The Thera Apadana, on the great monks, has fifty-five sections (Vaggas) each with ten Apadanas, and the Theri Apadana, on the great nuns, has four sections with ten Apadanas each. Mogallana (MAUDGALYANA), ANANDA and RAHULA are among the monks whose lives are described.

Apah Vedic deities. In the RIG VEDA, the term refers to water goddesses. They are mothers and wives, bestow boons and come to the sacrifice. They follow the path of the gods and flow in channels with the sea as their goal. They cleanse and purify worshippers.

Apam Napat A Vedic deity, mentioned in the RIG VEDA. He was the son of the waters, golden in form and appearance, always shining. He is sometimes equated with AGNI. The deity probably dates back to the days of the INDO-IRANIANS, as Apam Napat in the AVESTA is a spirit of the waters.

Aparna A form of the Hindu goddess PARVATI or DURGA. Originally she was probably a tribal goddess, worshipped by the Shabaras and other tribes. According to myths, after practising extreme austerities, she became the consort of the god SHIVA and was known as UMA.

Apostles A term primarily used for the twelve closest disciples of Jesus Christ. Literally, it is derived from a Greek word meaning ‘to send out’; they were the disciples Jesus sent to preach his doctrine. The Acts of the Apostles, which forms part of the NEW TESTAMENT, provides an account of some of their activities after the death of Jesus. The twelve apostles were: Simon Peter and his brother Andrew, James and his brother John, Philip, Thomas, Bartholomew, Mathew, James, son of Alphaeus, Simon Zealote, Judas, brother of James, usually identified with Thaddaeus, and Judas Iscariot, who later betrayed Jesus. After the betrayal, Judas Iscariot was replaced by Matthias.

Thomas, known as ST. THOMAS, is said to have come to India and died here. According to some accounts Bartholomew also came to India. Some later disciples, such as Paul, also called themselves Apostles.

Appar A BHAKTI saint of the seventh century. He was one of the NAYANARS and worshipped the Hindu god, SHIVA. Born in the Tamil region, he was earlier known as Marulnikkiyar and was a Jain monk of the DIGAMBARA sect, the head of a Jain monastery. Suffering from a stomach ailment for a long time, he was inspired to go to a Shiva temple and sing in praise of the god, and was instantly cured. He then became a devotee of Shiva. He was known as Tirunavukkarasar, but was popularly called Appar or ‘father’. He composed verses and songs of devotion to Shiva, which form part of the Tevaram, a sacred SHAIVITE text included in the TIRUMURAI.

apsaras Divine nymphs mentioned in Hindu texts, who were very beautiful and associated with the GANDHARVAS. In the RIG VEDA they were connected with water, and later with the earth and trees. According to the Shatapatha Brahmana, they could assume any form they liked and frequently appeared as aquatic birds. The MAHABHARATA states that warriors who died in battle were transported by the apsaras, in brightly coloured chariots, to INDRA’s heaven. Apsaras are said to have appeared at the time of the churning of the ocean for AMRITA, or to have emerged from PRAJAPATI. They bewitch and seduce mortals with their beauty. The most famous story about an apsara is that of URVASHI, with whom the mortal Pururavas fell in love. This is first narrated in the RIG VEDA, and later elaborated in several texts. Other apsaras were frequently sent by the gods to seduce RISHIS, so as to prevent them from achieving great powers through their austerities. Among these were Menaka, who seduced the rishi VISHVAMITRA, and many others.

Apsaras are also described in Buddhist texts and appear several times in the JATAKAS.

Aquaviva, Father Rudolfo A Jesuit priest at the court of the Mughal emperor AKBAR (1556–1605). He was one of the three priests who formed the first mission sent to AKBAR at his request, by the Portuguese in Goa, the others being Father MONSERRATE and Father Henriques. Aquaviva, the son of the Duke of Atri in Italy, was ordained as a priest in 1578 and reached Goa the same year. Though the youngest of the three, he was the head of the delegation. The priests probably reached the court in 1579, and had discussions with the emperor on Christian theology. They stayed for a few years; Aquaviva was the last to leave, in 1583. Returning to Goa and beginning a new missionary programme, Aquaviva and other Jesuits planted a cross outside the village of Cuncolim.

Unfortunately this was at a site where a temple had been destroyed the previous year by other Christian missionaries. Aquaviva and his companions were killed by the villagers, still angry at the earlier desecration. The martyred Jesuits were later beatified.

ara A term in Jainism for a cosmic age. According to Jain cosmology, the wheel of time has twelve aras (literally, spokes)—six ascending (UTSARPINI), and six descending (AVASARPINI)—together making one KALPA.

The kalpas are infinite, when one ends, another begins. The present age belongs to the fifth ara of the avasarpini, which began soon after the NIRVANA of MAHAVIRA. There are twenty-four TIRTHANKARAs in each half-cycle, and the first Tirthankara of this cycle, RISHABHA, lived in the third ara, while the other twenty-three belong to the fourth ara.

Avasarpini (number of years)

Sushama-Sushama (4 KKS)

Sushama (3 KKS)

Sushama-Dushama (2 KKS)

Dushama-Sushama (1 KKS–42,000)

Dushama (21,000)

Dushama-Dushama (21,000)

Utsarpini (number of years)

Dushama-Dushama (21,000)

Dushama (21,000)

Dushama-Sushama (1 KKS–42,000)

Sushama-Dushama (2 KKS)

Sushama (3 KKS)

Sushama-Sushama (4 KKS)

(Sushama = happy; Dushama = unhappy KKS = Koti Koti Sagaropam, a period of time).

Arabic The language of the QURAN, still used in India and elsewhere for prayers and for Islamic studies. It is the language of over 150 million people in Arab countries. Though the Arabic spoken today differs from the classical language, the written language is similar to that used by the Prophet MUHAMMAD.

arama A dwelling place for Buddhist monks in ancient days. At the time of the BUDDHA, monks could not move freely in the rainy season, and aramas were set up for them by patrons or devotees. Some of these were temporary structures, while others became permanent monasteries.

Aramati A Vedic deity, literally ‘devotion and piety’, occasionally personified as a goddesss in the RIG VEDA. She is similar to ARMAITI, who represents loving devotion in Zoroastrianism.

Aranyakas Sanskrit texts which form part of the Vedic literature of Hinduism. These forest texts (aranya = forest) are attached to the VEDIC SAMHITAS and usually form the second part of the BRAHMANAS. They provide instructions for those in the third stage of life who have renounced their householder’s life and retired to the forests. Among the Aranyakas available today are the Brihad, Taittiriya, Aitareya and Kaushitaki. The Aranyakas are closely linked with the UPANISHADS: The Brihad Aranyaka, or Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, is attached to the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Aitareya Aranyaka forms part of the Aitareya Brahmana. The Kaushitaki Aranyaka has three sections, and includes the Kaushitaki Upanishad. The Taittiriya Aranyaka is a continuation of the Taittiriya Brahmana. The Aranyakas discuss philosophical concepts, including the mystical symbolism of sacrifices.

Aranyani A Vedic deity, goddess of the forest, mentioned in the RIG VEDA. She is described only in one hymn, as an elusive spirit of the forest who cannot be seen. Her voice is like that of a man calling his cattle, or of a tree falling. She does not come to the village, but if one stays in the forest in the evening, she can be heard like a voice crying, far away. She is perfumed and fragrant, and the mother of wild things. Aranyani has some parallels with the Roman goddess Diana. She is not known in later times, though there are other goddesses associated with forests. For instance, Aranya Devi, goddess of a temple in Arrah, Bihar, is according to some legends, goddess of the forest.

Arda Viraf, Dastur A Zoroastrian priest or DASTUR who lived in the third century at the time of the Sasanian ruler ARDASHIR BABAGAN. He was chosen by Ardashir for the spiritual exercise of Khalla-e-badan, or the astral projection of the soul into the other world. Arda Viraf entered an ATASH BEHRAM or fire temple and went into a spiritual trance for seven days, during which time he visited heaven (vahisht). His experiences are compiled in the text Arda Viraf Namah. While the existing PAHLAVI text is dated to the ninth century, it is probably based on an earlier version. It describes seven heavens (behest or vahisht), hell (dazakh) and hamistagan (purgatory). It is based on the morality of the times, but is still a popular text among PARSIS of India, and is said to have inspired Dante’s Divine Comedy.

Ardas A Sikh prayer. It concludes the prayers recited in a GURDWARA, and is used at other ceremonies as well. The prayer remembers the Sikh gurus and Sikh martyrs, and the founding of the KHALSA. It requests God to accept their prayers and to shelter and protect the Sikh religion and places of worship.

Ardashir I The founder of the Sasanian dynasty in Iran who ruled from 226 to 240. He encouraged the spread of Zoroastrianism, constructed a number of ATASH BEHRAMS or fire temples and had ancient texts recompiled. It was during his reign that ARDA VIRAF is said to have visited the astral world. Ardashir is one of the ancient Zoroastrians still revered today.

Ardha-Magadhi A language in which early Jain literature of the SHVETAMBARA canon was composed, including the twelve ANGAS. Ardha-Magadhi is a dialect of PRAKRIT.

Ardhanarishvara A composite Hindu deity, consisting of SHIVA and PARVATI combined, representing the mystical union of male and female. This form is mentioned in texts and depicted in images as early as the first century CE, though such images were more common later. In Ardhanarishvara images, the right half is usually male, and the left female. Later, myths and legends were created to account for the creation of this deity, and one such relates to the rishi Bhringi. Of all the DEVAS and RISHIS who worshipped Shiva and Parvati on Mt KAILASHA, Bhringi refused to worship Parvati, circumambulating only Shiva. Shiva therefore united his body with that of Parvati. They remained united, while Bhringi, undeterred, took the form of a beetle, and bored a hole through the composite body, still circumambulating Shiva!

Despite this legend, the importance of this deity is its connection with the later Shiva and SHAKTI cults, representing divine union. Ardhanarishvara images can be seen in several Shiva temples. In the BRIHADESHVARA TEMPLE at Thanjavur, of the Chola period, is an Ardhanarishvara image where the deity reclines on NANDI. The right half, representing Shiva, has two arms, one raised in varada mudra (boon-giving pose), and the other holding a TRISHULA. The left half, representing Parvati, has only one hand, which holds a flower.

There are also some temples dedicated exclusively to this deity. Among these is the Ardhanari Temple located at Mandi in Himachal. A modern temple, it has exquisite carvings.

Ardi Behesht An AMESHA SPENTA in Zoroastrianism, the later form of Asha Vahisht, the best ASHA.

