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Bab A title in Islam used by both SHIAS and SUFIS. In particular it refers to Sayyid Ali Muhammad of Shiraz (1819–50), who called himself ‘the Bab’ or ‘the gateway’ to the truth. He believed in the concept of the hidden IMAM, and in 1844 stated that he would reveal the truth. His book Bayan (Explanation) was to replace the QURAN. Though he had a large following, his heretical views caused him to be executed at Tabriz in 1850. His two successors, Mirza Yahya and Mirza Husain Ali, founded different groups. The latter called himself BAHAULLAH or ‘splendour of God’. His followers are known as BAHAIS and constitute a religion separate from Islam. While the Bahai is a worldwide religion, Mirza Yahya’s followers, the Azali, number only a few thousand and live mainly in Iran.

baba A term for a father or revered person. It is often attached to the names of saintly people.

Baba Atal Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at AMRITSAR in Punjab, constructed at the spot where ATAL RAI, son of the sixth guru HARGOBIND, was cremated. A small shrine was erected at the site, but later a nine-storeyed gurdwara was built, representing the nine years that the child lived. The first three stories were constructed by 1784, and the rest added by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Further renovations were made later. Some of the stories have murals on the walls and ceiling, depicting aspects of Sikh history. Near the gurdwara is the Kaulsar tank, made earlier in memory of Kaulan, daughter of the qazi of Lahore. Kaulan was inspired by Guru Hargobind, and leaving her family, came to Amritsar and was given refuge by the guru. The tank was constructed in 1621.

Baba Bakala Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Bakala in District Amritsar, Punjab, associated with the ninth guru, TEGH BAHADUR. Before Guru Hargobind died, he advised Tegh Bahadur, his youngest son, who had become a recluse, to settle in the peaceful village of Bakala. Tegh Bahadur lived here along with his wife Gujri, and mother Bibi Nanaki for twenty years (1644–64).

When the eighth guru, HAR KRISHAN, was on his death-bed in 1664, he is said to have muttered ‘Baba Bakala’. This was taken to mean that the next guru would be found at village Bakala. A number of people from Bakala claimed to be the guru and the true succesor of Har Krishan, but it was difficult to verify their claims. Finally, Makhan Khan Lubana, a trader from Bakala, succeeded in doing so. Caught in a storm on a sea-voyage, he prayed to Guru NANAK for help, and vowed to donate 500 dinars to the true guru. He reached Bakala safely and offered two dinars to each of those claiming to be the guru, stating that he was fulfilling a pledge made on the sea-voyage. Tegh Bahadur asked him why, if he had pledged 500, he was offering only two. He added, ‘A guru is never in need, but a Sikh is expected to keep his pledge’. Thus Lubana announced that since Tegh Bahadur knew his secret pledge, he must be the true guru.

To commemorate the discovery of the guru, a gurdwara was built at Bakala, at the spot where Guru Tegh Bahadur used to sit in meditation. The gurdwara has become an important centre of pilgrimage, particularly on AMAVAS night, and at the time of the RAKSHA BANDHAN festival, when a fair is held. Two other gurdwaras in Bakala are the Manji Sahib Gurdwara, and Sheesh Mahal Gurdwara. The former was built where the guru was sitting when men sent by his nephew Dhirmal, an aspirant for the guru’s post, attempted to kill him. The latter is at the location of the guru’s residence.

Babri Masjid A sixteenth-century mosque located at AYODHYA, which was the centre of a controversy between Hindus and Muslims and was demolished in 1992.

The Babri Masjid was probably built at the time of the Mughal emperor Babar (ruled 1526–30). Some Hindu groups claimed that it was located at the spot of an earlier temple that marked the birthplace of the god RAMA. In 1949 an image of Rama was surreptitiously placed inside the mosque, and was said to have arrived there on its own, through divine intervention. Fearing problems between the two communities, the gates of the mosque were shut, and no worship was allowed there by any group. In 1986 the gates were opened, after which there were renewed attempts to construct a temple at the spot. Negotiations failed to bring about a solution and the mosque was demolished by a mob in 1992. It remains a disputed area with a decision on its status still to be given by the courts.

The dispute has been used by various political parties to gain electoral support, and is an example of the misuse of religion in politics.

Badami A town located between two rocky hills in Bijapur district of Karnataka, which is known for its early cave temples, cut into the side of a red sandstone hill. Badami, earlier known as Vatapi, was the capital of the Chalukya dynasty between the sixth and seventh centuries. There are four rock-cut cave temples belonging to this period, of which two are dedicated to the Hindu god VISHNU and one to SHIVA, while the fourth is a Jain temple of PARSHVANATHA. Another natural cave is a Buddhist shrine. There are also several structural temples. Among these is the Jambulinga Temple, dated to 699, with three shrines dedicated to BRAHMA, Vishnu and Shiva, connected to a common MANDAPA. The Yellamma Temple of the eleventh century has a multi-storeyed tower. Images are carved on boulders near the temples, and there are more shrines around the town. The seventh-century Upper Shivalaya Temple on the cliffs to the north has intricate carvings of KRISHNA and NARASIMHA, while the Mallegitti Shivalaya Temple of the same period has panels depicting Vishnu, Shiva and other deities.

Badarayana The author of the BRAHMA SUTRA, also known as the Vedanta Sutra, who probably lived sometime between 500 BCE and the first century CE. He is identified with the rishi VYASA, a name used for several authors. The Brahma Sutra summarizes the UPANISHADS and form the basis for Vedantic thought. They were used by all later writers and exponents of the various schools of VEDANTA.

Badrinath Temple A temple dedicated to the Hindu god VISHNU, located at Badrinath, in Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, at a height of 3133 m above sea-level, in a valley on the right bank of the river ALAKANANDA. Here Vishnu is worshipped as Sri Badrinatha. According to legend, the temple has ancient origins but was re-established by SHANKARA in the ninth century. The temple is 15 m high and is surmounted by a small cupola and spire. The main image of Badrinatha is 1 m high, and there are also images of LAKSHMI, PARVATI, GANESHA and GARUDA. Two thermal springs nearby, known as Tapt Kund, are said to have curative properties. Since the time the temple was re-established, only a Nambudri Brahman from Kerala is allowed to be the priest or rawal. Badrinath is a major centre of pilgrimage and the most important of the Badri temples in the hills of Uttarakhand. The others include Adi Badri, on the route to Ranikhet; Bhavishya Badri at Subain near Tapovan, not far from Joshimath; Bridha Badri also near Joshimath; and Yogdhyan Badri at Pandukeshwar. Badrinath is also the centre of one of the MATHAS established by Shankara.

Badshahi Bagh Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Ambala city in Haryana. It is constructed at a spot where the tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH, stayed, in a garden under a cluster of trees.

Baga A Zoroastrian YAZATA or minor deity, similar to the Rig Vedic BHAGA.

Bagala A Hindu goddess, one of the MAHAVIDYAS or TANTRIC goddesses, a form of PARVATI, the wife of SHIVA. She is depicted with the head of a crane, seated on a throne of jewels, holding a club. Her colour is yellow. Bagala is worshipped mainly in east India. The Bagala Tantra, a Tantric text, has several magical rites associated with her worship.

Bagh Caves Buddhist temple caves located in the Bagh Hills in Madhya Pradesh. There are nine caves sculpted in the fifth and sixth centuries CE. Of these, four are similar, with a verandah opening into a large hall, which has small cells on both sides. At the end is a shrine containing a STUPA. Paintings on the walls depict scenes from the life of the BUDDHA, and the windows, doorways and columns are carved.

Baghdadi Jews A group of Jews from Arab countries who reached India in the late eighteenth century. Though collectively known as Baghdadi or Iraqi Jews, they were also from Yemen, Syria and Iran. They came for trade and commerce, as well as to escape religious persecution. Initially most of them settled in Surat on the Gujarat coast, but later moved to MUMBAI (Bombay) and Kolkata (Calcutta). Some of them were extremely rich, and the most well-known among them were the Sassoon family of Mumbai and the Ezras of Kolkata, who not only had business empires, but built hospitals, schools, libraries and SYNAGOGUES in India. Initially most of these were reserved for their own community, not even other Jews being allowed to enter. The Baghdadi Jews at first spoke Arabic, but later adopted English. From the late nineteenth century, many of them began to migrate to England, while others became more Indianized. In the 1940s they numbered about 7000, but now there are less than fifty in India.

Bahadurgarh Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Saifabad, 6 km from Patiala in Punjab. It was built by Maharaja Karan Singh to commemorate the visit of the ninth guru, TEGH BAHADUR, to his friend Nawab Saif Khan. The interior of the gurdwara is decorated with mirror-work, murals and paintings. Thousands of pilgrims visit the gurdwara on BAISAKHI day, when a big festival takes place.

Bahai A religion founded in the mid-nineteenth century by Mirza Husain Ali, who came to be known as BAHAULLAH. Originally an offshoot of Islam, the Bahai religion is gradually gaining ground and spreading through the world. According to official Bahai estimates, there are about five million Bahais in the world, of which over two million are in India.

Bahaullah’s followers believe he is a manifestation of the divine and the most recent prophet or messenger of God. His son ABDUL BAHA, followed by SHOGHI EFFENDI, further established and spread the faith.

The Bahai religion believes that there is one God, the creator of the universe. He sends his messengers to guide human beings to develop their spiritual and moral qualities which form their essence. These divine messengers, including Abraham, Moses, ZARATHUSHTRA, BUDDHA, KRISHNA, JESUS, MUHAMMAD, and the BAB, have provided the world with a progressive series of revelations. The final message of God’s will for humanity was revealed by Bahaullah. Gradually, traditional barriers of race, caste and creed are breaking down, and the world is ready for something new to take its place. Bahaullah’s special message is that the time has come to unify all people of the world and one of the main purposes of the Bahai faith is to enable world unity and peace.

According to the Bahai religion, all people have the free will to choose the right path. There is no force of evil in the world, but not choosing rightly leads to imperfection, which is seen as evil. Bahais believe that true religion is in harmony with reason and science, and that each person has a responsibility to discover the truth.

Apart from world unity, the main goals of the religion include: the abandonment of all forms of prejudice; equality of women; recognition of unity and relativity of religious truth; elimination of extremes of poverty and wealth; universal education; establishment of a global commonwealth of nations.

The Bahai religion has spread to 235 countries and territories across the world, and its adherents come from over 2100 different ethnic groups. It accepts the truth of all religions, and thus explains its beliefs in the context of the beliefs and ideas of each religion.

Bahai administration The BAHAI religion has a special system of administration to co-ordinate its affairs. BAHAULLAH envisaged an administrative order to take care of the Bahai community and expressed his ideas in his Book of Laws. His son and successor, ABDUL BAHA, further elaborated on this and appointed SHOGHI EFFENDI as the Guardian of the Faith. He also spoke about the need for an elected legislative assembly of which the Guardian would be the head. Shoghi Effendi further discussed the setting up of this assembly. He said, ‘Acting in conjunction with each other these two inseparable institutions administer [the Bahai Faith’s] affairs, coordinate its activities, promote its interests, execute its laws and defend its subsidiary institutions.’ After Shoghi Effendi’s death in 1957, no Guardian was appointed, but Effendi’s writings continue to serve as a Guardian or reference point for matters concerning the community. The Universal House of Justice, an elected body set up in 1963, guides the activities of the global community, supervises Spiritual Assemblies, which function at the national and local levels, and legislates on those matters not dealt with in the Bahai sacred texts. Nine members from the worldwide Bahai community are elected to this body every five years.

Bahais in India BAHAIS have been present in India from the time the religion was founded. Five stages of development can be traced: (1) The pre-Bahai or Babi stage, when there were some followers of the BAB in India. In addition, the Afnan clan, relatives of the Bab, were settled in MUMBAI. (2) The initial stages of the Bahai community between 1872 and 1910. At this time, some members of the Afnans in Mumbai who had adopted the Bahai religion, asked BAHAULLAH to send a teacher to India. He sent Sulayman Khan Tunukabani, better known as Jamal Effendi, who stayed in India till 1878. During this time he conveyed the principles of the new religion, mainly through personal visits to high officials and princes, and before his departure delegated some converts to continue his work. In this period, a number of Indian Zoroastrians (PARSIS) became Bahais after a few of the community who had visited Iran came in contact with the new religion there. Leaders of the Bahai community also discussed their principles with the members of the THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY and the BRAHMO SAMAJ. (3) Between 1910 and 1921 there was an attempt to unify various Bahai groups in India, and it was decided to spread the religion through a national teaching programme. The first All-India Bahai Convention was held in Mumbai in 1921. (4) The next period, between 1921 and 1957, was that of the guardianship of SHOGHI EFFENDi, and saw many changes in the organization of the Bahai community. In 1923 the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahais of India and Burma was set up. Local spiritual assemblies were established and new teaching plans were adopted. In 1953 an international Bahai convention was held in New Delhi, and a Ten-Year Crusade to spread the teachings was started. (5) Mass teaching, however, only took off after 1957. Within much of rural India, Bahais distanced themselves from their Islamic roots and translated Bahai teachings into local languages. Regional spiritual councils were set up in all states. Bahaullah was called Bhagavan Baha, and equated with KALKI, the tenth incarnation of the Hindu god VISHNU. Rural idioms were used, poems in the BHAKTI tradition were sung in villages, and thousands were persuaded to declare their faith in Bhagavan and his teachings. Doing this was a simple procedure of signing or putting a thumb print on an enrolment card. Converts were not required to give up their original faith or practices, but only to accept Bahaullah and his message of universality and equality.

Thus there is a wide discrepancy between census figures and Bahai claims. According to the 1991 census, Bahais numbered 5575, while Bahai leaders proclaim a figure of more than 2 million. Independent researchers have put the number of those who understand and follow Bahai teachings in India at anywhere between 1,00,000 and 2 million. Conversion is mainly of scheduled castes and tribes, and has not led to any controversies or ill-feeling, as the separateness of the religion is not emphasized.

The Bahais have over 900 local councils in India, and run classes on the religion for adults and children. They have also opened schools and other institutions for social reform.

Bahai Lotus Temple A BAHAI temple located in New Delhi, which is one of the seven main Bahai centres of worship in the world. The temple, opened in December 1986, is constructed in the shape of a lotus, with three layers of petals, made of reinforced concrete, set in white marble panels. The temple has nine arches and entrances, and nine reflecting pools. The central hall is covered with a dome. The unfolding lotus symbolizes peace and purity, while the nine entrances represent the nine great religions of the world. Nine, the number of perfection, is considered sacred by Bahais, and the nine-pointed star is one of their symbols. According to the Bahais, the Bahai is the ninth religion, and the religion of the Bab is the eighth. The others are Hindusm, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the religion of the Sabaeans, to which the Bahai believe the Biblical Abraham belonged. Fariborz Sahba, the architect of the temples, was originally from Iran, and is also a devout Bahai. The temple is a centre of pilgrimage for Bahais from all over the world.

Bahauddin Zakariyya, Shaikh A SUFI saint who is considered the founder of the SUHRAWARDI order in India. Born near Multan (present Pakistan) in 1182 or 1183, he was initiated into the Suhrawardi order at Baghdad, when he was proceeding on a pilgrimage to Mecca. Shaikh Shihabuddin, the founder of the Suhrawardis, made him his khalifa or deputy at Multan. Returning to Multan, Bahauddin set up a large KHANQAH (monastery) and was renowned not only in neighbouring towns but also in Iraq and Iran. He invited Iltutmish, sultan of DELHI, to invade Multan, and Iltutmish established his rule there in 1228. He then appointed Bahauddin, ‘Shaikh-ul Islam’, or ‘leader of the Muslim community’. Though not a political post, this enhanced his standing as a religious leader.

Bahauddin died in 1262.

Bahaullah The founder of the BAHAI religion, whose original name was Mirza Husain Ali. Born in 1817 in Tehran, Iran, he was the son of a minister in the government, Mirza Buzurq-i-Nuri. He had a princely education, learning swordsmanship and horse-riding, as well as calligraphy and classical poetry. Refusing a government post, he instead devoted himself to philanthropic activities. In 1935 he married Asiyih Khanum and had three children, the eldest of whom, born in 1844, was later known as ABDUL BAHA. The same year Mirza Husain became a disciple of the BAB, and soon became a leader of the Babi movement. After the Bab’s execution, Mirza Husain was arrested and placed in prison. He was kept for some months in a black-pit dungeon, and during this time, in 1852, had a divine revelation. He was soon released from prison, but was exiled and spent a short while in Baghdad. He again went to Baghdad which was under the Ottomans, in 1856, but was asked to leave. Before leaving, he and his companions spent twelve days in a garden on the banks of the Tigris river, from 21 April to 2 May 1863. This was later known as the Garden of RIDVAN (paradise). Like John the Baptist, the Bab had predicted that one would come who was greater than him and would reveal God’s truth. He would be named Bahaullah. Mirza Husain realized he was this person, and now formally took this name and revealed this truth to his followers. He continued to be persecuted by the Turkish government and was finally exiled to Acre, a penal city in Ottoman Palestine. He arrived there along with his family in August 1868 and spent the rest of his life there. Gradually gaining the respect of the officials and community at Acre, he wrote his most important work at this time, the Kitab-i-Aqdas (Most Holy Book).

Altogether he wrote over a hundred works on religious and mystical themes. Bahaullah’s basic message, in his own words, was ‘The earth is but one country and mankind its citizens’. However, their well-being could not be established until all were united. Bahais thus work for world unity in various ways.

Before his death in 1891, Bahaullah appointed his son, Abdul Baha, as his successor.

Bahinabai A Maratha BHAKTI saint. Born in 1629, Bahinabai, an orthodox BRAHMANA, was already married when she became a devotee of the saint TUKARAM. Her husband initially was furious with her, as Tukaram was of a low caste and did not have traditional spiritual learning, but later he accepted her devotion and accompanied her to meet Tukaram. Bahinabai kept a journal and wrote devotional verses, which have been translated into English. She died in 1700.

Bahman An AMESHA SPENTA, a personified power of AHURA MAZDA, in Zoroastrianism. Bahman is the later form of VOHU MANA.

Bahubali A Jain saint, the son of the first TIRTHANKARA, Adinatha or RISHABHA. His name means ‘strong of arm’. According to tradition, Rishabha had one hundred sons, among whom was BHARATA, who ruled at AYODHYA and wanted to extend his sovereignty over his brothers. Bahubali, one of the brothers who ruled at Takshashila, was advised to fight a dharmayuddha (righteous war) against his brother. The war was fought and Bahubali won, but seeing the futility of a worldly life, he handed the kingdom over to Bharata. Then he stood meditating for one year in the pratimayoga posture, that is, like a statue. He was unattached to the world and all its pleasures, but one thought that still disturbed him was that he was standing on land that belonged to his brother. Bharata came to know of this, and gave the kingdom back to him. Though Bahubali did not accept it, this gesture brought him enlightenment.

This story is narrated in an inscription dated to 1180 at the site of the colossal image of Bahubali, also known as GOMMATESHVARA, located at SHRAVANA BELAGOLA in Karnataka. It also occurs in Jain texts, including the ADI PURANA of the Jain poet PAMPA. Bahubali is worshipped in south India but is not popular in the north. The largest image of Bahubali is at Shravana Belagola, and the second largest at Karkala, while others are at MUDABADRI, Yenur and other sites, most of which are in Karnataka.

Baiga religion Baigas, a tribal group of central India, have their own myths and religious practices. Traditionally, Baigas lived in forests and collected forest produce, but now they have varied occupations. They also call themselves Narotrias, Barotrias, Binjhwars and Bhumias.

Accoding to their myths, they are descended from Naga (or sometimes Nanga) Baiga and Naga Baigin, a man and a woman created by Bhagavan or god. They lived in the middle world, where there was water and rock, but no soil. Finally they succeeded in bringing a tiny bit of Dhartia Mata, or fertile soil, from the world below. Naga Baiga and Baigin had two sons and two daughters. They were married to each other and from the elder the Baigas were descended, and from the younger, the Gonds, a related tribal group. Anna Dai is another deity, representing food, or the essence of seeds, while Thakur Deva is a Kshetrapala, or guardian of the fields. These deities are among those worshipped by them, along with forest spirits and some Hindu deities.

Baijnath Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA in his form as Vaidyanatha, located at Baijnath in Himachal Pradesh. First built in the thirteenth century, this stone temple has later structures as well. At the doorway are GANGA and YAMUNA images. The inner shrine contains a LINGA. Adjoining it is a MANDAPA with sculptures on the walls, which include a HARIHARA panel and NATARAJA carved on a column. The pyramidal roof was reconstructed in the eighteenth or early nineteenth century by the Katoch rajas of the region.

Baisakhi A harvest festival now celebrated on 13 April every year. It is most popular in the Punjab, where farmers rejoice over the harvest, dress in traditional costumes, sing songs and perform bhangra dances. Fairs or melas, selling various items, are organized. The day is also celebrated in remembrance of the creation of the KHALSA in 1699 by the Sikh guru GOBIND SINGH.

Baitul-Hikmah An Arabic term meaning ‘the house of wisdom’. The Abbasid Caliph Al-Mamun (813–33), set up an institution of this name at Baghdad, where Greek philosophical and scientific literature was translated into Arabic. This had an impact on Islamic thought and on the work of Islamic philosophers, which later influenced Islamic scholars in India.

In SUFI sects, the term represents the heart of a sincere seeker of God. A similar term is baitul-quds, the ‘house of holiness’, when the heart of the true seeker is absorbed in meditation.

Bajreshvari Temple A temple dedicated to the Hindu goddess Bajreshvari, located at Kangra in Himachal. Bajreshvari is a SHAKTA PITHA, one of the sites associated with SATI, the consort of SHIVA. According to legend, at the time of a drought some of the people here prayed to the goddess DURGA, who showed them a place where the breasts of Sati had fallen, and asked for a temple to be built there. Local accounts state that the temple was plundered by the invader Mahmud of Ghazni in 1009, and again by Firuz Shah Tughlaq, sultan of DELHI in the fourteenth century, but was restored by the Mughal emperor AKBAR in the sixteenth century. Thousands visit the temple, particularly at the time of the NAVRATRAS. The Guptganga ghat, about a kilometre away, is also a place of pilgrimage.

Bakr-Id A Muslim festival, also known as Id-ul-Zuha, or Id-ul-Azha which occurs on the tenth day of the month of Zul-hijja, the twelfth month according to the Islamic lunar calendar. This festival is related to the story of Ibrahim (Abraham), which also occurs in the Bible. Asked by God to sacrifice that which was dearest to him, Ibrahim decided to sacrifice his son Ismail (Ishmael), but God replaced the boy with a ram. (In the Bible it is Abraham’s other son Isaac, who is offered for sacrifice.) To commemorate this event, goats or sheep are sacrificed on this day. The sacrifice is done after praying and while uttering the name of ALLAH. One-third of the meat of the animal is to be given to beggars or to the poor, while the rest can be consumed by the family of the sacrificer. This is one of the most important Muslim festivals.

Bala According to tradition, one of the two main companions of Guru NANAK, the founder of Sikhism, the other being MARDANA. The Bhai Bala JANAMSAKHI is attributed to him, though its real author is unknown. A few other accounts mention Bala, whereas in some sources Mardana is Guru Nanak’s only companion. Bala was said to be a Hindu, while Mardana was a Muslim. Some scholars doubt the existence of Bala, but he is popular in Sikh tradition.