Arhai-Din-Ka Jhonpra Mosque A mosque located at AJMER in Rajasthan and constructed between 1199 and 1236 by Qutb-ud-din Aibak (originally a general of Muhammad Ghori, who later ruled as sultan in 1206–10), and Sultan Iltutmish (ruled 1211–36). According to legend, the mosque was constructed in just two-and-a-half days, hence its name (arhai din = two-and-a-half days). The mosque is about 80 m each side, with two minarets above the main archway. The prayer hall has corbelled domes on the roof, and tall, slender pillars within. On the western wall is an intricately carved screen in white marble, while another exquisite screen with seven arches was added by Iltutmish in 1230.

arhat/arhant/arihant (1) In Buddhism, a term for a Buddhist saint, one who was realized and had gained enlightenment. There were several disputes on the nature and characteristics of arhats, and different schools of early Buddhism held varying views on them. To the STHAVIRAVADA, the arhat could not have any imperfections, while other schools disagreed with this. There were also disputes on whether the Arhat could regress having reached this state.

The arhat ideal focused on individual liberation and was important in HINAYANA Buddhism. In MAHAYANA Buddhism, becoming an arhat was not the goal, and the concept of the BODHISATTVA, who worked unceasingly for the liberation of all living beings, was more important.

(2) In Jainism, the term arihant is more commonly used, and refers to a Jain saint.

Arishtanemi The name of several people in ancient Hindu texts, including the following:

(1) In the RIG VEDA, Arishtanemi is a name of the divine horse TARKSHYA. Tarkshya is later a name of GARUDA, as well as the name of a rishi with whom Arishtanemi is identified.

(2) In the MAHABHARATA, Arishtanemi is one of the sons of VINATA, and the brother of the divine bird Garuda, who is the vehicle of the Hindu god VISHNU. Because of his meditation and austerities, Arishtanemi had great powers and could not be killed. Vinata, who in the PURANAS is the wife of KASHYAPA, is here his great-granddaughter.

(3) In the Mahabharata, Arishtanemi is also a name of the Hindu god KRISHNA.

(4) In the PURANAS, he is mentioned as a son of the rishi KASHYAPA, and also one of those who married some of DAKSHA’s daughters.

Arishtaneminatha The twenty-second Jain TIRTHANKARA, also known as Neminatha. He is said to have lived at the time of the Hindu god KRISHNA, and was his cousin. Some texts state that he lived 84,000 years before the twenty-third Tirthankara. According to Jain sources, Krishna and Arishtanemi were grandsons of Andhaka Vrishni, born from his sons Vasudeva and Samudravijaya respectively. Samudravijaya was the king of Sauripur (or DVARAKA), and Arishtanemi was born there. Before his birth his mother dreamed of a wheel of black jewels (arishta), and therefore he was named Arishtaneminatha, which also means ‘the lord whose wheel is unhurt’. Krishna and he were close friends and Krishna arranged his marriage with the beautiful Rajimati, who had been Arishtanemi’s wife in previous births. On the day of his marriage a grand feast was being prepared, but hearing the agonized cries of the animals to be slaughtered for the feast, his heart filled with pain, and he had the animals released, and renounced the world. After practising austerities, he became a Tirthankara. Rajimati was filled with sorrow, but after some time also became an ascetic, finally achieving liberation.

The story of Arishtanemi occurs in the ANGAS and in several later texts. Most of these dwell on his act of renunciation and on his relationship with Rajimati. The Vanhidasao, one of the UVANGAS, narrates how he converted twelve princes of the Vrishni dynasty to the Jain path. Scholars believe that myths associating Arishtanemi with Krishna, emerged when Krishna worshippers began to be absorbed into Jainism.

Arishtanemi’s symbol is the conch shell, and he attained liberation (MOKSHA) at the Girnar hills in Gujarat. He is associated with the deities AMBIKA and Gomedha.

Arjan Dev, Guru The fifth Sikh guru, who succeeded his father Guru RAM DAS and is known for his compilation of the first edition of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB, then known as the Pothi Sahib. Born at Goindwal on 15 April 1563, he was the youngest son of Guru RAM DAS and Mata Bhani. In 1579 he was married to Ganga Devi. In 1581, he became the guru on the death of Ram Das. His elder brother Prithi Chand was extremely jealous of him and tried to prevent him from becoming the guru, and continued to make efforts to obstruct him.

Guru Arjan went to Ramdaspur (AMRITSAR) to complete the work started there by his father. He constructed two tanks of Santoksar and Amritsar and laid the foundation of the HAR MANDIR SAHIB or GOLDEN TEMPLE. He realized the need to compile the hymns of Guru NANAK and other gurus in an authentic version, as various people were composing hymns and attributing them to the gurus. He therefore collected the original verses of the gurus from their sons, and sitting near the Ramsar tank, he began putting together the Guru Granth Sahib, including in it works of other saints whose teachings were consistent with those of the gurus. Simultaneously, he composed hymns himself, of which 2216 are included in the Guru Granth Sahib. The Sukhmani, or hymn of peace, is considered one of the most beautiful. In another hymn, he describes the nature of God:

You are the tree,

And the world its branches;

You were unknown,

And you made yourself manifest;

You are the ocean,

You the bubbles, you the foam,

There is nothing that is without you.

His brother Prithi Chand’s jealousy continued and he encouraged a complaint to be made to the Mughal emperor AKBAR about the nature of the Granth Sahib, which was said to contain comments derogatory to Muslims. Akbar found nothing objectionable in it, and in fact praised the volume.

In 1605 Akbar was succeeded by his son Jahangir, who was against some of his father’s liberal policies. Jahangir’s son Khusru had rebelled against his father and was received by Guru Arjan, which further angered the emperor. The guru was summoned to Lahore and was asked to revise the holy book. On his refusal he was tortured for five days. On the sixth day he asked to be permitted to bathe in the river Ravi. He went into the water, prayed, and allowed himself to be swept away by the currents.

His martyrdom changed the nature and course of Sikhism, as after this Sikhs began to organize themselves as a martial group.

Arjuna The third of the PANDAVA brothers whose story is told in the MAHABHARATA. Literally, his name means ‘white’, ‘clear’, or ‘bright’.

Officially the son of PANDU, who was the son of the rishi VYASA, Arjuna was born by his mother KUNTI invoking the god INDRA, as Pandu could not have children. The guru DRONACHARYA trained him in the art of warfare, and he was better than his brothers and cousins, though Ekalavya posed a challenge in archery. Arjuna married DRAUPADI, daughter of the king of Panchala, after passing various tests, and she became the common wife of the five Pandavas. He travelled to several places, and among the other women he married were Ulupi, daughter of a naga king, Chitrangada of Manipur, and Subhadra, the sister of KRISHNA. Along with his brothers, he was in exile for many years. He had several adventures, lived in Indra’s heaven and defeated the DAITYAS near the sea. He fought in the great war, after which he and his brothers occupied the Kuru kingdom including HASTINAPURA, INDRAPRASTHA and adjacent areas. Later, his grandson, Parikshit, became the king of Hastinapura.

Arjuna is famous for his dialogue with the god Krishna in the BHAGAVAD GITA, which took place on the battlefield at the time of the great Mahabharata war.

Stories of Arjuna and his exploits also occur in the PURANAS and other texts.

PANINI, the grammarian of the fourth century BCE, mentions the worship of Arjuna. Some later texts state that he was a secondary incarnation (gauna avatara) of the Hindu god VISHNU. In some temples, he is depicted with the god Krishna, while in others he is with his brothers.

Arjuna’s Penance A relief carved on a rock surface at MAMALAPURAM (Mahabalipuram) in Tamil Nadu, said to represent ARJUNA requesting the Hindu god SHIVA for a divine weapon, a story narrated in the Mahabharata and PURANAS. The sculpture is on two large boulders with a cleft in between. Flying deities, VIDYADHARAS, elephants and other animals, as well as NAGAS in prayer, are carved along with Arjuna to the left and Shiva to the right. Arjuna stands on one foot, hoping to gain the weapon through his penance. At one time, water flowed over the relief from a tank behind the cleft, which has led to the sculpture alternatively being identified as the descent of the GANGA river.

Armaiti A power of AHURA MAZDA, the name of God in Zoroastrianism. Armaiti is personified as one of the AMESHA SPENTAS, and is similar to the Vedic ARAMATI. She is a feminine power, representing loving devotion, piety and zeal. In the GATHAS she is called the beloved of the wise, and the treasure of the good mind. She is also said to be the daughter of Ahura Mazda. She sustains life and inspires people to perform good deeds. In PAHLAVI texts she is known as Spendarmad. She presides over the earth, and her symbol is the sweet basil flower. The DINKARD states that she is ‘perfect thought’. She sits near Ahura Mazda, takes care of paradise, and is the mother of all creatures.

Armenians Armenian Christians came to India as traders, and some of their churches and monuments still exist. Armenia was the first country in the world to officially adopt Christianity in the third century. The first Armenian in India is said to have reached Malabar in Kerala in the eighth century but the majority came in the sixteenth century and after. There were several Armenians at the court of the Mughal emperor AKBAR and according to legend he had an Armenian Christian wife, though there is no historical proof of this. There were also Armenians in the army of the Maratha Scindias of Gwalior.

Trading in spices, precious stones and silk, a number of them became extremely rich and settled in Kolkata, MUMBAI and Chennai, while a few lived in DELHI, Lucknow and Lahore.

The Armenians did not attempt to convert anyone and apart from their residential and other buildings, constructed their own chapels and churches. One of the oldest is the Martyrose Chapel, erected in AGRA in 1611, located in the old Armenian cemetery. There were an Armenian Church in Surat and a chapel in Delhi, which have now crumbled. Some churches are still functioning, however. Among these are the Holy Church of Nazareth, constructed in 1707 in Kolkata; St. Gregory’s Chapel (1906) in Kolkata; Chapel of the Holy Trinity (1867), at Thangra, outskirts of Kolkata; Church of John the Baptist (1697) at Chinsura in Bengal; Church of St. Peter (1796) at Mumbai, totally reconstructed in 1957; Church of the Holy Virgin Mary (1772) at Chennai. A few hundred Armenians still live in India, and the Armenian Church Committee of Kolkata manages the churches.

Art of Living An educational and humanitarian organization, founded in 1981 by the guru Sri Sri RAVI SHANKAR to improve health and increase spirituality. It includes a PRANAYAMA or breathing technique, known as the Sudarshan Kriya. The basic Art of Living course is taught over a period of five days, after which more advanced courses are available. The method is taught in most towns and cities of India, and is one of the most popular New Age courses. The Art of Living is also involved in welfare activities.

artha One of the goals of Hindu life, literally meaning profit or prosperity. For the householder, Artha or economic activities, earning a living and providing for the family, are valid pursuits. The other goals are KAMA, meaning pleasure and desire, and DHARMA, or life lived according to truth and customary laws. Finally, all are subordinate to MOKSHA, or liberation. Followers of a spiritual path should avoid the accumulation of wealth.

arti A ceremony of worship performed with lamps or lights, particularly in Hinduism. Lights or diyas are held in the hand and circled around or near a deity or any sacred object.