Bala Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in DELHI, constructed at a spot where the eighth guru, HAR KRISHAN, was cremated. The river YAMUNA once flowed nearby. A gurdwara was constructed here soon after, and a new building was made in 1957–58. Both the old and new buildings exist side by side. The two wives of Guru GOBIND SINGH, Mata Sundri and Mata Sahib Kaur, were also cremated here. Mata Sahib Kaur’s SAMADHI is a small marble structure in the main hall, whereas Mata Sundri’s is separate. This is a popular place of pilgrimage, visited by hundreds every day.

Balaji A Hindu god particularly worshipped in south India. Balaji is a popular name of VENKATESHVARA, a form of VISHNU. The most important Balaji or VENKATESHVARA TEMPLE is at TIRUPATI in Andhra Pradesh, but there are several others all over India and abroad.

Balarama A Hindu deity who is the elder brother of the god KRISHNA and an incarnation of VISHNU. He is alternatively said to have been an incarnation of ANANTA Naga, and a deity associated with agriculture. As Krishna’s brother, he was the seventh son of DEVAKI and VASUDEVA, the first six having been killed by King Kamsa because of a prophecy that Kamsa would be killed by the son of Vasudeva. At the time of his birth, Devaki and Vasudeva were in Kamsa’s prison. To save Balarama after he was conceived, he was placed by divine intervention in the womb of Rohini, another wife of Vasudeva, and thus was born outside prison. He was named Sankarshana or Balarama and was fair, whereas Krishna was dark. Krishna was born later. Balarama accompanied Krishna on many of his adventures. He differed at times with Krishna and tried to bring about a truce between the KAURAVAS and PANDAVAS at the time of the MAHABHARATA war. Balarama died while in meditation at DVARAKA.

The BRIHAT SAMHITA, an early text, describes how he should be depicted. He holds a plough and stands under a canopy of snakes, sometimes in an inebriated state. He is white like a conch-shell, moon, or white lotus. At one time an important deity, images of him date back to the second century BCE. In later texts, in the list of the ten main incarnations of Vishnu, he is often replaced by the BUDDHA.

Balarama is also known as Halayudha (bearing a plough), and Madhupriya (lover of wine).

Bali (1) A DAITYA, who was the grandson of PRAHLADA, and a good ruler, but was defeated by the Hindu god VISHNU. He was also known as MAHABALI.

(2) An offering or sacrifice made to deities, spirits, animals or even objects. This is common in Hinduism and in tribal religions. It also occurs in Buddhism.

Banarsidasa A DIGAMBARA Jain leader who lived from 1586 to 1643. He was among those who initiated a reform in the community, leading to the founding of the TERAPANTHA sect in north India.

Banda Bahadur Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in DELHI, at the spot where the Sikh leader BANDA SINGH BAHADUR was martyred. It is near the DARGAH of the SUFI saint Khwaja QUTBUDDIN BAKHTIYAR KAKI in Mehrauli. Initially a stone pillar marked the site.

Banda Singh Bahadur A Sikh leader who laid the foundations for a Sikh state, but was martyred in 1716. Born in 1670 at Rajouri in Jammu, he was a Rajput Hindu, and his original name was Lachhman. He was always spiritually inclined, and became a VAISHNAVA ascetic, taking the name Madho Das. He spent many years in Hindu MATHAS and ASHRAMS in central India, finally establishing an ashram of his own at Nanded in present-day Maharashtra. After living there for fifteen years he met Guru GOBIND SINGH, and became a Sikh. His new name was Gurbaksh Singh, but he was popularly known as ‘Banda’ or ‘slave’ of the guru, whom he served faithfully. When the guru was in the Deccan, he sent Banda to the Punjab to defend the KHALSA and avenge the death of his sons. Soon after this, Guru Gobind Singh was killed in 1708 and Banda became the political leader of the Sikhs. In the Punjab he called on all Sikhs to avenge the murder of the guru’s family. He attacked Samana in 1709 and captured Sirhind in 1710. He killed Wazir Khan, the governor of Sirhind, who was responsible for the death of Gobind Singh’s two sons, and continued conquering territory in Punjab and up to Saharanpur, issuing coins in the name of Guru NANAK and Guru Gobind Singh. He also converted a number of Muslims to Sikhism, while others joined his army and were free to follow their own faith. In 1713, Farrukhsiyar succeeded Bahadur Shah I as the Mughal emperor, and was determined to destroy Sikh power. His army besieged Banda at a fort in Gurdaspur, and after eight months Banda surrendered and was brought to DELHI. In 1716 he was tortured and killed along with his four-year-old son and his followers. Banda Bahadur is revered as one of the great leaders and martyrs of Sikhism. The renowned mystic Rabindranath TAGORE composed a poem on him entitled Banda Bir.

Bandichhor Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh, within the fort where the sixth guru, HARGOBIND, was once imprisoned.

The Mughal emperor Jahangir, under whom Hargobind’s father Guru ARJAN DEV had been killed, was for some time favourably inclined towards Hargobind. Even so, he was persuaded to imprison Hargobind for the non-payment of a fine imposed on his father. Hargobind was kept in Gwalior fort for a period of forty days, after which he was released along with other political prisoners. Thus he was known as ‘Bandi-Chhor’ or ‘the liberator’, and a gurdwara of the same name was later built at the site.

Bangla Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at DELHI, in the former residence of Raja Jai Singh of Amber (Jaipur) and his son Raja Ram Singh, who were officials of the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB. Here the eighth guru HAR KRISHAN stayed when he came to meet the emperor. It was a time of smallpox and cholera epidemics, and after helping countless people Har Krishan died and the meeting did not take place. Water from the well in the compound is said to have healing powers, and people still take small amounts of this home to cure their ailments. A large tank has been constructed nearby. In the basement is a gallery which has paintings depicting events from Sikh history and is named after Sardar BHAGEL SINGH, a Sikh general.

bani A term for Sikh devotional hymns in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB. Hymns composed by revered saints who were not gurus were known as bhagat bani.

Baoli Sahib, Goindwal A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine constructed at Goindwal, 30 km from AMRITSAR in Punjab, near the baoli or step-well made by the third guru, AMAR DAS. Frescoes on the walls depict scenes from Sikh history. The Mughal emperor AKBAR is said to have eaten at the LANGAR or free community meal served here.

baptism A ritual which marks initiation into Christianity and dates back to ancient days. It consists of sprinkling or pouring sacred water on the head, signifying the cleansing of sins and the beginning of a new life with God. Immersion or sprinkling with water, was practised in early Judaism for purificatory ceremonies or the initiation of converts. John, commonly known as John the Baptist, the son of Zachariah and Elizabeth, baptized Jews in the river Jordan, and is even said to have baptized Jesus. In the Gospel of Mathew, Jesus advocates baptism, along with an invocation of the TRINITY, and the ritual gradually become an essential part of Christianity. Baptism is one of the seven SACRAMENTS for ROMAN CATHOLICS, who are baptized soon after birth. Most Protestant denominations also practise baptism, though there are variations in the ritual, including baptism by full immersion and adult baptism. Converts to the religion are also baptized.

Baptist Church A Christian denomination, introduced in India in the late eighteenth century by William CAREY, an English missionary. The Baptist Church was officially founded in England in the early 1600s, but Baptist groups existed earlier in Europe and Scotland. They believed in the sole authority of the BIBLE, salvation by grace, and baptism only for believers. As they did not follow the practice of infant baptism, they were initially called Anabaptists. BAPTISM takes place only at the time of joining the Church, when the candidate is convinced of its principles, and consists of complete immersion in water.

Carey and his associates set up Baptist congregations in Bengal, and later the Baptist Church was introduced into other parts of India, particularly Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The Serampore College, a theological college started by Carey, is still functioning. Each local Baptist Church has autonomy and there is no hierarchical authority, but representatives of the churches meet to coordinate their work. There are several councils and groups of Baptist churches. These include: the Council of Baptist Churches of North-East India, the Bengal-Orissa-Bihar Baptist Convention, the Samavesam Telugu Baptist Churches, as well as some others. A group of Baptist Churches have also joined the CHURCH OF NORTH INDIA.

Bar Mitzvah A Jewish term which means ‘son of the commandments’, and refers to a boy who has reached the age of thirteen, by which time he is considered responsible enough to know and observe the commandments. A ceremony known as Bar Mitzvah takes place to commemorate this.

For a girl the term is Bat Mitzvah or ‘daughter of the commandments’ which takes place at the age of twelve. Traditionally there was no formal ceremony for the Bat Mitzvah, but now this has been introduced by several Jewish groups.

Bara Gumbad Mosque A mosque located near the Lodi tombs in DELHI, constructed in 1494 by Mughla-Buwa Makhduma-i-Jahan, the widow of Sultan Bahlul Lodi, who ruled at Delhi from 1451 to 1489. It consists of a single hall, and has five bays, the three central ones with hemispherical domed roofs. The mosque has elaborate cut-plaster decoration and gets its name from a domed building named Bara Gumbad, located nearby.

Bara Sona Mosque A mosque located at Gaur in Bengal. It was constructed in 1526 by Sultan Nusrat Shah, who ruled Bengal from 1519 to 1532. It is a large structure, approximately 51 m by 23 m, and is built of brick, with stone facings. The prayer hall is rectangular and has four octagonal towers. The façade has eleven arched entrances on the east, and the interior has three bays, once covered by forty-four domes. The domes were once gilded hence the name sona (gold). The mosque does not have much decoration but is impressive because of its size.

Bara Wafat A Muslim festival, also known as ID-I-MILAD. It is the twelfth (barah) day of the Islamic month of Rabi-ul-Awwal, when the Prophet MUHAMMAD was born.

Barabar caves Rock-cut caves in the Barabar hills in Bihar, excavated in the third century BCE, at the time of ASHOKA, the Mauryan emperor. According to an inscription here, they were dedicated by the emperor for the use of AJIVIKA monks. The caves are cut parallel to the rock face, and the inner surface has a fine, mirror-like polish. Each cave has two small chambers, some with vaulted roofs and sloping sides, recreating a thatched-hut dwelling. The largest is the Lomas Rishi cave, with an elaborately carved doorway, a MANDAPA, and an oval inner chamber. The Sudama cave has a circular vaulted chamber and a rectangular mandapa. Other caves made for Ajivikas by Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha are at the nearby Nagarjuni and Sitamarhi hills.

Barchha Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Dhanpur in Assam. Guru NANAK is said to have come here and converted Queen Nur Shah to Sikhism. She was earlier a worshipper of the Hindu goddess KAMAKSHI and believed to be proficient in black magic. She asked Nanak to leave her something to remember him by, and he left his barchha or lance here. He marked a spot with it, where a pond was dug according to his instructions. A gurdwara was later built nearby.

Bardo Thodol A Buddhist text known in English as the Tibetan Book of the Dead. It deals with the intermediate states (Bardo) experienced between death and rebirth. The term Bardo is mentioned in the ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA and in VAJRAYANA texts, particularly in the NYINGMA school of Tibetan Buddhism. The Bardo Thodol, describes the state of Bardo in detail. The Bardo journey is divided into three stages. In the first stage, that of Chikhai Bardo, the primary clear light can be seen if concentration is maintained. This would enable one to achieve Buddhahood immediately. In case the clear light cannot be seen, the person should meditate on a compassionate BUDDHA in order to pass on to the second stage. In the second stage of Chonyid Bardo, illusions caused by one’s own KARMA appear; they may be beautiful or frightening. It is important to stay centred and focus on the pure lights and deities that appear. Even at this time it is possible to attain enlightenment, but if not, the third stage of Sidpa Bardo is entered. Terrifying illusions may arise again, but it is possible to meditate on the true reality and reach Buddhahood. If not, after a period of time, rebirth takes place.

The text is attributed to PADMASAMBHAVA, who lived in the eighth century, though it is probably later.

Barelvi An Islamic sect founded by Maulana Ahmad Riza Khan (1856–1921) in the nineteenth century. He preached the revival of popular Islam and the worship of PIRS or saints. He exalted the Prophet MUHAMMAD and spoke of his light, which emanated from the light of ALLAH, and existed before creation. Thus Muhammad, through his light, was present everywhere. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there was considerable hostility between the Barelvis and followers of the DEOBAND SCHOOL, who opposed the worship of pirs, and Muslims in India were divided into two camps. Barelvis also condemned the WAHHABIS. The Barelvi sect still exists in India and in 2005 the Barelvis formed a separate All India Personal Law Board. Barelvi groups have also established themselves in Britain and other countries.

Bari Sangat Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Kolkata in West Bengal. Guru NANAK is said to have stayed at this location, which was known as Bari Sangat, and the gurdwara was built in his memory. Guru TEGH BAHADUR too paid a visit here.

Basant Panchami A festival that takes place in the traditional month of Magha (January-February) on the fifth day (panchami) of Shukla Paksha or the fortnight of the waxing moon. It usually occurs sometime in February. Basant Panchami marks the beginning of spring, and is celebrated by all communities. Sweet rice is cooked, kites are flown, and people dress in yellow, the symbolic colour of spring.

The Hindu goddess SARASVATI, patron of music and learning, is specially worshipped on this day. Books, pens, paint brushes and musical instruments are revered and offered to the deity. Musical functions are held and songs associated with spring are sung.

Basavanna The twelfth century founder of a SHAIVITE sect, which was later known as the LINGAYAT or Virashaiva.

There are several contradictory accounts of Basavanna’s life, but he was probably born in 1106 at village Manigavalli in present Karnataka. From a young age he was devoted to the god SHIVA, and at the age of sixteen he decided to dedicate his life to the deity. Though a BRAHMANA, he was opposed to the caste system and to empty rituals. He removed his sacred thread, left his home and went to Kappadisangama, a place where three rivers meet. There he had an experience of Shiva, and worshipped Shiva as Kudalasangamadeva, lord of the meeting rivers. His symbol of worship was the LINGA, and through divine experiences, Shiva became a part of him. In a dream the Lord asked him to go to the court of Bijjala, the king of the Kalachuri dynasty at Kalyana. Basava did so and became Bijjala’s prime minister.

Meanwhile he continued to worship Shiva and started a new sect. The linga was its symbol, it was open to all castes, and it advocated the equality of all. Basava also promoted social reforms and was against sacrifices, ceremonies and child marriages, and in favour of widow remarriage and inter-caste marriage. As he gained more followers, traditional society reacted and turned against him. King Bijjala, too, reacted with repression against his reforms. Extremists among Basava’s followers advocated changing the government and society by violent means. Basava was against this, but unable to persuade them to follow non-violence, he returned to Kappadisangama, where he died in 1166 or 1168. Some of his extreme followers assassinated King Bijjala, and for some time Lingayats were persecuted and scattered.

Basavanna’s sayings and verses, known as vachanas, are collected in the Vachana Shastra. One of his famous vachanas states:

The rich will make temples for Shiva

What shall I, a poor man, do?

My legs are pillars, the body the shrine

The head a cupola of gold.

In another he says to his Lord:

Make of my body the beam of a lute

of my head the sounding gourd

of my nerves the strings

of my fingers the plucking rods. (Trans. A.K. Ramanujan)

Basgo The site of a Buddhist monastery with shrines dating from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, located in LADAKH, in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Basgo village is on a spur of rock overlooking the river Indus, and a royal palace was once also located here. The MAITREYA Temple of the sixteenth century was constructed by a king of the Namgyal dynasty. It has a large image of the Bodhisattva Maitreya, as well as paintings of scenes from BUDDHA’s life, and other BUDDHAS and BODHISATTVAS. The Serzang Temple of the seventeenth century has a copy of the Buddhist Canon written in gold, silver and copper letters, which gives it its name (serzang = gold and copper). The walls have murals with figures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. There are other small shrines and CHORTENS, while outside the village are MANI stones carved with auspicious symbols.

Bauls Mystics and singers who practise various SADHANAS to reach god, and wander through Bengal singing of the bliss of union with god. The origin of the Bauls is not clear. Some believe they were a branch of the followers of CHAITANYA, the Vaishnava BHAKTI saint, whereas others believe they were similar to the NATHA YOGIS or the SUFIS. Bauls can be either Hindu on Muslim. The word ‘baul’ means ‘mad’ or ‘crazy’, as lost in the ecstacy of divine union, they behaved in unconventional ways. Bauls probably existed at least as far back as the fifteenth century, but their songs were first written down by scholars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The composers of most songs are unknown.

Extracts from two Baul songs are given below:

Scanning the cosmos

you waste your hours:

he is present

in this little vessel.

Another song states:

My soul cries out,

snared by the beauty

of the formless one.

As I cry by myself,

night and day,

beauty amassed before my eyes

surpasses numberless moons and suns.

If I look at the clouds in the sky,

I see his beauty afloat;

And I see him walk on the stars blazing my heart.

(Trans. Deben Bhattacharya, The Mirror of the Sky: Songs of the Bauls of Bengal)

Bedsa The site of rock-cut Buddhist CHAITYAS and VIHARAS, dating back to the first century BCE, located along the Western Ghats in Pune District of Maharashtra, not far from the sites of similar caves at BHAJA and KARLE. Among the caves is an apsidal-ended chaitya hall. The front verandah has four large columns, with inverted bell-capitals, surmounted by pairs of animals with riders. Pierced stone windows are on both sides of the main doorway, and the side walls have reliefs with arched windows and railings. Inside, there is a hemispherical STUPA at one end. The vault over the central hall once had timber ribs, which no longer exist.

Begumpuri Masjid A mosque located at Begumpur village in DELHI. It was constructed in the fourteenth century by Khan-i-Jahan, the prime minister of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq, who at that time ruled much of northern India.

Behram A minor Zoroastrian deity or YAZATA. Behram is the later Pahlavi form of VERETHRAGNA, and is the god of victory. According to the KISSAH-I-SANJAN, while travelling by ship from Diu to SANJAN, the Zoroastrians prayed to Behram to save them from a storm and promised to erect an ATASH BEHRAM (fire of victory) if they were saved. The DABISTAN, a seventeenth-century text, equates Behram with the Angel Gabriel.

Belur A town in Karnataka where there are several temples constructed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by the Hoysala dynasty. Among them is the CHENNAKESHAVA TEMPLE.

Belur Matha The main centre of the RAMAKRISHNA MISSION, located at Belur near Kolkata. Established in 1899 by Swami VIVEKANANDA, it supervises the activities of the Mission and the training of the monks of the order. A modern temple was built here in 1938 in a syncretic style, incorporating aspects of all religions. There are also other small shrines and residential areas for the monks, while across the river Hughli is the DAKSHINESHVARA TEMPLE, where RAMAKRISHNA attained a vision of the divine.

Bene Israel A community of Jews who, according to tradition, came to India in ancient days. Some scholars believe they were one of the ten lost tribes of Israel, who are said to have left Israel in 721 BCE when the Assyrians conquered their land, and arrived in India before the destruction of the second temple. (See Israel, lost tribes of). According to other theories they did not reach India till the seventh century while some doubt their Israeli origin altogether. Legends state that they arrived on the Konkan coast in western India because of a shipwreck. Out of those in the ship, seven couples survived and swam towards land to the village of Navgaon. They settled here and through their descendants a community of Jews was formed. They called themselves Bene Israel, which in Hebrew means ‘Children of Israel’.

Though there were already Jews in south India, they did not come in contact with them. Instead, they learnt Marathi and adopted local customs while retaining some Jewish practices. They lived on the western coast, earning their living by extracting oil and were absorbed into the caste structure as telis (oil-pressers). They remained an isolated Jewish community till the eighteenth century, when Ezekiel David Rahabi, a Jew from the community at Kochi (Cochin), discovered them. Shocked by the degree to which they had absorbed local customs, Rahabi organized their re-education, sent them teachers to explain the finer points of Jewish customs, and sought to revive their knowledge of Judaism, emphasizing the use of Hebrew and Jewish prayers. By the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, a group of the Bene Israel moved to MUMBAI (Bombay), Pune and other cities, practised diverse occupations and established the first SYNAGOGUE there in 1796. However, they were still not accepted by other Jewish groups, particularly those who had come from Baghdad in the early nineteenth century and were known as BAGHDADI JEWS. Even within the Bene Israel, there were two main groups: the Gora (white) and the Kala (black), the first said to be the pure descendants of the original migrants, and the second the products of inter-marriage with locals. The three ‘castes’ of Gora, Kala and Baghdadi Jews rarely mixed or intermarried.

The Bene Israel follow the Jewish custom of observing the SABBATH on Saturdays, the practice of circumcision, and dietary laws, though these are less strict than those of traditional Jews. Among their unique customs is that they do not eat beef, like their Hindu neighbours. They worship the Biblical Prophet Elijah in two ceremonies. In the Malida ceremony, conducted at home, songs are sung praising God and Elijah, while the men sit around a plate of roasted rice, fruit, flowers and spices. They give thanks to Elijah, who is said to have revived them while they lay unconscious on the beach after the shipwreck. On another occasion, Elijah visited them and left a footprint at Khandala near Alibag in Maharashtra, and this spot was regularly worshipped. A very similar legend of a shipwreck is found among CHITPAVAN BRAHMANAS, indicating a possible connection between the two communities.

By the twentieth century the Bene Israel formed a community of about twenty or thirty thousand, but today most of the community have migrated to Israel, though about four thousand still live in Maharashtra, particularly in Mumbai and the suburb of Thane. In Israel they were initially discriminated against, and for many years were not allowed to marry those from other Jewish groups. It was only in 1964 that they were given equal status with other Jews.

Besant, Annie An Irish-English woman who came to India in 1893 and was a prominent member of the THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA.

Born in 1847 in London as Annie Wood, she was three-quarters Irish. She married Frank Besant, a minister of the church, and had two children, but left the marriage as her husband could not tolerate her independent views and championing of women’s rights. She went through various phases, as a socialist, free-thinker and atheist, and was closely associated with prominent personalities, such as Charles Bradlaugh and Bernard Shaw.

All this changed in 1889, when she first met Madame BLAVATSKY, one of the founders of the Theosophical Society, and came under her spell. Theosophy seemed to provide the answers she had searched for all her life. In India, initially she supervised the working of the Theosophical Society at Adyar in Chennai (Madras) and later at Varanasi, where she was in charge of its esoteric section. She spoke of the hierarchy of hidden masters, with SANAT KUMARA at the head, and other aspects of esoteric philosophy, and claimed to be in touch with masters in Tibet, who guided the destiny of India. She wrote and spoke on Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, and totally identified herself with India. Helped by Bhagavan Das, she published the Sanatana Dharma series of textbooks on Hinduism. She started a high school and college which developed into Hindu College, and later became Banares Hindu University. J. KRISHNAMURTI was chosen by her and by C.W. Leadbeater, another Theosophist, to be the new Messiah, and though he rejected this destiny, he later became a prominent philosopher.

After some time, according to her, the rishi AGASTYA directed her (from the astral world in which he lived) to focus on helping India achieve independence from the British. Annie Besant started the Home Rule Movement in 1916 and was president of the Indian National Congress Session in 1917, after which her role in the freedom movement declined. She remained involved with the Theosophical Society until her death in 1933, and was its president from 1907.

Apart from books, articles and pamphlets on Theosophy and religion, Annie Besant wrote an autobiography as well as works on education.