Aruna (1) The charioteer of SURYA, the Hindu sungod, the brother of the divine bird GARUDA, and the son of the rishi KASHYAPA and his wife VINATA. According to the MAHABHARATA, the god BRAHMA asked Aruna to become Surya’s charioteer, to shield the intense rays of the sun. Aruna married Shyeni, and they had two sons, Sampati and Jatayu. Aruna once assumed a female form, naming herself Arunidevi, to attend a gathering of Devis or goddesses, where no men were permitted. Attracted by her, the god INDRA desired her and a son was born. Another son was born to Arunidevi and Surya. Both sons were entrusted to Ahalyadevi, but were turned into monkeys by her husband Gautama. These were VALI and SUGRIVA of the RAMAYANA story, who were adopted by the king of KISHKINDHA.

(2) Aruna was the name of a class of RISHIS who obtained svarga (heaven) through self-study.

(3) Aruna was also the name of several others, including a NAGA, an ASURA, a DANAVA, and a king.

Arunachalam A sacred hill, near the ashram of RAMANA MAHARSHI near TIRUVANNAMALAI in Tamil Nadu. According to legend, when the Hindu god SHIVA appeared as a column of light, his brightness was unbearable, and so he took the form of the hill of Arunachalam. The hill is closely associated with Ramana, and according to him is the ‘heart of the earth, the centre of the universe’. For many years Ramana lived in caves on the hillside, while contemplating and meditating on the true Self. He said that while Mt KAILASHA was sacred because Shiva lived there, Arunachalam was more so because it was Shiva himself. Ancient RISHIS and SIDDHAS are said to still inhabit the hill. At the Karttika festival, associated with the ARUNACHALESHVARA TEMPLE, a fire is lit on the hill, representing the divine light of Shiva.

Ramana’s ashram is located near the foot of the hill.

Arunachaleshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA, located at TIRUVANNAMALAI in Tamil Nadu. It was constructed at the time of the Chola dynasty in the eleventh century. The Chola kings added to it in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagara kingdom in the sixteenth century, and the Nayakas in the seventeenth century. The inner shrine is approached through a long ante-chamber and houses a LINGA. A number of images are on the outer walls, including those of Shiva in different forms, as DAKSHINAMURTI, and appearing out of a linga. Corridors surround the shrine, lined with stone lingas and metal images of Shaivite saints.

Another shrine to the north, houses an image of DEVI, in Nayaka style. There are also smaller shrines dedicated to GANESHA and KARTTIKEYA. A major festival takes place here in October/November, known as the Karttika festival. At this time a bonfire is built on the hill, which appears like a beacon of light and can be seen from far.

Arunagirinatha A BHAKTI saint and poet of the Tamil country who worshipped the Hindu god Kumara or KARTTIKEYA. He probably lived in the first half of the fifteenth century and composed verses in Tamil and Sanskrit. He is said to have been a Gauda BRAHMANA, who was born in the village of Mullundrum in the Tamil region, and attained enlightenment at the ARUNACHALESHVARA TEMPLE in TIRUVANNAMALAI. The collection of his verses known as Tiruppugazh are the most popular.

Arupattimuvar A term which refers to the NAYANARS, devotees of the Hindu god SHIVA who lived between the seventh and tenth centuries. Traditionally there were sixty-three Nayanars, and Arupattimuvar means ‘the sixty-three’.

arya A term used in the VEDAS, meaning ‘noble’, from which the word ARYAN is derived. Arya also occurs in Zoroastrian texts. In the AVESTA, the aryas or noble ones lived in Airyana Vaeja, the first of the lands created by AHURA MAZDA. It was at the centre of the earth and at its own centre was the mountain Hara-bareza. It was far to the north, and there one year seemed equal to a day. The name ‘Iran’ is derived from Airyana.

Arya Samaj An organization founded in the nineteenth century with the aim of reforming and revitalizing Hinduism and its practices. The organization is still flourishing today.

Swami DAYANANDA SARASVATI started the Arya Samaj, meaning ‘noble society’, at MUMBAI (Bombay) in 1875. His aim was not to start a new sect or religion, but to reveal true Hinduism, as it was found in the Vedas. The VEDAS, he believed, contained eternal knowledge. Hindus were converting to other religions because they had forgotten the eternal truths and focused on superstitious practices. Swami Dayananda condemned the caste system, particularly untouchability, unnecessary rituals, child marriage and animal sacrifices. He was in favour of scientific education, the education of women and the remarriage of widows.

He began the Shuddhi Movement or ‘purificatory movement’, which aimed at bringing untouchable castes into mainstream Hinduism, and reconverting to Hinduism those who had converted to other religions. Swami Dayananda wrote a number of books, of which Satyartha Prakasha laid down the basic principles and ideas of the movement.

In 1877 a branch of the Arya Samaj was founded in Lahore, and henceforth Punjab became the centre of the movement. Prominent leaders of the freedom struggle against the British were Arya Samajis, including Lala Lajpat Rai and Swami Shraddhanand.

Education was one of the main activities of the Samaj, and two types of educational institutions were founded. Lala Hansraj, a leader of the Samaj, believed that the best education would combine traditional learning with Western scientific knowledge, and thus founded the Dayananda Anglo-Vedic (DAV) College at Lahore. DAV colleges and schools soon spread all over northern India. A more orthodox group founded a Gurukul or centre of traditional learning at HARDWAR. Initially, this was limited to the study of the Vedas, but it now includes modern subjects as well.

The Arya Samaj, along with both types of educational institutions, is still popular in India. Its motto or primary goal is stated in Sanskrit as ‘Krinvanto Vishvam Aryam’, i.e., ‘make the world noble’, and it also has followers worldwide, with branches in the US, Canada, the UK and several other countries.

arya satya The term in Sanskrit for the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS of Buddhism. The PALI term is ariya sachcha.

Aryadeva A Buddhist philosopher of the MADHYAMIKA school of MAHAYANA Buddhism, a disciple of NAGARJUNA. He probably lived in the third century CE and was originally from Sri Lanka. He wrote the Chatushataka, which describes the path of the BODHISATTVA, and also explains Madhyamika ideas. Another work of his, the Shatashastra, refutes the theories of non-Buddhist schools of thought.

Aryaman A deity mentioned in the VEDAS, where he was one of the ADITYAS, similar to MITRA. He later lost importance. Aryaman is also a YAZATA, a minor deity in Zoroastrianism.

Aryans A term used for the authors of the RIG VEDA and later Vedic texts. The English word Aryan comes from the Sanskrit ‘arya’ or noble, which the Vedic authors used to describe themselves. There are several controversies about these Aryans and their identity. According to some scholars they were a branch of the INDO-EUROPEANS who spoke a common language and migrated to different parts of the world from an area near the Caspian Sea. One branch entered India after living in Iran, as part of what is called an INDO-IRANIAN group. Among other theories, B.G. Tilak thought their original home was in the Arctic. Several Indian scholars feel they originated in India and spread from India to the rest of the world. Whatever their origin, the texts indicate that they were at first occupants of north-west India (including Pakistan), and later extended their territories across the Gangetic plain and towards the south.

They have been equated with various archaeological cultures, including the Grey Ware and Painted Grey Ware, which together extend from about 1500 BCE to 600 BCE, and alternatively with the much earlier INDUS CIVILIZATION.

Their deities, religious practices and way of life are described in the Rig Veda and the later VEDAS.

arz An Arabic term for the earth. In Islamic mythology, there are seven earths, one below the other, a concept similar to that of the LOKAS in Hindu myths. The earth on which we live is supported by an angel who stands on a rock of ruby. The rock is on a bull, which has 4000 eyes, ears, noses, mouths, tongues and feet. Its name is Kujuta, and it in turn stands on a fish called Bahamut. There are different descriptions of these earths in various texts.

asana A Sanskrit term meaning seat or posture. It specifically refers to physical positions that form part of the system of YOGA, particularly HATHA YOGA. Texts state that there are eighty-four classic asanas, though according to the Gheranda Samhita there are 84,00,000, of which 1600 are excellent, and thirty-two the most auspicious. The seated padmasana, or lotus posture, is considered the most basic of all asanas. Certain asanas are described only in TANTRIC texts, for instance mundasana, in which the practitioner is seated on a skull.

Asanas make the body and mind steady, lead to good health and aid clear and correct thought.

Asanga A Buddhist philosopher who founded the YOGACHARA school of MAHAYANA Buddhism and lived from 310 to 390. He was a resident of Purushapura (Peshawar), now in Pakistan, and was originally a monk of the MAHISHASAKA school of HINAYANA Buddhism. According to some accounts, he received a vision of the Bodhisattva MAITREYA, who revealed certain teachings to him that were put together under the name of MAITREYANATHA. Other scholars state that Maitreyanatha, a real person, was his teacher. Asanga composed his own texts which, along with those of Maitreyanatha, formed the basis of the Yogachara school. Asanga’s works include the Mahayanasamgraha, the Abhidharma-samuchchaya, and a commentary on the Samdhirnirmochana Sutra. His brother VASUBANDHU also joined this school.

Asha A deity and a power of AHURA MAZDA, the name of God in Zoroastrianism. Asha is personified as an AMESHA SPENTA, or immortal being, representing cosmic order, truth and justice. The term is also translated as righteousness. The concept of Asha is similar to the Vedic rita and the later concept of DHARMA. Asha is praised in several prayers. The GATHAS state that Asha is the way that leads to enlightenment. He is the guardian, the healer of life, the friend. Asha creates life, which is fulfilled through the flame of action and the good mind. The concluding passage of the YASNA states that there is only one path, that of Asha, and all other paths are false. The Ashem Vohu, the second most important prayer in Zoroastrianism, is also in praise of Asha.

While in the Gathas Asha is the first of the powers, in later texts he takes second place to VOHU MANA, the good mind. In PAHLAVI texts, Asha Vahishta (the highest or best Asha), is known as Ardwahisht, and in Persian as Ardi Behesht. Asha Vahishta is represented by the consecrated fire, and his flower emblem is the sweet marjoram.

Ashariyah (Asharites) A school of Islamic thought, consisting of the followers of Abul Hasan al-Ashari (873–935). Al-Ashari belonged to the Shafi school of law at Baghdad and became part of the MUTAZILA, a ‘rationalist’ school of thought, but later refuted its doctrines, and stated that revelation was superior to reason. He believed that the QURAN is the word of God and is eternal and uncreated, and that everything happens by the will of God. He said, ‘Nothing on earth, whether a fortune or a misfortune, comes to be, save through God’s will’. The individul cannot understand or gain the knowledge of good and evil through reason, but must accept all that is revealed. It cannot be asserted that the good will be rewarded and evil punished, as God is the only judge, the only one with knowledge that transcends all human laws. However, moral responsibility could not be denied to man, therefore God has the power to convert desires into action. People may think they are acting according to their own will, but the action is acquired out of the creative power of God, and therefore is known as kasb (acquisition).