Beschi, Constanzo An Italian Jesuit missionary who lived from 1680 to 1747. He came to India in 1707 and was one of the Christian swamis in the tradition of Roberto de NOBILI. He wrote hymns in Tamil praising MARY, mother of JESUS, and a long work Tembavani in honour of Joseph, husband of Mary. He also erected an Indian-style statue of Mary in a church at Konankuppam in Tamil Nadu, and converted a number of lower castes to Christianity.

Bhadrabahu I A Jain saint and leader who lived in the fourth century BCE and is said to have died 170 or 162 years after MAHAVIRA. According to tradition, he was the last person who knew the Puvvas (PURVAS), the earliest Jain texts, and all the twelve ANGAS. The SHVETAMBARAS state that he was the sixth Thera (teacher) after Mahavira, and attribute one of their most sacred texts, the KALPA SUTRA, to him, as well as some NIJUTTIS (Niryuktis) or commentaries. Sources of the DIGAMBARA sect state that at the time of the emperor CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA, Bhadrabahu predicted that a severe famine would take place in Ujjayini (according to later tradition in MAGADHA) for a period of twelve years. He, or a Jain known as Prabhachandra, therefore led a group of Jain monks to south India. The emperor, Chandragupta, is said to have gone along with them. Those who remained in the north modified some practices such as the rule of nudity, while those in the south continued with traditional practices. This was the beginning of the two sects that later arose, the Digambaras and Shvetambaras. This tradition is generally accepted, though according to some Shvetambara sources Bhadrabahu went to Nepal at the time of the famine, not to south India.

Bhadrabahu II A Jain saint and leader who is part of the DIGAMBARA tradition. According to their sources, the first BHADRABAHU died 162 years after MAHAVIRA, and the second 515 years later, i.e., in 12 BCE. He was the teacher of KUNDAKUNDA, the Jain scholar and philosopher revered by Digambaras, and the twenty-seventh ACHARYA in the Digambara list. Unlike the first Bhadrabahu, he was an Upangi, i.e. he knew only one ANGA.

Bhadrachalam Ramadas A seventeenth century devotee of the Hindu god RAMA, whose original name was Gopanna. He was an official of the last Qutb Shahi king, known as Taneshah (ruled 1672–87), of the state of Golkonda in the Deccan. In charge of Bhadrachalam district, he built a Rama temple with the revenue he collected, instead of giving it to the king, and was imprisoned for twelve years. During this time, he continuously composed and sang verses in praise of Rama. According to legend, Rama himself then appeared to Taneshah and repaid the money, after which Gopanna was released and reinstated.

Bhadrachalam Temple A temple of the Hindu god RAMA located at Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh, on the river Godavari. According to legend, Rama lived here himself for some time, and a small temple was constructed to mark the sanctity of the spot. The temple was reconstructed by Gopanna (BHADRACHALAM RAMADAS) and has images of Rama, LAKSHMANA and SITA. Because of the tradition of the divine appearance of Rama to Taneshah, the Qutb Shahi ruler, the temple received official patronage and grants, even under the succeeding Asaf Jahi dynasty. It is a major centre of pilgrimage today, particularly at the time of the RAMANAVAMI festival.

Bhaga A Hindu deity, one of the ADITYAS. The name means dispenser or giver and the god is considered the bestower of wealth and divine blessings. In the RIG VEDA, USHA or dawn is his sister. In the MAHABHARATA, Bhaga was a member of INDRA’s assembly. Baga is a deity in Zoroastrianism, and in INDO-EUROPEAN languages bogu is a term for god.

Bhagamandala A sacred site in Kodagu district in Karnataka, with several temples. At this point the Krishna river unites with its tributaries, the Kannike and Sujoythi. The Bhandeshvar Temple is also located here.

Bhagavad Gita ‘The Lord’s Song’ or ‘The Divine Song’, an early Sanskrit text, revered as one of the most sacred by Hindus. Though usually published as a separate text, it forms part of the Bhishma Parva of the MAHABHARATA. Its date is uncertain, but it probably acquired its present form between the second century BCE and the second century CE. It has eighteen chapters with 700 verses, though the number of verses differs in different recensions. The text deals with three main philosophical themes of KARMA Yoga, JNANA Yoga, and BHAKTI Yoga. Most of it is in the form of a dialogue between ARJUNA and KRISHNA, which takes place just before the great Mahabharata war begins.

On the battlefield, where the two armies of the KAURAVAS and PANDAVAS are arrayed against each other, Arjuna’s courage fails him as he thinks of fighting against his friends and kinsmen. Surely, he says, it would be better if he left the battlefield and became an ascetic? Krishna encourages him to throw off his weakness and fight, for that is the duty of a KSHATRIYA. In a much-quoted passage, he assures Arjuna that no one ever dies. The Spirit in every living being is immortal and beyond change. After death, the Spirit takes on a new body, just as a person changes his clothes.

Further chapters describe the various paths through which god, either as the formless One, or as Krishna, can be reached. The path of action (Karma Yoga) is described, with particular emphasis on nishkama karma, or work done without focusing on rewards gained through it. Another path is that of Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge, where union with god is achieved through true knowledge and understanding. A third way is that of bhakti or devotion. The Gita also explains the concepts of PURUSHA and PRAKRITI, which form part of the philosophical system of SAMKHYA, and the nature of the three GUNAS, or characteristics inherent in every person.

Bhagavan A generic name for god in Hinduism, particularly used for KRISHNA and VISHNU.

Bhagavata A Hindu sect that worshipped the god KRISHNA and later developed into VAISHNAVISM. Bhagavatas worshipped god or Bhagavata, also known as Vasudeva Krishna. The term Bhagavata seems to have developed from the concept of the Vedic deity BHAGA, and initially it may have been a monotheistic sect, independent of the Brahmanical pantheon. Krishna was probably identified with VISHNU and incorporated into Brahmanism around 300 BCE.

Buddhism and Jainism were at least partly a reaction against the sacrifices and rituals of the VEDAS. However, the early form of these religions, with their dry pragmatism and absence of deity-worship, did not appeal to everyone. In early Hinduism, new forms of deities developed, and the worship of one primary deity such as Vishnu arose.

Inscriptions recording this worship have been found in MATHURA, Rajasthan, central and south India. A notable inscription of the second century BCE occurs at the ancient site of VIDISHA in Madhya Pradesh. Here, Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of King Antialcidas, recorded the erection of a Garudadhvaja (a pillar surmounted by an image of GARUDA), in honour of the god Vasudeva, and called himself a Bhagavata. In the Narayaniya section of the MAHABHARATA, NARAYANA explains the worship of Vasudeva, the Supreme Soul, which is actually his own essence, and describes the PANCHARATRA philosophy. Perfection could be attained by love and devotion to the god Narayana, which became one of the names of VISHNU.

As the Bhagavata religion developed, it incorporated aspects of VEDANTA, SAMKHYA and YOGA philosophies, while the Pancharatras became a separate sect.

The BHAGAVAD GITA was the main text of the Bhagavatas, with its emphasis on Krishna. Later the BHAGAVATA PURANA became one of the principal Vaishnava texts. The Narada and Shandilya Sutras, the BRAHMAVAIVARTA PURANA, and the VISHNU PURANA are also Bhagavata texts. In addition there are the devotional hymns of the ALVAR SAINTS, and the twelfth-century theology of RAMANUJA.

By this time Bhagavatism was identical with VAISHNAVISM.

Bhagavata Purana An early Sanskrit text, one of the eighteen major PURANAS of Hinduism. This Purana is one of the most popular and is particularly sacred to VAISHNAVAS and devotees of the god KRISHNA. It has some similarities with the VISHNU PURANA, but is a later work, though with an ancient core. The Purana has 18,000 verses, divided into twelve books or sections. It begins with cosmogonic myths and goes on to describe all the incarnations of VISHNU in great detail. KAPILA, founder of the SAMKHYA philosophy, and the BUDDHA also appear as AVATARAS. Book Ten, which narrates stories of Krishna’s childhood and early life, is the most well-known section.

Book Eleven continues with the story, dealing with the end of the YADAVAS and the death of Krishna, while Book Twelve has prophecies concerning the KALI YUGA and the destruction of the world.

Bhagavati A name of the Hindu goddess DURGA, and also a generic name for a mother goddess.

Bhagavati Sutra The name by which the Jain text, BHAGAVATI VIYAHA-PANNATI, is commonly known.

Bhagavati Viyaha-pannati (Vyakhya-Prajnapti) A Jain text, the fifth of the twelve ANGAS. It provides an account of the life and work of MAHAVIRA, and also of the main principles of Jainism. Part of it is in question-answer form, in which Mahavira answers the questions of his disciple GOYAMA INDABHUTI (Gautama), while the rest of it includes stories, legends and parables. There are passages attributed to Mahavira which are probably authentic and include sections on KARMA, the transmigration of souls, and the evils to be avoided, as well as descriptions of heavens and hells. There is also an account of the AJIVIKA doctrine, whose founder GOSALA Makkhali-putta, was once closely connected with Mahavira.

Bhagel Singh, Sardar A Sikh general who was in DELHI at the time of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II and supervised the construction of nine Sikh shrines in the city in 1783. Bhagel Singh, of the Kironsinghia MISL, was one of four Sikh commanders who led a force into Delhi at this time. As they attacked the Red Fort, the Mughal emperor opened negotiations with them, and they agreed to leave Delhi after receiving a sum of money and permission to build GURDWARAS at their sacred sites. While the rest of the army left, Bhagel Singh remained in Delhi to supervise the construction of the gurdwaras. Among the gurdwaras he built were the DAMDAMA SAHIB GURDWARA, SISGANJ GURDWARA, and RAKABGANJ GURDWARA.

Bhagirathi A name of the river GANGA in ancient texts. The section of the Ganga from its origin at Gaumukh up to Devaprayaga, where it unites with the ALAKANANDA, is still known as the Bhagirathi. In its lower course in West Bengal before it joins the sea, the river is called the Bhagirathi-Hughli. The name is related to various myths about the origin of the Ganga.

Bhai Duj A Hindu festival that celebrates the bonds between brothers and sisters. It takes place two days after the festival of DIVALI. Brothers and sisters meet on this day, and sisters put a tika, or mark of sandalwood paste and vermilion on their brothers’ foreheads, along with some rice grains, and offer them sweets. In return, brothers vow to protect and care for them. The origin of this festival is unclear, but a myth of YAMA and YAMI (YAMUNA), who were brother and sister, is associated with this festival and narrated in various texts. According to this myth, the river Yamuna was very depressed on Bhai Duj because her brother had not visited her for twelve years. GANGA then went to Yama and reminded him of the day. He visited his sister and was ecstatically greeted by her. He also granted her a boon, that when a brother and a sister bathed together in her waters on this day, they would never meet an untimely death, or, according to another version, they would never suffer in hell. The festival is important in north India, and specially in MATHURA, where brothers and sisters bathe in the Yamuna on Bhai Duj. In Haryana and Punjab, the festival is more commonly known as Tika.

Another brother–sister festival is RAKSHA BANDHAN.

Bhairava A form of the Hindu god SHIVA, literally meaning ‘the terrible’. The god BRAHMA, it is said, once insulted Shiva, and Bhairava was born out of Shiva’s fury. Eight forms of Bhairava are mentioned in the PURANAS: Asitanga or the black-limbed, Ruru, Chanda, Krodha or anger, Unmatta, Kapali or the one who holds a skull, Bhishana and Samhara or destruction. Other variants mentioned in different texts are Kala or black, Tamrachuda or red-crested, and Chandra-chuda or moon-crested. The AGNI PURANA describes Bhairava as having five faces, a crescent moon and plaited hair on his head. His ornaments are snakes and his weapons include an arrow, a bow, dagger, sword, and trident. In sculpture he is depicted with a dog. As he is sometimes shown riding on a dog, Bhairava is also known as Shvashva, or ‘he whose horse is a dog’.

Bhairavi A Hindu goddess, the consort of BHAIRAVA. She is also one of the MAHAVIDYAS or TANTRIC goddesses. A ferocious goddess, she wears a garland of severed heads. She has four hands and holds a book and a mala or rosary. Her two other hands make the gesture of conferring boons and dispelling fear. There are several Bhairavi temples.

Bhairon A Hindu deity identified with SHIVA. He was originally a village deity associated with agriculture.

Bhaishajyaguru Buddha A celestial BUDDHA in charge of medicine and healing. Worshipping him is said to relieve sickness, hunger, fear and suffering, and to fulfill all desires. The Bhaishajyaguru Sutra provides an account of this Buddha and methods of worship. In a previous life, he is said to have made twelve vows necessary to become a healing Buddha or BODHISATTVA. These include offering protection, help and healing to all, and illuminating the world with the rays of one’s body. He is often depicted with the Buddha AMITABHA or with SHAKYAMUNI, with his hand in the gesture of protection. Lapis lazuli, symbolizing purity, and yellow myrobalan, a healing herb, are associated with him. Though originating in India, he is more popular in China and Japan, and is also the presiding deity in some schools of REIKI.

Bhaja The site of rock-cut Buddhist CHAITYAS and VIHARAS dating back to 200 BCE, located along the Western Ghats in Pune District of Maharashtra. There are more than twenty caves with viharas and chaityas. Most of the viharas have a verandah and a hall which leads into small cells. There are also chaitya halls and rock-cut STUPAS. Wood was used for beams, though these no longer exist. Images are carved out of the rock and include YAKSHAS or guardian deities, SURYA in a four-horse chariot, and INDRA riding his elephant AIRAVATA. The figures which are in low relief are among the earliest available images. There were several such Buddhist caves along the Ghats including at Bhedsa, KARLE and JUNNAR. These and other caves were located along trade routes and passes, indicating the participation of monasteries in trade.

bhajan A song in praise of god. It is a term normally used for songs praising Hindu deities or concepts. Bhajans are compositions like songs, and may include several RAGAS.

Bhajan, Yogi The popular name of Yogi HARBHAJAN SINGH, who started a Sikh sect in the USA.

bhakti A Sanskrit term implying devotion, faith, and union with god through love. Bhakti includes worship, total surrender and personal love of god in any form. Forgetting everything and everyone else, the devotee yearns for a glimpse of god, and finally for total union. Bhakti probably existed from the earliest days, but began to be expressed in the first few centuries CE. Bhakti is explained in the BHAGAVAD GITA, as devotion to the Hindu god KRISHNA. Between the seventh and tenth centuries, the NAYANARS and ALVARS popularized it in the south. Bhakti became popular in the region of Maharashtra from around the twelfth century, and later in Gujarat, Bengal and other areas. Bhakti saints usually sang and composed verses to god, many of which are available today. Among the prominent saints were NAMADEVA, EKNATHA, TUKARAM, NARASIMHA MEHTA, CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU, KABIR, and MIRABAI. There were many more, both known and unknown today, who followed this path. The path of bhakti has no restrictions and no sacrifices, and is open to all. It usually involves singing devotional songs, chanting the name of god, and worshipping an image or visualizing a form of the deity. Both VISHNU and his incarnations as well as SHIVA and other gods are worshipped. Bhakti can also be for god beyond all forms (NIRGUNA).

Some historians have put forward the view that bhakti developed as a response to feudal conditions, and that the reverence and devotion given to god was similar to the reverence of the peasant for the zamindar or landlord. However, this seems too simplistic a view and does not account for the fact that bhakti is still a method of approaching the divine. There are different types of bhakti, and not all are reverential. In his work on Bhakti Yoga, Swami VIVEKANANDA describes five types, which can also be considered stages. The first form is shanta or peaceful, where without any excesses, the worshipper develops a love for god. The second is dasya, where the worshipper is attached to god and considers himself his servant. The third type is sakhya, where god is seen as a beloved friend. The fourth is vatsalaya, loving god as a child so as to eliminate all ideas of power from the concept of god. And the fifth is madhura, in which god is the beloved, the lover. Apart from gods such as KRISHNA and RAMA, gurus too can inspire love and devotion, because they are often considered incarnations or representatives of god.

Bhakti is usually associated with Hinduism but forms a part of other religions as well. Celestial BUDDHAS and BODHISATTVAS are worshipped with loving devotion in MAHAYANA and VAJRAYANA Buddhism.

In Islam, SUFI saints kindle divine love in their hearts. Though they may not use the term bhakti, mystical forms of all religions focus on the love of god.

Bhaktivedanta, Abhay Charanaravinda Another name for Swami PRABHUPADA, who founded the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON).

Bhangani Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Bhangani near Paonta Sahib in Himachal Pradesh. It marks the spot where a battle took place between the Sikhs led by Guru GOBIND SINGH and the Rajput hill rajas Bhim Chand, Fateh Singh and Kesri Singh. The Sikhs, helped by Pir Buddhu Shah and his disciples, were victorious, and a gurdwara was erected to commemorate the win.

Bharadvaja, rishi An ancient RISHI to whom several hymns of the RIG VEDA are attributed. He is also mentioned in the RAMAYANA, MAHABHARATA, PURANAS and other Hindu texts. According to the Ramayana, his ashram was in the forest around Prayaga, not far from CHITRAKUTA, and at the beginning of their exile RAMA and LAKSHMANA went there to seek his blessings. In the Puranas his love for Vedic study is described. One lifetime was not sufficient, and therefore he obtained a boon from the god INDRA to live for thousands of years in order to continue his study. Bharadvaja was also the name of other RISHIS.

Bharat Mata ‘Mother India’, a goddess representing the land of India, revered as a divine mother. The concept of Bharat Mata emerged with the nationalistic fervour of the second half of the nineteenth century, when the term began to be used in literary works. Artists soon produced imaginative depictions of the goddess. Early depictions were often of a map of India, superimposed with a goddess, usually a form of Durga or Lakshmi.

In 1936, a Bharat Mata Temple was constructed at Varanasi, and inaugurated by Mahatma GANDHI, who saw the temple as a symbol of unity, transcending religion and caste. Later, other Bharat Mata temples were built. Among these is a temple located at Shanti Kunj near HARDWAR in Uttarakhand. This modern temple was inaugurated by Indira Gandhi in 1983. The main image is of a goddess holding a vessel of milk and sheaves of grain, reflecting India’s growth towards prosperity. There are images of several other deities, as well as of religious and political leaders and national heroes, and the temple thus portrays the concept of unity in diversity. Other Bharat Mata temples have been set up in different parts of India.

Bharata The name of several different people described in ancient texts. Among them are: (1) A king in the RIG VEDA from whom the Bharata clan was descended; (2) The son of the king Dushyanta and Shakuntala in the MAHABHARATA. (The KAURAVAS and PANDAVAS were descended from him, and hence were also known as Bharatas); (3) The brother of RAMA in the RAMAYANA, who acted as regent during Rama’s exile; (4) The son of Adinatha or RISHABHA, the first Jain TIRTHANKARA; (5) The author of the Natya Shastra, a text on dramatic arts; (6) Several other minor kings and sages.

Bharatavarsha An ancient name for India derived from BHARATA, son of Dushyanta, or, according to other sources, from Bharata, son of RISHABHA. According to the PURANAS, Bharatavarsha was part of Jambudvipa, one of the seven islands or continents that comprise the world. It was also known as Kumara.

Bharati, Gopalakrishna A singer and composer of the nineteenth century, who created musical narratives (katha kalakshepam) in Tamil and Sanskrit on Hindu SHAIVA saints and on philosophical themes.

Born in 1810 (or 1800) in Narimanam, a village in Thanjavur District of present-day Tamil Nadu, he was a BRAHMANA, the son of Ramaswami Bharati. After studying Tamil and Sanskrit, he learned classical Hindustani music from Ramdas, who lived at Tiruvidarmarudur. He was also influenced by Ananta Bharati and Ghanam Krishna Aiyar, who composed Tamil songs. At the age of twenty-five he moved to Anandatandavapuram, and composed the Nandanar Charitram, his most famous work, on the Shaiva saint Nandanar. This was followed by compositions on other Shaiva saints, as well as devotional and philosophical songs. His works include Iyarpakai Nayanar Charitram, Tiruneela-kantha Nayanar Charitram and Karaikkal Ammaiyar Charitram. He used at least seventy different RAGAS in his various compositions, along with intricate talas or rhythms. He donated most of what he earned to the CHIDAMBARAM and Mayuram SHIVA temples. He died in 1881 or according to some sources, in 1896.

Bharati, Subramania A poet who wrote in Tamil and English on political, social and religious themes.

Born in 1882 at Ettayapuram in present Tamil Nadu, he was the son of Chinnaswamy Iyer, who owned one of the first textile mills in south India. At a young age, Subramania received the title ‘Bharati’ from the raja of Ettayapuram when he gave a discourse on education at a contest organized by the raja. In 1904 he settled in Chennai, worked in a Tamil daily, and became involved in politics and the freedom struggle. In 1910 he left British India and settled in Puducherry (Pondicherry) because he was being pursued by the British authorities. Though he is better known for his patriotic poems, his religious compositions are no less significant. He was influenced by Sri AUROBINDO and by early Tamil poetry, including the compositions of the Tamil SIDDHAS and the BHAKTI saints. He wrote several poems in praise of the Hindu god KRISHNA, as well as on nature and the joy of life. He returned to Chennai in 1919, and often went to the PARTHASARTHY TEMPLE there, where he sang his compositions and fed the temple elephant. In 1921, the elephant, in a state of frenzy, attacked and threw him. Subramania did not recover from his injuries and died in September of that year. Among his best works are Kannan Pattu (Songs to Krishna), Panchali Sapatham (The Vow of Panchali), and Kuyil Pattu (Kuyil’s Song). The following poem on Krishna celebrates his love of the deity:

I see your complexion, Krishna,

In the crow’s dark feathers.

I see the divine green, O Krishna,

In the leaves of all the trees.

Tis thy music, Krishna, that I hear

In all the sounds of the world.

And I thrill with your touch, Krishna,

When my finger feels the flame. (Trans. Prema Nandakumar)

Bharatidasan A Tamil poet and writer, who wrote against the Hindu CASTE system and the role of BRAHMANAS. His real name was K. Kanaka Subburathnam, but he took the name Bharatidasan because he admired Subramania BHARATI. He was born in Puducherry (Pondicherry) in 1891, and after completing his education he became a school teacher. Before independence he was also engaged in helping revolutionaries who had escaped from British India to Puducherry. He wrote a number of plays, poems and novels. Sanjivi Parvathathin Saaral, one of his notable epic poems, is a satire on caste. He died in 1964 and was posthumously awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1969.

Bharavi A Sanskrit poet who lived at KANCHIPURAM in the time of the Pallava dynasty (sixth century). His best-known work is Kiratarjuniya, describing a meeting between the Hindu god SHIVA, in the guise of a Kirata (a member of a forest tribe) and ARJUNA. The work is based on an ancient story.

Bharhut Stupa A STUPA with Buddhist relics located at Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh, that dates back to the third century BCE. Its construction was begun at the time of the Mauryan emperor ASHOKA, when a brick mound was erected. In the second century BCE, a stone railing with four entrances was added. Further additions came in the first century BCE, when intricately carved gateways (toranas) were made. An inscription records that this was in the time of the Buddhist king Dhanabhuti. The carvings on the railings and gateways include scenes from the JATAKAS, images of YAKSHAS and YAKSHIS, men and women, animals and trees. The BUDDHA himself is not shown, but he is depicted by symbols of footprints or an empty throne.

The stupa was first discovered by Alexander Cunningham of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1873.