The Mutazilas denied the eternal attributes of God and explained references to his face, hand and eyes in the Quran as metaphors, while the old believers said these had to be accepted literally. Ashari said that these attributes of God are real, but not to be taken literally, as God knows, sees and speaks through his essence. This essence is different from creation, composed of atoms which unite in different ways. These views contradicted many of the Mutazila concepts.

Other scholars further developed Ashariyah ideas, among them being Al-Baqillani (d. 1013), Al-Juwayni (d. 1085) and Al-Ghazali (d. 1111). Al-Ghazali, who taught at Baghdad, denied the role of reason and logic in religion. Later he accepted SUFI ideas and emphasized the importance of love and devotion to God. As he was a respected scholar, his ideas contributed to the acceptance of Sufism by the ULAMA.

The Ashariyah school of thought has been influential in India and its ideas form part of orthodox SUNNI concepts.

ashavan A term used in Zoroastrianism for the followers of the path of ASHA or Truth, as opposed to the dregvants, or those who follow the false path.

Ashi Vanghui A deity in Zoroastrianism. Ashi, meaning good, represents material and spiritual wealth which comes to those dedicated to AHURA MAZDA who follow the path of ASHA. It has also been translated as ‘blessing’. Ashi Vanghui accompanies SRAOSHA, the divine conscience. In later texts, both Ashishvangh, as she came to be known, and Sraosha are also YAZATAS or minor deities. The Ashishvangh Yasht is dedicated to Ashi.

Ashkenazim A term for central and east European Jews, first used in the Middle Ages to distinguish them from the Sephardic Jews of Spain and Islamic lands. The Ashkenazim once formed a small group of Jews in India. About 2000 of them came to India as refugees from Nazi Germany in the 1930s and ’40s, and lived for some time with other Jewish communities. A few Ashkenazim had settled in India earlier as well. Most Jews in the world today are Ashkenazim, though they account for only about half the population in Israel.

Ashoka An emperor of the Mauryan dynasty who patronized Buddhism. He ruled from 269 to 232 BCE, with his capital at PATALIPUTRA (present-day Patna in Bihar), and his empire extended from Afghanistan to the region of Karnataka in south India. Right across this area, he erected monolithic stone pillars. His edicts, engraved on these pillars, and on rocks, are still preserved. He is also described in Buddhist sources. His Thirteenth Rock Edict tells us of his conquest of Kalinga (Orissa). It states that ‘One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, a hundred thousand were killed, and many times that number perished’. Some scholars believe he converted to Buddhism immediately after the Kalinga war, while others feel he was a Buddhist even before this. In any case, moved by the suffering he had caused, Ashoka resolved that his future conquests would be not by war, but by DHAMMA. Though deeply influenced by Buddhism, he reinterpreted Dhamma in his own way. He focused on the welfare of people and of animals, stopped the killing of certain animals, set up hospitals even for animals, and was against unnecessary ceremonies and rituals. In his inscriptions he asks people to respect those of other religions. Thus in the Twelfth Major Rock Edict he states, ‘One should honour another man’s sect, for by doing so one increases the influence of one’s own sect and benefits that of the other… Concord is to be commended, so that men may hear one another’s principles and obey them.’

One inscription records how he prevented a schism in the Buddhist SANGHA. He also organized the third BUDDHIST COUNCIL at Pataliputra. Ashoka is praised in Buddhist texts, including the DIPAVAMSHA and MAHAVAMSHA. According to these, his son and daughter went to Sri Lanka and spread Buddhism there.

Ashoka reorganized the administration and personally supervised his vast empire, but it did not hold together after his death. He also caused STUPAS and CHAITYAS to be erected; according to tradition the number of stupas set up by him was 84,000.

Ashokan pillars Monolithic stone pillars erected by the Mauryan emperor ASHOKA in the third century BCE, found from Afghanistan to south India. Ten to seventeen metres high, these polished sandstone pillars weighed about fifty tonnes. At least thirty to fifty such pillars were erected, and possibly more. Each is capped with an animal capital. Ashoka engraved his edicts on these pillars, several of which were erected at sites sacred to Buddhists. Some scholars feel that they had an additional religious significance, representing aspects of the cosmos. John Irwin was one of the scholars who put forward this theory in detail.

ashram/ashrama A Sanskrit term, which in ancient days referred to the hermitage of a RISHI or sage, usually located in serene surroundings and in forests. These ashramas were described as places of peace and harmony, where even wild animals were protected. The term continues to be used today for a residential area where disciples of modern-day gurus live.

ashrama dharma A term referring to the four stages of Hindu life. Traditionally, the males of the higher castes, and particularly BRAHMANAS, were meant to live their lives according to these stages. The first stage was that of BRAHMACHARYA, where the boy studied the Vedas and other texts with his guru. He often lived in his guru’s ASHRAM and served him in various ways. This continued till he was in his twenties, when he entered the second stage, that of a householder or Grihastha. At this time he married, had children and took care of his family. When his children had grown up, it was time for the third stage, VANAPRASTHA, when he retired to the forest and pondered on mystical truths. In the fourth stage, he became a homeless wanderer, a SANNYASI. These stages are no longer literally observed today, though some of the ceremonies associated with them still take place.

At a different level, however, the four ashramas are still important, representing stages in a life dedicated to a search for truth.

Ashtachhapa A term which literally means ‘eight seals’. It refers to a group of disciples of the sixteenth-century Hindu VAISHNAVA saint VALLABHACHARYA and his son VITTHALANATHA. The saints included poets and singers who were devotees of the god KRISHNA. The most important of these was the blind singer SURDAS. Others included Nanddas, Paramananddas, Krishnadas, Govindswami, Kumbhandas, Chitaswami and Chaturbhujdas.

Ashtadiggajas Eight divine elephants in Hindu mythology. They guard and support the earth, along with their female counterparts and the DIKAPALAS or LOKAPALAS. They are mentioned in the AMARAKOSHA and other texts as AIRAVATA (east), Pundarika (south-east), Vamana (south), Kumuda (south-west), Anjana (west), Pushpadanta (north-west), Sarvabhauma (north), Supratika (north-east). Their female counterparts are the Ashtadikkaranis, known as Abhramu, Kapila, Pingala, Anupama, Tamrakarni, Subhradanti, Angana and Anjanavati. The elephants were created by BRAHMA from two halves of the cosmic egg.

Four more elephants support the earth from below. These are Virupaksha, Mahapadmasama, Saumanasa and Bhadra.

ashtangika marga The Sanskrit term for the EIGHTFOLD PATH to be followed in Buddhism. In PALI the term is atthangika-magga. It is also called the middle way, madhyama-pratipada or majjhima-patipada.

Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra A Buddhist MAHAYANA text, the earliest of the PRAJNAPARAMITA or ‘perfection of wisdom’ sutras. It probably dates to about 100 BCE. It initially had 8000 lines.

Ashtavakra Gita A Sanskrit text that deals with the Hindu philosophy of ADVAITA Vedanta. While some assign it to the period of the UPANISHADS or the BHAGAVAD GITA, others place it in the ninth century CE or later. The text consists of a dialogue ostensibly between King JANAKA, and Ashtavakra, a learned guru. Ashtavakra is mentioned in the MAHABHARATA and PURANAS. He was named Ashtavakra because he had crooked limbs; the name literally meaning ‘eight bends in the body’. Though the text is attributed to Ashtavakra, it is not known who actually wrote it.

In this text, when Janaka asks Ashtavakra the means of attaining knowledge and liberation, he instructs him in words typical of some of the Upanishads. For instance:

You are not a brahmana or kshatriya or of any other caste;

You are not at any stage, nor are you anything that can be seen;

Unattached and formless, you are the witness of all.

(1.5)

Through a series of questions and answers, Janaka finally realizes the truth. He says:

For the one who has transcended all limitations, there is neither initiation nor scripture, neither disciple nor teacher, and no goal to be attained.

There is neither being nor non-being, neither unity nor dualism.

What more is there to say?

(20.13–14)

This profound text was a favourite of Sri RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHANSA and even today is held in high esteem.

Ashura A term in Arabic, meaning ‘the tenth’. It refers to the tenth day of the month of MUHARRAM, observed as a day of fasting by Muslims. It is particularly sacred for SHIAS, and is the only day of Muharram also observed by SUNNIS. It is said to be the day on which God created Adam and Eve, life and death, heaven and hell, the tablet of decrees, and the pen. The Prophet MUHAMMAD is also said to have kept a fast on this day.

Ashvaghosha A Buddhist philosopher, scholar and poet who lived in the first century CE. He wrote a biography of the BUDDHA in Sanskrit verse, called the BUDDHA CHARITA. The Saundarananda Kavya, another long poem, describes some episodes of the Buddha’s life in detail, but focuses on the story of Nanda, the half-brother of the BUDDHA. Nanda loved his wife Sundari but was persuaded by the Buddha to become a monk. For some time he was in sorrow, until he realized the truth of the Buddha’s way. A drama, Shariputra-Prakarana, deals with the conversion of SHARIPUTRA and MAUDGALYAYANA, chief disciples of the Buddha, to Buddhism. Other works ascribed to Ashvaghosha are the poem Gandistotra Gatha, available only in Chinese translation; Sutralankara, translated into Chinese in the fifth century; and Vajrasuchi. The first was probably his work. Two scholars, Winternitz and Luders, feel the Sutralankara was written by Kumaralata, a junior contemporary of Ashvaghosha, while some see it as Ashvaghosha’s own work. The complete text is available in Chinese, with only fragments being preserved in Sanskrit. In Sanskrit it was known as Kalpana-manditaka and was a collection of Buddhist stories. The author of Vajrasuchi is uncertain. The text is a criticism of the caste system, using Brahmanical texts to refute theories of caste.

Ashvaghosha was probably born at Saketa (AYODHYA), though sometimes his birthplace is given as KASHI or PATALIPUTRA. He is said to have converted the Kushana king KANISHKA to Buddhism and to have attended the BUDDHIST COUNCIL held at Purushapura (Peshawar in Pakistan). His story poems are lyrical and beautiful, and he was also a good singer and musician, whose songs were sung in Buddhist monasteries long after his death.

ashvamedha A horse sacrifice, one of the main SACRIFICES in early India, conducted to increase the power of the king. After certain purificatory ceremonies, a horse, marked with the king’s name, was set free to roam, accompanied by warriors and nobles. The territory through which it wandered was claimed by the king, and anyone who challenged this had to defeat the accompanying warriors in battle. After a period of time, a year or more, the horse returned to the kingdom and was sacrificed, often along with hundreds of other animals. The sacrificial ritual, involving the priest, the king and the queen, is described in detail in several texts. Some of the flesh of the horse was consecrated to the gods, some eaten by participants in the sacrifice. Before this the queen had to spend one night near the dead horse, during which some rituals were prescribed, including sexual rites.

Inscriptions recording ashvamedhas occur from the second century BCE onwards, though it was practised even earlier. The sacrifice is first mentioned in the RIG VEDA and described in detail in the RAMAYANA and other texts. It indicated the power and glory of the king, and important kings performed several ashvamedhas. The Guptas, Chalukyas and Cholas are among the many dynasties whose kings performed the sacrifice, but by the time of the Cholas, the practice was rare, and gradually died out.

In the BRIHADARANYAKA UPANISHAD the symbolism of the sacrifice is described, the horse reflecting the cosmos.

Horse sacrifices took place in other ancient cultures as well, including Greece and China. Horse sacrifices in ancient Rome were connected with agriculture and the harvest.

Ashvamedhika Parvan A Sanskrit text said to be part of the Jaimini Bharata, a Hindu text. According to tradition, JAIMINI was one of the people to whom the rishi VYASA narrated the MAHABHARATA, and he wrote the Jaimini Mahabharata, of which only the Ashvamedhika is available today. It contains stories and legends from the Mahabharata and RAMAYANA, as well as stories of the god KRISHNA and of miracles performed by him. Its date is uncertain.

Ashvins Deities prominent in the RIG VEDA. The Ashvins are twins, said to be young but ancient, honey-hued and with a golden brilliance. Their name indicates their connection with horses (ashva = horse). They ride in a three-wheeled golden chariot drawn by horses, or sometimes by deer, birds, buffaloes or a single ass. They are also known as Nasatyas, from ‘na-asatya’, meaning ‘no untruth’. They are helpers in distress, the physicians of the gods, and guardians of immortality. They have been identified with day and night, heaven and earth or twin stars. Some feel they were once real people who were helpful saints, taking care of those in distress. They were married to Surya (Suryaa), daughter of the sun god. In the MAHABHARATA, NAKULA and SAHADEVA were their sons, and were therefore known as Ashvineyas. Parallels have been drawn between the Ashvins and the two sons of Zeus, Castor and Pollux in Greek myths.

Asikni (1) The wife of DAKSHA, who was a son of the Hindu god BRAHMA and one of the PRAJAPATIS. She was the daughter of Virana Prajapati and was also known as Virani. From Daksha and Asikni, 5000 sons known as Haryashvas were born, to propagate the human race. However, the rishi NARADA suggested that they should first gain some knowledge and understand the nature and boundaries of the earth. The Haryashvas set off on a tour of the earth, but never returned. When they realized that the Haryashvas were lost, Daksha and Asikni had another 1000 sons, known as Shabalashvas. But they too were persuaded by Narada to explore the earth, and were never found again. Then Daksha and Asikni had sixty daughters, who were married to KASHYAPA, SOMA, ARISHTANEMI and others. All created beings were descended from those married to Kashyapa.

(2) The name of a river mentioned in the RIG VEDA, identified with the Chenab, a tributary of the Indus.

asrava, in Buddhism A term indicating impurity. Three impurities to be eliminated are kamasrava, the impurity of sexual desire; bhavasrava, the impurity of desire for existence; and avidyasrava, the impurity of ignorance.

asrava, in Jainism A term for the inflow of KARMA or karmic matter. To attain enlightenment, the inflow has to be stopped and then eliminated.

Assyrian Church of the East A Christian denomination also known in India as the Chaldean Syrian Church of the East. They trace their origin to the See of Babylon, said to have been founded by ST. THOMAS the Apostle. Historically there is evidence of their existence in the region of Parthia, including Iraq and western Iran, by the second century CE. Their leader has the title of Patriarch. Influenced by NESTORIAN ideas, they were condemned by Rome in the fifth century but continued to exist in Zoroastrian Persia, and spread to China and Mongolia and other areas. After the coming of Islam, the Patriarchate moved to Baghdad, but the Church continued to flourish till the fourteenth century, when many of its followers were killed by Timur.

According to tradition, the Church existed in India from the first century CE. Bishops and priests were sent here from Mesopotamia. The Church used Aramaic in its liturgy and in the sixteenth century, the Portuguese, who were in India at the time, attempted to Latinize it. In 1796, a group of Assyrians were offered land and privileges by the king of Kochi (Cochin) and flourished there. As the Church was weak in other parts of the world, in India they accepted bishops from the Chaldean Church, which has a similar liturgy.

After the British left Iraq in 1933, disputes arose within the church, and gradually, two rival groups emerged. Two groups still exist, but in India they were unified in 1995. The Assyrian Church in India accepts Mar Dinkha IV as Patriarch, with his headquarters in the USA. The Metropolitan, with his headquarters at Thrissur, Kerala, is in charge of the Church in India. The Church has about 30,000 followers in India, based mainly in Kerala.

astika A term used in ancient India for schools of philosophy that were derived from interpretations of Vedic literature. These were the VAISHESHIKA, NYAYA, SAMKHYA, YOGA, MIMAMSA and VEDANTA. Philosophical systems which rejected the VEDAS as the ultimate source of knowledge were known as NASTIKA. According to the grammarian PANINI, astika refers to those systems that believe in a heavenly world.

astikaya In Jainism, a category of five basic realities. These are JIVA, PUDGALA, DHARMA, ADHARMA and AKASHA, that is life, matter, motion, non-motion and space. Astikaya indicates that which exists in space, excluding KALA or time. Along with kala, these five realities constitute the six DRAVYAS or substances. While jiva has life, the others are part of AJIVA, or inanimate beings.

astrology An ancient science, known in India as jyotisha. According to tradition, the science of prediction was developed by the rishi Bhrigu, who wrote the horoscope of every individual of the past, present and future. These were copied on palm-leaves and are said to be still preserved.

Astrology in India was later influenced by Greek and Roman systems, and the Yavana-Jataka, possibly of the second century CE, is one of the early astrological texts showing Greek influence. In the fifth or sixth century, VARAHAMIHIRA composed works on astronomy, astrology, the significance of planets, and horoscopy. Some of his works also indicate Greek influence. There were several other works on horoscopy. In the medieval period, Bhattotpala’s Hora Shastra of the fifteenth century, and the Tajika of the thirteenth century are among the important later texts.

Indian astrology uses nine planets (NAVAGRAHA) of which two are ‘shadow planets’, marking the nodes of the moon. Other aspects are the NAKSHATRAS or lunar mansions, yogas or planetary combinations, and dashas or time periods. Though the signs of the zodiac are adopted from the West, they do not follow the same dates. Nor is Indian astrology uniform, different systems and calendars being used in various parts of the country.

Astrology still plays an important part in everyday life. Astrologers calculate the dates of festivals every year, and of special fasts and ceremonies. Marriages are usually performed only on auspicious days. Many people will not take up employment or move into a new house without consulting an astrologer.

A major branch of astrology is the making of individual horoscopes, and most Indians have their horoscopes cast at birth.

astrology in Islam In orthodox Islam, astrology is not considered lawful. According to the QURAN, God created the stars only for three purposes: as an ornament of the heavens, to stone the devil with, and to direct travellers on their path. The use of stars for any other purpose was unlawful, and thus astrology was not a lawful pursuit. However, the QURAN mentions the constellations (buruj) and other aspects used in astrology, and Muslim astrologers have existed in India from medieval days.

asuras A class of beings in Hindu texts. Originally a divine being, the word asura later came to mean a demon. In the RIG VEDA several deities are referred to as asura, including AGNI, BRIHASPATI, DYAUS, PUSHAN, SAVITR and VARUNA, but by the later Vedic period asuras were always at war with the DEVAS or gods. They were supernatural beings with considerable powers, which the devas recognized. At times the devas temporarily entered into a pact with them, as when churning the ocean of milk for AMRITA or divine nectar. DAITYAS and DANAVAS were types of asuras. The VISHNU PURANA states that at the time of the churning of the ocean, the daityas came to be known as asuras because they rejected Varuni, goddess of sura or wine, who emerged from the ocean, while the devas accepted her and were known as suras. Prominent asuras include MAHABALI, still worshipped in Kerala.

In the AVESTA, the Zoroastrian scriptures, asura took the form AHURA, and AHURA MAZDA was the one God, the highest deity, while the DAEVAS were considered demons. The mythical struggle between devas and asuras could therefore reflect a struggle between two groups of the early INDO-IRANIANS, though recent scholars doubt this theory. At a later period it possibly reflects cultural conflicts between the north and the south.

Atal Rai A son of the sixth Sikh guru HARGOBIND. Born at AMRITSAR on 22 December 1619, he had great spiritual power, but was warned by his father not to use it unnecessarily. When he was nine years old, his friend Mohan died, and by his power Atal Rai is said to have restored him to life. Guru Hargobind believed this was not right, and told him no one should intervene in the will of God. The boy acknowledged his words, went to the nearby Kaulsar pool, sat in SAMADHI, and left the world. The BABA ATAL GURDWARA was built at this site.

Atala In Hindu mythology the first of the seven divisions or LOKAS of the netherworld or PATALA. Bala, the son of Maya, reigns here. He has created ninety-six magical arts, capable of fulfilling all one’s desires. Three kinds of women emerge from his mouth when he yawns, and they have a charm which entices men, who then live in perfect bliss. In some texts Atala is said to be ruled by Mahamaya.

Atala Masjid A mosque at Jaunpur in Uttar Pradesh constructed during the reign of Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, who ruled in Jaunpur and neighbouring areas from 1401 to 1440. The mosque was completed in 1408.

A temple of Atala Devi was once located here, and fragments of the old temple were used in the mosque, built in a mix of local and Islamic styles. The whole structure covers a square of 78.5 m on each side. There is an open courtyard, with a long, rectangular prayer hall on the west, and double-stored cloisters on the other three sides. The prayer-hall, is exceptional, as it has three large ornamental archways. The enormous central arch reaches a height of 23 m, with a base of 17m, and recessed arches within. There are three gateways, and those on the north and south have domes. The mosque is constructed from grey sandstone and granite, and is quite ornate.

atar/adar/atash A term for fire, which is sacred in Zoroastrianism. It is known as adar in later PAHLAVI and as atash in Persian. In the GATHAS, atar represents the fire of thought and of the mind, through which the true path is chosen. Atar is also a protective power of AHURA MAZDA, and is associated with SPENTA MAINYU, the good spirit, and with ASHA, or righteousness. Fire in the world is a symbol of this inner flame, and is therefore worshipped in ZOROASTRIAN TEMPLES and in homes.