Bhartrihari A philosopher and poet who became a monk and probably lived from 570 to 651. He was of noble birth and was for some time attached to the court of the Maitraka ruler of Valabhi, in the region of Gujarat, but later became an ascetic and lived in a cave in UJJAIN. According to the Chinese traveller I-ching, he made several attempts to become a Buddhist monk and often lapsed, but finally succeeded. Vakyapadiya is his major philosophical work written in Sanskrit. It contains Buddhist ideas, along with some concepts similar to VEDANTA. In this text he states that all things create fear in people, and therefore detachment is the only path. The world is imaginary, a vision (kalpanikam), and objects in it are soulless (nairatmya), but gain an identity through words. BRAHMAN, the underlying reality, has no beginning or end, and is the eternal essence of speech, changed into form as the world evolves.

His poems are somewhat different and describe the dilemma of his desire to become a monk and his inability to give up love and passion. Three books of a hundred verses each, are attributed to him: Sringara Shataka, Niti Shataka and Vairagya Shataka, on love, politics and renunciation, respectively, though some scholars doubt whether all these are really his.

Bhasa A Sanskrit playwright, probably of the third or fourth century, best known for his play Svapnavasavadatta (The Dream of Vasavadatta). He also wrote a number of short plays, mainly based on stories from the RAMAYANA or MAHABHARATA.

Bhaskara A philosopher who lived around CE 900 and subscribed to the doctrine of BHEDABHEDAVADA, i.e., that both unity and multiplicity are real. He wrote a commentary on the BRAHMA SUTRA called Bhaskarabhashya. According to him, BRAHMAN, the underlying reality of the world, is One in its causal state, but has multiplicity in its evolved state. These two aspects coexist and are equally real. The world is not an illusion, but real, yet it is essentially the same as Brahman. The JIVA or individual soul is also of the same essence, but limited by matter. KARMA or right action is the means to knowledge (JNANA) which leads to MOKSHA (liberation).

Bhaskararaya A scholar of TANTRISM who lived in the eighteenth century. He was originally from the region of Maharashtra, but settled at THANJAVUR. He wrote several works including a text called Setubandha, in which he analysed the Shrividya or DEVI tradition in the Tantras.

Bhatha Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located 5 km from Rupnagar in Punjab, associated with the tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH. The guru and his followers stayed here with a Pathan chief, Nihang Khan, who risked his life to shelter them. Here there was a brick kiln (bhatha) and when the guru’s horse touched it with his hoof, the red-hot kiln is said to have instantly become cool. A gurdwara was later built to commemorate this incident.

Bhattaparinna A SHVETAMBARA Jain text, one of the ten PAINNAS (Prakirnas), which deals with the futility of the pleasures of the world, and with the voluntary death by fasting (SALLEKHANA) advocated for a Jain saint. In a typical passage it states, ‘Souls which do not renounce the world, and which are lacking in good qualities, plunge into SAMSARA, just as birds with a broken wing and without tail feathers fall into the ocean’. It also contains a number of stories and legends of saints.

bhattaraka The title of a Jain DIGAMBARA leader who is the head of a MATHA or religious centre. The bhattaraka takes care of the property, estates, temples, schools and libraries of Digambara institutions. Though not the same as a monk, he is usually an ascetic with a vow of celibacy, a learned man and a religious leader of the community, often given the title shankaracharya. Senior Digambara monks, who are bound by the vow of nudity, do not interact much with the outside world and therefore bhattarakas, who wear orange robes, fill that role. Bhattarakas, whose function probably originated in the ninth century, still play important roles among Digambara Jains. The main bhattarakas today are at SHRAVANA BELAGOLA and MUDABADRI, both in Karnataka, and at Kolhapur in Maharashtra.

Bhavabhuti A Sanskrit writer of the eighth century who wrote two plays on the life of the Hindu god RAMA. These are Mahaviracharita (The Deeds of the Great Hero) and Uttara Ramacharita (The Later Deeds of Rama). His third extant play is Malti Madhava, a love story. Bhavabhuti lived at Kannauj in present-day Uttar Pradesh.

bhavana A Sanskrit term that has several meanings, including reflection, contemplation and meditation. In Hinduism, it is one of the terms used for meditation, though the word DHYANA is more common.

In Buddhism, it forms part of Jhana Magga or Dhyana Marga, the path of meditation. Bhavana, or attentive concentration, has two main aspects, samatha (Sanskrit: shamatha) or stillness of mind, and VIPASSANA (Sanskrit: vipashyana) or insight, leading to wisdom and enlightenment. There are several Buddhist texts dealing with bhavana, including those of BUDDHAGHOSHA and ASANGA, Kamalashila’s BHAVANAKRAMA, as well as texts specific to various schools of Buddhism, which prescribe a number of methods of dhyana and bhavana.

The term is also used in Jainism for meditation or contemplation.

Bhavanakrama A series of MAHAYANA Buddhist texts dealing with meditation. Three texts with the same name were written by KAMALASHILA in the eighth century. The first is theoretical, whereas the second provides practical guidelines. The third deals with shamatha or calming practice.

Bhavani A name of PARVATI, consort of the Hindu god SHIVA.

Bhavaviveka A Buddhist scholar from south India who lived from c. 490 to 570 and founded the SVATANTRIKA sect, a branch of the MADHYAMIKA school of MAHAYANA Buddhism. He wrote several works, including the Prajnapradipa, a commentary on NAGARJUNA’s Madhyamika Karika; the Karatalaratna, which refutes YOGACHARA theories and is available only in Chinese; the Madhyamaka-hridaya, refuting other philosophies; and a commentary on this, the Tarkajvala. His work influenced the later Buddhist scholars SHANTARAKSHITA and KAMALASHILA.

Bhavishya Purana A Sanskrit text, one of the eighteen major PURANAS of Hinduism. The versions available seem to be different from the ancient work as described in other books and have several late additions. The Bhavishya Purana starts with a traditional account of creation and describes various KALPAS or ages. Much of it deals with ceremonies to be performed and with the duties of the CASTES. There is a description of the NAGAPANCHAMI festival, as well as of some snake myths. One section is on sun worship in Shakadvipa (the land of the Shakas or Scythians). Here priests named Bhojaka and Maga are mentioned, indicating some connection with Zoroastrianism. Apart from late additions, there are some entirely spurious recensions of this text, composed even in the nineteenth century.

Bhavishyottara Purana A Sanskrit text that forms the last part of the BHAVISHYA PURANA. It contains myths and legends, as well as descriptions of religious ceremonies.

Bhedabhedavada A philosophical doctrine that states that Unity or Oneness and multiplicity are equally real. The Absolute or BRAHMAN is One, but from it multiple forms evolve. One of its main exponents was BHASKARA of the ninth or tenth century, while another was Yadavaprakasha of the eleventh century. Achintya Bhedabheda, or incomprehensible unity in difference, was part of the philosophy of CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU.

bhikkhu The PALI term for a Buddhist monk, while a bhikkhuni is a nun. In Sanskrit the words are bhikshu and bhikshuni, and are used not only in Buddhism but in other religions as well.

bhikshu A mendicant or monk. In Hinduism, it particularly refers to a BRAHMANA in the fourth ASHRAMA or last stage of life, that of sannyasa, but also to any mendicant or ascetic.

Bhil religion Bhils form the third largest tribe of central India, after the Gonds and SANTHALS and are located mainly in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Today they are largely converted to Hinduism but retain some of their tribal practices. One of their origin myths states that a fish warned a washerman sitting on the bank of a river of a great flood. He got into a crate along with his sister and was joined by a cock. They survived the flood, but there was water everywhere, and they did not know what to do. The cock crowed loudly and was heard by the god RAMA. He rescued them and told them to populate the world, because, after being asked four times, the man said the woman with him was not his sister, but his wife. They had seven sons and seven daughters. In the Puranic myth of the flood, MANU too was warned by a fish (MATSYA) of the approaching flood.

Bhils worship Hindu deities as well as legendary heroes and their own gods. Bhilat Dev, who according to their stories was a cowherd proficient in music and magic, is one of the main deities. He caught a huge serpent and took it to the god INDRA, who praised his bravery, presented him with hundreds of cows, and said that Bheru the serpent should henceforth serve him. Bhagavan, or Bholo Ishvar, is another generic deity, usually represented by symbolic stones. Bhils offer terracotta horses at their ancestral shrines on hills and under trees. The sun, moon and stars, as well as other nature deities are worshipped.

Bhima The second of the five PANDAVA brothers described in the MAHABHARATA. As PANDU, his father, could not have children, KUNTI, his mother, conceived him through the wind god, VAYU. Bhima was extremely strong and fought many battles. He defended and protected DRAUPADI, the joint wife of the Pandava brothers, several times. He married the asura HIDIMBA, and had a son, Ghatotkacha. Another wife of his was Balandhara, princess of Kashi, from whom he had a son named Sarvatraga.

He is worshipped along with his brothers in some temples, while in Nepal he is worshipped as an independent deity. The Bhima temple in Kathmandu, Nepal, is popular among traders and businessmen.

Bhima Bhoi A blind tribal poet of Orissa who composed beautiful BHAJANS. He died in 1895.

Bhishma An elder statesman at the court of HASTINAPURA whose life is described in the MAHABHARATA. He was the son of King Shantanu and was earlier known as Devavrata, but after renouncing his succession to the throne and taking a vow of BRAHMACHARYA, he was called Bhishma. He arranged for the rishi VYASA to father DHRITARASHTRA and PANDU from the wives of his brother Vichitravirya. The KAURAVAS and PANDAVAS were their descendants, and thus he was their spiritual grandfather. He was respected and revered by them. In the great Mahabharata War he took the side of the Kauravas. Defeated finally by ARJUNA, his body was embedded with arrows. He lay on this bed of arrows for almost two months, while the war ended, and all the survivors came to pay their respects to him. He then gave a long discourse on spiritual, ethical, political and philosophical aspects of life, which forms the Shanti Parva, a section of the Mahabharata.

Bhitargaon Temple A Hindu temple located at Bhitargaon near Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh. It is one of the oldest surviving brick temples of north India, dating back to the fifth century. The square shrine has terracotta panels with sculptures on the outer walls. SHIVA and PARVATI seated together and an eight-armed VISHNU can be identified, most of the rest being damaged. The shrine opens to the east and has a pyramidal tower.

Bhrigu An ancient RISHI or sage who was one of the PRAJAPATIS. There are references to him in the RIG VEDA, where he is said to have received AGNI (fire) from heaven. In later texts there are several stories relating to Bhrigu. He is said to have been born from the Hindu god BRAHMA’s skin, but was killed at DAKSHA’s sacrifice by an emanation of the god SHIVA. According to another account, he was born at the time of VARUNA’s sacrifice from Brahma’s seed which fell in the fire. He was brought up by Varuna, and thus is also known as Varuna’s son. These accounts possibly relate to two different incarnations. His descendants are known as Bhargavas and include PARASHURAMA, the RUDRAS, and several rishis. Bhrigu Tirtha, where he performed penances, was a sacred site. There is a temple dedicated to Bhrigu at Bharuch in Gujarat, the ancient name of which was Bhrigukaccha.

Bhrigus A class of lesser Hindu deities mentioned in the VEDAS and later texts. They were connected with the Hindu god AGNI and created and nourished fire. They were also makers of chariots.

Bhubaneswar A city, the capital of Orissa. Bhubaneswar or Bhuvaneshvara, was also known as Ekamrakanana or Ekamrakshetra, Kalinganagari and Harakshetra in the Puranas. The Brahma Purana has a long section on Ekamrakshetra, a region sacred to Shiva. The old city nearby was a sacred centre and is the site of at least thirty early temples dating from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries, and once had many more. The most famous among these are the MUKTESHVARA and LINGARAJA temples. Modern temples include a large KRISHNA temple built by ISKCON.