Every Zoroastrian temple, has within it a consecrated fire, which is always kept burning. The consecrated fire in a temple is usually placed in an afarghan, a metal container shaped like an inverted bell. The BOI ceremony takes place five times a day, during which the priest prays and feeds the fire with sandalwood and incense. There are several rules for consecrating a fire, particularly in an ATASH BEHRAM, the highest grade of fire temple. Apart from atar, atash, etc., other fires are mentioned in Zoroastrian texts. Nairyosangha is a personification of the sacred fire; burzin meher was a fire given to King VISHTASPA; it burned without fuel and did not singe the hands of those who held it. Minokirk is the fire of the higher world. The need to keep the fire pure, and methods of doing this, are also discussed in various texts. The Atash Nyaesh is a special prayer dedicated to fire.

In the ZOROASTRIAN CALENDAR, the ninth month of the year and the ninth day of every month are named Adar.

Atash Adaran Fire of fires, the fire in an Adaran or second grade of ZOROASTRIAN TEMPLE. The Atash Adaran is consecrated using four types of fire.

Atash Behram Fire of victory, the fire in the first grade of ZOROASTRIAN TEMPLES. Sixteen types of fire are used traditionally in consecrating an Atash Behram, including lightning. Once consecrated, the fire is never allowed to go out. Fire from lightning is the most difficult to acquire, as it has to strike a tree or other object and set it aflame so that it can be collected. It takes at least a year to ceremonially join together the different fires.

There are eight Atash Behrams in India, four in Mumbai, two in Surat, one in NAVSARI, and one in UDVADA. The one at Udvada is considered the most sacred, being the fire that was consecrated when the PARSIS first arrived in India at SANJAN; it was later moved to Udvada. It is also known as Iranshah, the royal fire of Iran.

Atash Dadgah The lowest grade of consecrated fire in Zoroastrianism, installed in homes and in small AGIARYs or temples.

Ate Kaniya A festival celebrated by the tribal GONDS of Mandla. In this festival the Gonds worship the Hindu god KRISHNA and paint scenes of his youth in VRINDAVANA on the walls of their houses. In the drawings, Krishna plays on his flute on the banks of the YAMUNA, roams with his cows and cowherd friends and dallies with the GOPIS, the young women who love him. The story associated with this festival is that such paintings were first made by ARJUNA. Arjuna was depressed because all the women loved Krishna, but no one seemed to love him and so he retired to the forest, painting images of Krishna on the walls of his own hut. Krishna then arranged for Arjuna and Subhadra, Krishna’s sister, to be united in love. (Traditional texts, however, have a somewhat different story of Arjuna and Subhadra).

Atharva Veda One of the four VEDIC SAMHITAS of Hinduism. The Atharva Veda or fourth Veda is also known as the Brahma Veda. It includes magical chants and MANTRAS, both for protection and for the defeat of enemies. ATHARVAN originally meant ‘fire-priest’, corresponding with athravan of the AVESTA, therefore this text may have an INDO-IRANIAN origin, though in its present form it is later than the RIG VEDA. The Atharva Veda consists of 731 hymns with about 6000 verses divided into twenty books or sections. Some of the Rig Vedic hymns are repeated in the Atharva, and Rig Vedic deities are mentioned, but a major part of it consists of songs and spells. Several of these deal with the healing of diseases. Diseases are sometimes personified and hymns are addressed to them, while in other cases there are spells to banish demons considered responsible for ill-health. There are prayers to curative herbs, or to healing waters and fires, chants for health and long life and for harmony within the family. There are spells to win someone’s love, and for protection from demons and from people with evil intentions.

Atharva Veda prayers are used at birth, marriage, funeral and other ceremonies, but overall the fourth Veda has never been as popular or held in as high esteem as the other three VEDAS. Parallels between the Atharva Veda and Shamanic, Mayan, German Merseburg magic maxims and other magical traditions have been found, and aspects of the Atharva Veda later occur in the TANTRAS.

Atharvan An ancient priest. In the RIG VEDA, Atharvan produced AGNI or fire, was the messenger of VIVASVAT and brought order through sacrifices. According to the ATHARVA VEDA, Atharvan was a companion of the gods. Atharvan is also used as a generic term for a priest, while Atharvans (plural), are a class of PITRIS or ancestors who live in heaven. In the AVESTA, Athravan is a fire-priest.

Atisha A Buddhist philosopher and scholar, also known as Dipankara, who lived from 982 to 1054 CE. Initially at NALANDA, he was invited to Tibet and went there in 1042, remaining in Tibet till his death. There he helped to reform the SANGHA, insisting on the need for celibacy and discipline. Buddhism had by then taken hold in Tibet and Buddhist texts were being translated into Tibetan. Atisha wrote several texts, including the Bodhipathapradipa, or ‘Lamp for the Way of Enlightenment’. He stated that HINAYANA, MAHAYANA and VAJRAYANA were three stages of Buddhism, Vajrayana being the highest. Other scholars went to Tibet, but Atisha is particularly important because his chief Tibetan disciple DROMSTON (1008–64) founded the first distinctive Tibetan monastic order, KADAMPA (Bka-gdams-pa), setting up the monastery of Rwasgren. Atisha’s work also influenced later Tibetan sects.

Atisha died at Nyethang in Tibet and was interred in the monastery there.

Atman/Atma A Sanskrit term for the Self or soul, which is imperishable, beyond time and eternal. In the RIG VEDA, the term means breath, or vital essence. The concept of the Self is developed in the UPANISHADS. The Atman is not the same as the body, mind or consciousness, but is something beyond, which permeates all these. The Upanishads explore the concept of the Atman from all possible angles, and most later schools of philosophy, base themselves on these texts. In some passages in the Upanishads the Atman is considered identical with BRAHMAN, the underlying reality of the world, and thus there is only one Atman, which permeates all beings. This interpretation is followed by ADVAITA Vedanta. MOKSHA, or liberation, is achieved when the unity of the Atman and Brahman, which already exists, is perceived or realized. In other passages, the jivatma or individual soul is distinguished from the Atman, and is not the same as Brahman, though it can unite with it, or enter a relationship with a personalized deity. In SAMKHYA philosophy there is a plurality of souls. In Jainism, there are many individual souls (JIVAS), and the liberated Jiva, freed from matter, is known as the Atman. Early Buddhist philosophy states that there is no permanent entity, and if only an eternal entity can be known as the Atman, everything is anatta, or ANATMAN, that is, with no Atman or soul.

In Sikhism, Atma is a term for the individual soul, within which a spark of God resides.

Atri An ancient RISHI or sage described in the RIG VEDA and later in the MAHABHARATA, PURANAS and other texts. In the Rig Veda, he was one of the ancestors of the human race. In later texts he was one of the sons of the Hindu god BRAHMA and was married to Anasuya. Their sons were the rishi DATTATREYA, an incarnation of VISHNU, DURVASA, an incarnation of SHIVA, and CHANDRA, an incarnation of BRAHMA. There are several stories about Atri and his powers. Once, to help the DEVAS in their battle against the ASURAS, he became both the sun and the moon. The fury of the sun consumed the asuras, while the gentle light of the moon refreshed the devas.

There are some temples dedicated to Atri. Among them is the Atri Rishi Temple at Guru Shikhar in Rajasthan, the highest point of the Aravali hill range.

auliya An Arabic term in Islam, meaning the favourite of God. The term occurs in the QURAN. In India, the SUFI saint Nizamuddin was known as NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA.

Aum A sacred word, also spelt OM, which symbolizes BRAHMAN, the highest state known in Hindu philosophy.

Aurangzeb The sixth Mughal emperor, who ruled from 1659 to 1707 and tried to revive orthodox Islam. He was the son and succesor of the emperor Shah Jahan and brother of the liberal DARA SHIKOH, whom he killed during the struggle for accession to the throne.

Aurangzeb first put down rebellions in the north and consolidated his territories. After 1681 he expanded his empire towards the south, conquered the Deccan states and extracted tribute from kingdoms in the far south. By then, however, the empire had become too large to control effectively. Revolts were frequent, and the Mughals declined after his death. Aurangzeb was pious and orthodox, but is remembered primarily for his bigotry, though historians have pointed out that some of these accounts are exaggerated. Aurangzeb certainly reversed the liberal and tolerant policies of AKBAR, which had been somewhat curtailed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan, the next two rulers, but not totally set aside.

Among Aurangzeb’s unpopular acts were the reduction in customs duty for Muslim traders in 1665, and its abolition in 1667 while it was retained for Hindus. In 1669 he issued an order to demolish Hindu temples and centres of learning and a number of temples were destroyed, including the Vishvanatha temple at Varanasi and the Keshav Rai temple at Mathura. In 1679, the JIZYA tax was reimposed on non-Muslims. Employment and stipends were offered to those who converted to Islam. The ninth Sikh guru, TEGH BAHADUR, was executed in 1675 upon his refusal to convert to Islam. Aurangzeb also alienated the Marathas and several of the Rajputs, though some prominent Rajputs remained in his employ.

Aurangzeb was a SUNNI who attempted to live according to Quranic law. He had no personal vices, dressed and ate simply and followed Islamic law in all aspects of his life. His intolerant religious outlook has been attributed not merely to his own personal inclinations, but to compulsions of state, primarily the need to get the support of the ULAMA and nobles. The reimposition of the Jizya was also a means to collect much-needed funds and to provide employment.

Despite these policies he continued to employ Rajputs in high posts, and even gave grants to some temples and Hindu MATHAS as well as to Jains in Gujarat. He visited the DARGAHS of some of the noted SUFI saints, met visiting Sufis, and quoted the Masnawi of Rumi, the celebrated Sufi saint, in his correspondence. In his later years he modified some of his policies in an attempt to win over his enemies. He employed a number of Marathas, and in 1704 suspended the Jizya in the Deccan.

After 1681, Aurangzeb never returned to the north and in his absence DELHI regained its eclectic and liberal culture. Shaikh Kalimullah, a CHISTI saint, and Abdul Qadir Bedil, a Sufi and a poet, were among those who enriched the culture of Delhi.

During his reign, the Fatwa-i Alamgiri on Islamic law was compiled, while his letters to his sons and grandsons were collected in the Kalmat-i Taiyyabat.

Aurangzeb’s destruction of temples has reverberations even today, with Hindu groups threatening to destroy the mosques built in their place.

Aurobindo, Sri A noted philosopher of modern India. Sri Aurobindo (Aurobindo Ghose) was born at Kolkata (Calcutta) in India on 15 August 1872, and at the age of seven was sent to England to study. Returning to India as a young man in 1893, he worked for some time in the state of Baroda, but gradually got involved in the Freedom Movement against the British, who ruled most of India at this time. He had already begun certain YOGA practices, and when in prison for his actions in the struggle for freedom (1908), he received a divine revelation. He left British India and moved to the small territory of Puducherry (Pondicherry) in south India, which was then under the French. Here he could not be pursued by British authorities, and, giving up politics, he founded an ASHRAM and developed his own philosophy.

His basic philosophy is what he called Integral Yoga. The aim of this is ‘to enter into a higher Truth-Consciousness or Divine Supramental Consciousness in which action and creation are the expression not of ignorance and imperfection, but of the Truth, the Light, the divine Ananda (bliss).’ He did not prescribe any fixed method but suggested various ways to make oneself receptive and open to the divine, including surrender and devotion, meditation, and the watching of one’s actions.

He believed in the evolution of the human life and mind towards an ultimate spirituality and an increasing universality. The light and power of the spirit, also called by him, the ‘Supermind’, presiding over human evolution, could transform human consciousness and remould life on earth. He was joined in his ashram in 1920 by ‘The MOTHER’, a French woman named Mirra Richard. While the Mother ran the ashram, Aurobindo remained in seclusion, reading, studying ancient texts and writing.

His philosophical works include The Life Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, The Integral Yoga, the epic Savitri (a poem with 24,000 lines), and several other works, as well as commentaries on major ancient texts. In these works he questioned many traditional concepts of Indian philosophy, including the commonly accepted views of the world as MAYA or illusion, and of KARMA.

He stated that no religion revealed the whole Truth. He said that ‘the Divine Truth is greater than any religion or creed or scripture or idea or philosophy.’ Though he had undertaken a deep study of Hindu texts, he ceased to identify with Hinduism as he developed his philosophy. He wrote, ‘The Ashram has nothing to do with Hindu religion or culture or any religion or nationality. The Truth of the Divine which is the spiritual reality behind all religions and the descent of the supramental which is not known to any religion, are the sole things which will be the foundation of the work of the future.’

After his death in 1950, the Mother continued to run the ashram and later set up AUROVILLE, an international city near the ashram.

Auroville An ‘international city’ near Aurobindo Ashram in Puducherry (Pondicherry). Mirra Richard, known as the MOTHER, who was the companion of Sri AUROBINDO, thought of establishing such a city. The idea behind it is expressed in the following words: ‘There should be, somewhere upon the earth, a place that no nation could claim as its sole property, a place where all human beings of goodwill, sincere in their aspiration, could live freely as citizens of the world, obeying one single authority, that of the Supreme Truth…’

The foundation stone of the city was laid on 28 February 1968. Groups of cottages were set up for residents, with gardens and natural surroundings. Separate pavilions represent different countries. At the centre of Auroville is Matri Mandir, ‘the temple of the mother’, representing the universal mother. It is a golden sphere surrounded by gardens. Within is an inner chamber, completely white, with white marble walls, and in the centre a crystal globe. Through the apex of the sphere sunlight is electronically guided to fall on the crystal. Here people meditate in silence. Matri Mandir is said to be beyond all religions, a meeting point of silence, in which the spiritual force is revealed.

Auroville, however, is not merely about meditation, but about ways to promote and live a harmonious and constructive life. It has research centres experimenting with local, eco-friendly construction material, with new varieties of crops, the development of natural insecticides, and other products. Fruit trees of various kinds are grown in large orchards. Workshops produce handmade paper, natural oils for aroma therapy, incense, candles and other items. There is an extensive library, a school aligned with Aurobindo’s philosophy, and a publishing unit. A medical centre integrates indigenous and Western systems of medicine.

Ava A Hindu deity, a sheep-faced goddess. She is a MATRIKA or mother goddess, one of the animal-headed mothers represented in early Indian art.

Avadhuta Gita A Sanskrit text assigned to the rishi DATTATREYA, though it is not known who wrote it, or when. It is an Advaitic text, by one who has realized the truth. An avadhuta is a liberated soul, one who has renounced the world. Totally beyond all that is, an avadhuta follows no rules, no fixed practices, and has no need to follow conventional norms. In the text, Dattatreya says, ‘I am by nature the formless, all-pervasive Self.’ He goes on to describe the state of an avadhuta, who lives alone, in solitude, rejoicing in the bliss of BRAHMAN. Such a person has even gone beyond the fourth state of consciousness, TURIYA, and dwells in the state of turiyatita. About this text Swami VIVEKANANDA said, ‘Men like the one who wrote this song keep religion alive.’

Avalokiteshvara A celestial BODHISATTVA, the embodiment of compassion. He is associated with the Buddha AMITABHA, and helps all who pray to him. Literally his name means ‘the one who looks down’. In art he is variously depicted with many arms and a crown in which Amitabha is seated. He often holds a blue lotus. In Japan and China he turned into a female deity, Kwannon or Kuan Yin, while in Tibet he is known as Chenrezi. The DALAI LAMA is considered an incarnation of Avalokiteshvara.

Avantipur An ancient town in Kashmir with ninth-century Hindu temples. The site is located 28 km by road from Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir. The Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir dating to the twelfth century, states that the town was established at a sacred place earlier known as Vishvaikasara, by Avantivarman, a king of Kashmir. Avantivarman of the Utpala dynasty ruled from 855 to 883 and constructed two temples. The Avantisvamin Temple, dedicated to the god VISHNU, was built before he ascended the throne, and had a two-tier platform approached by a staircase. The inner sanctuary is square, decorated with friezes of elephants, hamsas (swans or geese), lion heads, bells and other motifs, but the main image is missing. Several images found nearby were of a four-headed and four-armed Vishnu, and the main image was probably of the same type. Four smaller shrines are at the corners of the courtyard; two later shrines and sixty-nine small cells on a high basement are arranged around the courtyard with carved pillars in front. The Avantishvara Temple, dedicated to SHIVA, was set up later, while he was the king. This was originally a large temple but is now in ruins. The temple was entered through a gateway and around it was a courtyard surrounded by cells. Carved figures that have been found include those of LAKULISHA, considered an incarnation of Shiva, and of a standing couple, probably the king and queen.

avasarpini A descending cycle of time in Jainism, which consists of six ARAS or ages, and forms part of a KALPA. In a descending cycle, everything deteriorates, including knowledge, the lifespan of an individual, height and stature, and happiness. However, the first three aras of a descending cycle are relatively good. Nature and wish-fulfilling trees (kalpa-vriksha) provide for all. People are simple, peaceful and contented. Water is cold and sweet, the air unpolluted and exhilarating. Even the sand is sweet as sugar. Fruit and grains are nutritious and fulfilling, and a small amount is enough for days. As the third ara of the present time drew to an end, changes occured. With an all-round deterioration in conditions, disputes took place, and there fore people were grouped into kulas (families) headed by a kulkar, to sort out disagreements. It was at this time that RISHABHA, the first TIRTHANKARA, was born, to provide guidance as things deteriorated further.

avashyakas The six essentials, or daily duties, which every Jain should practise. These are listed and explained in a number of texts, both in ARDHA MAGADHI and Sanskrit. Among the early texts dealing with these is the AVASSAYA SUTTA. The Sanskrit terms for the six avashyakas are: samayikam, or the practice of equanimity, which can be attained by refraining from evil; chaturvimshatistava, the glorification of the twenty-four TIRTHANKARAS; vandana, or veneration of the guru; pratikramana or confession; kayotsarga or penance by assuming certain body postures; pratyakhyana, renouncing certain pleasures.

Avassaya Sutta A Jain text of the SHVETAMBARA canon, one of the four MULA SUTTAS, known in Sanskrit as the Avashyaka Sutra. It has six sections, dealing with the six essential daily duties of a Jain, known as the shad-avashyakam or AVASHYAKAS.

Avatamsaka Sutra A Buddhist MAHAYANA text of uncertain date, translated into Chinese by 420 CE. The whole is available in Chinese, though two major sections, the Dashabhumika and the Gandavyuha, exist in Sanskrit. The text focuses on the concept of dharma-dhatu, where all phenomena coexist. It states that the dharma-dhatu is the same as SHUNYATA (the void), or TATHAGATA-GARBHA (the underlying Buddha essence). Other aspects deal with the BODHISATTVA ideal and the path to enlightenment. The GANDAVYUHA SUTRA and the DASHABHUMIKA SUTRA on the ten stages of a BODHISATTVA are used as separate texts.

avatara An incarnation of god on earth. It also means descent, advent or manifestation. In Hinduism, the god VISHNU is most commonly associated with avataras. There are ten main avataras of Vishnu, while up to thirty-nine are mentioned in certain texts. Among Vishnu’s avataras, RAMA and KRISHNA are the most popular. The god SHIVA also has avataras, though there are not many temples dedicated to them. Avataras are said to descend to earth from time to time, to guide people on the right path.

In the BHAGAVAD GITA, Krishna states: ‘Although I am unborn, everlasting and I am the lord of all, I come to my realm of nature and through my wondrous power I am born. When righteousness is weak and faints and unrighteousness results in pride, then my Spirit arises on earth.’ 4.6–7; (trans. Juan Mascaro)

Avataras can also be partial, or AMSHA-AVATARAS, and secondary, or gauna-avataras. A number of saints and heroic figures are included among these. Several gurus of the twentieth century are said to be incarnations of earlier saints. For instance, Satya SAI BABA is thought to be an incarnation of SAI BABA OF SHIRDI, who in turn was considered an avatara of DATTATREYA.

In Buddhism, the DALAI LAMA is said to be an incarnation of the Bodhisattva AVALOKITESHVARA. Each successive Dalai Lama, as well as some other categories of lamas, are incarnations of earlier lamas and saints. The concept also exists in Islam, particularly in the AHMADIYA and MAHDAWI movements, though it is rejected by the orthodox.

In more recent times, various individuals have claimed to be avataras of one deity or the other, or of a prophet, not only in Hinduism, but in other religions as well.

Avesta The collective term for the early religious scriptures of the Zoroastrians. The GATHAS, or songs of the Prophet ZARATHUSHTRA, are among the earliest portions of these scriptures. They are included in the YASNA, or book of worship. In addition there are YASHTS, or hymns to specific deities, and NYAESHES, which with some other prayers form part of the Khordeh Avesta, or shorter Avesta, used for personal prayers. Other texts include the Visperad and Videdvat or VENDIDAD.

The dating of these texts is controversial, but the Gathas and some other parts of the Yasna probably belong to about 1500 BCE.

Early Zoroastrian literature was said to have been destroyed at the time of Alexander’s invasion of Persia in 301 BCE. Existing texts were put together at the time of the Sasanian dynasty, and probably completed by the sixth century CE. According to tradition, they were again destroyed after the Arab invasion of the seventh century. After the Zoroastrians (PARSIS) came to India, some of the texts they brought with them were translated into Sanskrit. Later Zoroastrian texts were composed in PAHLAVI, and as some of these are commentaries on the older texts, they are known as Zand-Avesta or Avesta-e-Zand.

Avesta language A language of ancient lran, including Gathic or old Avesta, and later Avesta, known as younger Avesta. Gathic Avesta is similar to the language of the RIG VEDA, while younger Avesta is a simplified version of the old language. Avesta was probably in use only till around 400 BCE, but was still known to the priests and thus was used for writing down the texts between the fourth and sixth centuries CE, at the time of the Sasanians. The script used was evolved from PAHLAVI, which had developed from Aramaic.

Avicenna A Muslim philosopher whose name was Abu Ali Al-Husain Ibn Abd-Allah Ibn-Sina. He lived from 980 to 1037. A Persian born near Bukhara, he is believed to have been a genius who had a complete knowledge of the QURAN by the age of ten, and also understood theology and mathematics. He studied medicine, and by the age of sixteen, physicians of the highest eminence are said to have come to learn from him. He was not merely a physician, but also a philosopher. He had absorbed Greek philosophical ideas, which had penetrated some schools of Islam in the ninth century. He went deeply into philosophical concepts and stated that essence (mahiya) was separate from experience or existence (wujud). He also said that creation was the manifestation of God’s essence, and that the world was eternal, while orthodox Islam believed that creation took place at a particular point of time. His books include the Kitabal-Shifa, or Book of Healing, which was a philosophical encyclopaedia, and the Kanun-fit-tibb, or Canon of Medicine. A later philosophical work was the Kitab al-Isharat, in which he described the spiritual journey of a mystic. His philosophy had an impact on Islamic philosophers of India and elsewhere. He was also famous in the West, where he was known as Avicenna.

Awariful Maarif A text on Sufism, written in 1234–35 by Shaikh Shihabudin SUHRAWARDI. It is one of the two main texts on which early SUFI doctrines in India were based, the other being the KASHFUL MAHJUB. Both texts emphasized the importance of observing the SHARIA (law), and stated that Sharia, marifah (gnosis) and haqiqa (reality) were three interdependent aspects of the Sufi path. They also deal with Sufi ethics.

ayagapattas A term for Jain tablets of homage, dedicated to TIRTHANKARAS and other Jain saints. A number of ayagapattas have been found at MATHURA, dating from the first century BCE. Early ayagapattas have carvings that depict STUPAS, dharmachakras (wheels of law), ashtamangalas (eight auspicious symbols), and other sacred symbols, while later ones have figures of Tirthankaras or of donors.

Ayaramga Sutta A Jain text, the first of the twelve ANGAS, written in ARDHA MAGADHI, and known in Sanskrit as the Acharanga Sutra. The text has two sections and prescribes rules, regulations and the ideal way of life for a Jain monk. The first section, which is earlier than the second, deals mainly with prohibitions, for instance, against killing or injuring a living being. One passage states:

‘One may not kill, nor ill-use, nor torment, nor persecute any kind of living being, any kind of creature, any kind of thing having a soul, any kinds of beings. That is the pure, eternal, enduring commandment of religion, which has been proclaimed by the sages who comprehend the world.’

This section also stresses severe ascetiscism for monks, including methods by which advanced monks can end their lives through starvation. The second part consists of three subdivisions known as chulas (literally, appendices), of which the first two provide rules for the daily life of monks and nuns, how they should wander and beg for food, and what they are permitted to eat. Nothing that destroys the life of any being should be eaten. Monks must speak the truth, but also should not say anything to hurt others. The third chula describes the life of MAHAVIRA, the twenty-fourth TIRTHANKARA of Jainism.

Ayodhya A town in district Faizabad of Uttar Pradesh, sacred to Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. It is considered one of the seven most sacred cities of Hinduism, and according to tradition is the birthplace and capital of RAMA, an incarnation of the god VISHNU. It was also known as Saketa and in ancient days was the capital of the janapada or kingdom of Koshala.

In Jainism, too, it is a sacred site. The first TIRTHANKARA, RISHABHA, was born here. BHARATA, the son of Rishabha, ruled the world with his capital at Ayodhya. Ajitanatha, Abhinandanatha and Anantanatha were the other Tirthankaras born here. One of the earliest Jain images, dating back to the fourth or third century BCE, was found here.

Saketa is mentioned in Buddhist texts, which refer to it as an important city. The BUDDHA lived here for some time. The Chinese pilgrim FA HSIEN passed through here in the fifth century and called it Shachi, while XUANZANG in the seventh century knew it as Vishakha. According to Fa Hsien, there were a number of Buddhist monasteries here.

Archaeology indicates that the place dates back to about the seventh century BCE, but declined in importance after the fourth century CE.

There are several temples located in Ayodhya, as well as sacred sites associated with Rama. The Rama Janma Bhumi site, where the BABRI MASJID stood until 1992, is said to mark the exact birthplace of Rama. Lakshmana Ghat, located near the river, marks the spot where LAKSHMANA ended his life. The Birla Temple is one of the large modern temples constructed in the city. Ayodhya also has mosques and tombs of Muslim saints.

Ayudha Puja The worship of tools, instruments, machines or vehicles. It is commonly performed one day before the Hindu festival of DASHAHARA, particularly in south India. Workmen appreciate that their tools or machines have functioned well throughout the year. They give them a day of rest, adorn them with oil and garlands, and perform a PUJA, or ceremony of worship.

Ayudha Purusha The personified weapon of a deity. Several such weapons are personified in Hinduism, including Vishnu’s CHAKRA and Shiva’s TRISHULA. Among other cultures, the ancients Celts also personified and worshipped their weapons.

ayyan A term used in south India, which means father, revered person, or a BRAHMANA. It is said to be derived from the Sanskrit word ‘ARYA’, meaning noble. Ayyan represents the male principle or PURUSHA, while amman represents the female, PRAKRITI, SHAKTI or mother. Ayyan or amman are attached to the names of several deities.

Ayyanar A Hindu deity worshipped mainly in Tamil Nadu. He is the son of SHIVA and of VISHNU, who had assumed a feminine form, Mohini. He is a guardian deity, and is usually depicted as a warrior, either on foot or on a white horse or elephant, holding a sceptre or whip. He is said to ride through the air at night, accompanied by his generals. He is sometimes called ‘the king of demons’ or else is said to be their master, though he is not one of them. Ayyanar is prayed to for freedom from disease and pests, for a safe journey and for safe childbirth, and in general, for protection. He is the god of the mercantile community, and particularly of potters. Ayyanar temples occur all over Tamil Nadu. Terracotta horses can be seen outside, usually offerings from devotees, and MATRIKA or mother goddess panels are sometimes found in his temples. The main Ayyanar festival takes place in September/October after NAVARATRI, while there is another festival in May/June. He is a vegetarian god who sometimes has a twin temple with a meat-eating deity, Karuppu or Karuppan. Ayyanar is known as Shivaputra or Harasuta, the son of Shiva, and is considered part of the SHAIVITE pantheon. His origin is the same as that of AYYAPPA, well known in Kerala, and he is sometimes considered another form of that deity.

Ayyappa A Hindu deity popular in Kerala. According to myth, Ayyappa was born as a result of a union between SHIVA and VISHNU in the form of Mohini, the divine enchantress. In the PURANAS, his counterpart is SASTHA or Dharmasastha, which is used as a synonym for this deity. As he is a composite deity, born through the union of Shiva and Vishnu, he is known as Hariharasuta. As the son of Shiva he is called Bhutanatha, and is also known as Manikanta.

There are several myths and stories about the origin of Ayyappa. According to one story, he was found on the banks of the Pampa river by the king of Pandalam. The Pandalam dynasty was an offshoot of the Pandyas. The childless king took the baby back to his palace and reared him with love. The young child showed his great powers when he killed the demon Mahisha. On another occasion, when the queen demanded the milk of a tiger, he brought back a tiger with her cubs from the forest, along with a vessel of its milk.

According to another story, Ayyappa was the son of the king’s sister, and was brought up in the forest but later sent to his uncle. Meanwhile, a tribal chief destroyed the shrine of Sastha, located on SABARIMALA hill, which was worshipped by the Pandalam kings. Ayyappa and his Muslim friend Vavar, who became like his brother, defeated those who were against the king. When the idol of Sastha was reinstalled, Ayyappa disappeared into it, and is considered the same as that deity. This took place on the first day of the month of Makara. Thus at Sabarimala, the main centre of worship for Ayyappa, this day is particularly auspicious. There are other Ayyappa temples in Kerala and elsewhere.

Some consider Ayyanar and Ayyappa as two forms of the same deity, as they have the same origin, though they are depicted and worshipped differently.

Azad, Maulana Abul Kalam A nationalist, freedom fighter and minister in independent India, Maulana Azad was also a learned scholar who wrote on Islam.

Born in 1888 in Mecca, he was originally known as Mohiuddin Ahmad. He returned to India with his parents when he was a child. Later he studied at Al Azhar University in Cairo, and back in India he was influenced by Syed AHMAD KHAN and made efforts for the reform of the Muslim community. Apart from his political activities, he tried to promote Hindu-Muslim unity and wrote on various aspects of Islam. His main work is the Tarjuman al-Quran, a translation and interpretation of the QURAN, in Urdu. In this he brings out the universal nature of the Supreme Being. He states that god is Rabb-ul-Alamin, the lord of all creation and the sustainer of life, with divine concern for every person, group, community and country, and for every form of existence. He also comments on the need to reinterpret the Quran in modern times. He distinguished between SHARIA (the law), and the Truth, and said that while the former could be modified, the Truth was eternal.

Maulana Azad died in 1958.

azan A term for the Islamic call to NAMAZ or prayer. The MUAZZIN makes the call five times every twenty-four hours, from the MINARET of large mosques or the door of small mosques. The call begins with the Arabic words, ‘ALLAHU AKBAR’, or ‘God is great.’

Azar Kaivan, Dastur A Zoroastrian saint who lived from c. 1530 to 1618. According to various accounts, he was born in Iran and came to India later in life, along with twelve disciples. From childhood he was a saintly person, always engaged in prayers. He was a strict vegetarian who ate very little, and asked his followers to be kind to animals. He first came to Surat in Gujarat, moved to NAVSARI and then to PATNA in Bihar, where he stayed for the rest of his life. The Mughal emperor AKBAR is said to have visited him there. He advocated an ethical and ascetic life and had great spiritual powers. Legends about him recount that he could heal illnesses, walk over water and fire, and appear in two places at the same time. He had a number of disciples who belonged to all religions. He died at Patna at the age of eighty-eight.

Azar Kaivan is revered particularly by followers of the esoteric Zoroastrian ILM-E-KHSHNOOM sect, while some feel his concepts were closer to Sufism and that he was not a Zoroastrian but a SUFI influenced by SUHRAWARDI doctrines

Azariah, Vedanayagam Samuel The first Indian bishop in the ANGLICAN CHURCH. Born in 1874, he was also the secretary of the YMCA between 1895 and 1909, and the founder of the Indian Missionary Society and the National Missionary Society. He took care of the diocese of Dornakal in Andhra Pradesh and converted a number of lower castes and tribals to Christianity. Before his death in 1945, he also worked towards a union of churches, which took place two years later in 1947 with the formation of the CHURCH OF SOUTH INDIA.