Bhudevi A Hindu goddess, the mother of the earth, also known as Bhu or Bhumi. There are various stories and legends about her. According to the MAHABHARATA, she is the daughter of BRAHMA, married to VISHNU. The PURANAS state that in the Varaha KALPA, when the asura HIRANYAKSHA oppressed the earth and submerged it under water, Bhu Devi, representing the earth, took the form of a cow and appealed to Vishnu to save the world. He became VARAHA and raised the earth on his tusks. According to the DEVI BHAGAVATA PURANA, Bhu Devi then stood up on the water. Seeing her beauty, comparable to the lustre of a million suns, Vishnu fell in love and married her. Their son was MANGALA. She also had a son, an asura known as NARAKASURA, from Hiranyaksha, by the touch of his horns. According to some texts, in one of her births, SITA was the daughter of Bhudevi.

Bhudevi is depicted holding a blue lotus, along with Vishnu and SHRI DEVI or LAKSHMI, and is especially popular in south India.

Bhuiyan religion Bhuiyans are a tribal group who live in Assam, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal, in varying stages of development. Pauri Bhuiyans of the hill regions of Orissa retain most of their ancient traditions. According to their myths, Dharam Devata, the sun god, presented them with a jar full of earth. This they considered their wealth, and thus called themselves Bhuiyan (from bhumi, earth). Dharam Devata, also representing the sky, is one of their most important deities, the other being Basumata, the goddess of the earth. Terracotta images of these deities are made and propitiated at all festivals, or before starting any important work, such as ploughing or planting. Dharam Devata and Basumati are benevolent deities, who are husband and wife. They have their counterparts in the Rig Vedic deities of PRITHVI and DYAUS.

bhuta (1) A term for ghosts or spirits. They are attendants of the Hindu god SHIVA, who rules over them, and live in cemeteries or in certain trees. They enter dead bodies, making them seem alive, and attack and devour people. They were created by Shiva in a fit of anger, and according to the VAYU PURANA, their mother was KRODHA (anger). According to another story, the RUDRA Nilalohita (Shiva) gave birth to thousands of bhutas through his wife SATI. They were music-haters and wore snakes as their sacred threads. According to the VAMANA PURANA, Virabhadra and Nandikeshvara (emanations of Shiva) are two RUDRAS who head the bhutas. SKANDA, Shakha and BHAIRAVA are also said to be their chiefs. The bhutas usually helped Shiva in his battles, but sometimes fought on the side of the ASURAS.

(2) Bhutas are also local deities or ancestral spirits, worshipped particularly in coastal Karnataka. Bhuta rituals are conducted in the Tulu language of the region, and traditional bhuta masked dances are enacted. Over 450 names of bhutas are known in the region. Among them are Angarbhuta, Mayasandaya, Kotichennaya, Junadi, Pilichchhandi, Ullalthi. Similar spirits and rituals exist in Kerala, known as Teyyams. Some of the names common to both groups are Kshetrapalan, Pottan, Bhairavi, Chamundi, Kuttichattan, Mariamma, Muttapan, Alibhuta, Babhiriyan and Panenruli. Special village shrines are dedicated to bhutas, and swords, shields and oil lamps, along with ritualistic objects of silver are kept there, to be used in their performances.

(3) Pancha-bhutas refer to the five elements of earth, fire, water, air and space, and are often personified and worshipped.

Bhuteshvara (1) The lord of all beings, a name applied to VISHNU, BRAHMA, KRISHNA and to other deities.

(2) The Lord of the BHUTAS, who are spirits or goblins, and in this sense applies to SHIVA.

Bhuvaneshvari A Hindu goddess, one of the ten MAHAVIDYAS or TANTRIC goddesses. She nourishes the three worlds, and holds a fruit, a goad and a noose.

Bible, Christian The Christian Bible consists of two parts, the OLD TESTAMENT and the NEW TESTAMENT. The Old Testament, originally written mainly in Hebrew with some Aramaic passages, was probably composed between 1000 BCE and 300 BCE. This was initially the Jewish Bible, and was divided into twenty-four books. These were rearranged into thirty-nine books in the Christian version, along with additional material. The Protestant Bible, which emerged after the Reformation, removed the additional texts, referring to them as the Apocrypha. The thirty-nine main books are: the first five books known as the Pentateuch, followed by twelve historical books, five poetic books and seventeen prophetic books. Catholic and Orthodox churches include additional books. The NEW TESTAMENT, composed in Greek within a little over a hundred years after the death of Jesus Christ, consists of four books describing the life of Jesus—the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. This is followed by the Acts of the Apostles, which describes the events soon after the death and resurrection of Jesus. In addition there are twenty-one Epistles, of which thirteen are said to have been written by Paul, and others by James, Peter, John and Jude. In conclusion is the book of Revelation, a mystical and symbolical vision of the future.

Several versions and translations of the Bible occur in its history. Early versions include those in Greek, Old Latin, Latin (the fourth century Vulgate), Syriac, Coptic, Aramaic, Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Gothic, German, Dutch and others. The first complete translation into English was in the fourteenth century, following Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman translations. Since then there have been several different English translations. One of the most popular remains the King James Version, first published in 1611, though more colloquial versions in modern English are also widely read. The Bible has by now been translated into innumerable languages in all parts of the world.

In India the Bible is available in over fifty Indian languages and dialects, while sections of it have been translated into about fifty more. Missionaries who came to India in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries began translating the Bible with the help of Indian scholars. The Gospel of Matthew was first translated into Tamil and printed in Sri Lanka in 1688. In India, the entire New Testament in Tamil was published in 1715, and the full Bible in 1726. Other early translations of the Bible were into Bengali (1801–09), Urdu (1805–43), Marathi (1805–19), Oriya (1809–15), Hindi (1811–18), Punjabi (1815–26) and Assamese (1810–33). Around the same time the New Testament was translated into Telugu, Konkani, Gujarati, Kanarese, Marwari and Nepali.

Bible, Jewish The Jewish Bible, also known as the Hebrew Bible, Tanach, or Mikra, more or less corresponds to the OLD TESTAMENT of the Christian BIBLE, with some differences.

The Hebrew Bible is divided into three parts, Torah, Neviim and Ketuvim, and Tanach or Tenach is an acronym based on the first letters of these parts. Torah, or the Law, is the most important, consisting of the first five books of the Bible, which are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. These are also known as the Pentateuch or the five books of Moses. (TORAH, in a wider sense, includes other Jewish texts as well). Neviim, or the Prophets, contains eight books on the Prophets, while Ketuvim, or the Writings, has eleven books, including the Psalms, Proverbs and the book of Job. Most of these twenty-four books were initially written in Hebrew. A Greek translation, the SEPTUAGINT, was made in the third century BCE.

The Old Testament includes all the books of the Hebrew Bible but is differently arranged and divided, the whole forming thirty-nine books. The Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments have additional books not included in the Tanach.

Bihu A series of agrarian festivals celebrated in Assam. The main Bihu is a spring festival that usually takes place in April, and is known as Bohag Bihu, or Rangali Bihu. The festival also inaugurates the new year, as Bohag is the first month of the Assamese calendar. Bohag Bihu begins on the last day of Chot, which is the final month of the Assamese year. This day is reserved for cattle, who are bathed and given special food. The next day, the first day of Bohag, is for people. Elders are revered, friends are visited, special food is eaten, and presents are given. On the third day, religious ceremonies are held. The whole festival lasts for seven days and is associated with songs and music, dances and feasts, as well as games and sports. Two other Bihus are celebrated at different times. The Magh Bihu takes place in winter, after the harvesting of crops, and is accompanied by feasts and bonfires. The Kati Bihu is a one-day festival held in October–November, when the crop is yet to ripen, and the granaries are nearly empty. The TULASI plant is worshipped and lamps are lit and placed in the fields and storage rooms for grain. Bihu dances are the state dance of Assam. Bihu songs at Bohag Bihu are romantic and young people are encouraged to seek partners at this time.

Bijli Mahadev Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located near Kullu in Himachal Pradesh. The temple houses a LINGA that is said to attract lightning (bijli). According to traditional accounts, it is periodically shattered by lightning, and joined together again by the priest with a mixture of parched barley and butter. Above the temple is a white mast, 18 m high. The destruction of the linga is said to signify Shiva’s absorption of the negative energy of the atmosphere, and its subsequent purification.

Bikaner Jain temples At least twenty-seven Jain temples are located at Bikaner in Rajasthan, dating to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They are dedicated to various TIRTHANKARAS and are a mix of western and Indian styles with Mughal arches and columns. Among them are the Bhandeshwar and Sandeshwar temples, named after the two merchant brothers who constructed them. These unique temples, dedicated to Parshvanatha, are elaborately decorated with gold-leaf work, floral paintings and frescoes. The Neminatha Temple, constructed in 1536, also stands out because of its high shikhara or tower.

Bimbisara A king of the state of MAGADHA, (Bihar) who ruled from 546 to 494 BCE and was a disciple and patron of the BUDDHA. He made the first gift to the Buddhist SANGHA, of the Venuvana Arama or dwelling place.

birds, sacred A number of birds are considered sacred or associated with deities. In the VEDAS, several deities are compared with birds, including SOMA and AGNI. Agni is called the eagle of the sky, and INDRA once took the form of an eagle. The owl and the pigeon are messengers of YAMA.

In later Hinduism, some sacred birds include: Chanda, a crow associated with the mother-goddess Alambusha, from whom were descended other crows, particularly the wise Bhushunda; GARUDA, the vahana or vehicle of VISHNU; HAMSA, a swan or goose, the vehicle of BRAHMA, Brahmi and VARUNA and the name of a sect of rishis; the parrot, associated with the god KAMA; and the peacock who is the vahana of KARTTIKEYA. In the RAMAYANA, the vulture JATAYU tries to help SITA. Birds are also associated with deities in Buddhism and Jainism. In Islam, birds have a symbolic importance in SUFISM, reflected in The Conference of the Birds, a text by the SUFI saint Attar. The hoopoe is considered particularly wise. The QURAN states that birds have a special language of their own, which was taught to King Solomon (xxvii.16). In the Zoroastrian AVESTA, the deity VERETHRAGHNA takes the form of an eagle, while SRAOSHA is associated with a cock, a bird that also occurs in Judaism and Christianity.

Birhor religion Birhors are a tribal group of east-central India. Birhors of Orissa worship Sing Bonga, the sun, and his wife Chandu Bonga, who together created the world. Sing Bonga is extremely powerful and is the creator of the universe. Another important deity is Dharti Mai, who presides over the earth (utaye), and takes care of all natural resources and creatures. A sacrifice of a goat or cock is made to these deities once a year in Pausha-Magha (January-February). Lugu Haram, a male deity who presides over the east, and Birhi Mai, a female deity who presides over the west, are sometimes considered the children of Dharti Mai. They have seven sons, each presiding over a different aspect of creation. Hanuman Bir is the deity of langurs, while Bandra Bir is the god of rhesus monkeys. Bagh Bir is the deity of tigers, and Hunda Bir of bears. Paban Bir or Hoyo Bir is associated with rain and storm, Babsa Bir with thunder and meteors, Nanda Bir with the wind.

Two categories of spirits of the dead are also worshipped, Hapram and Churgin. Haprams are real ancestors, while Churgin are wandering spirits who need to be placated by offerings.

Biruni, Al- See ABU REHAN AL-BIRUNI.

Bisapantha A sub-sect of the DIGAMBARA Jain sect, which originated in north India. The Bisapanthas revere the dharma-gurus or BHATTARAKAS, who are the heads of Jain MATHAS or religious centres. In their temples, they worship not only the TIRTHANKARAS, but other deities such as YAKSHAS and YAKSHIS and KSHETRAPALAS. The method of worship is similar to that in Hindu temples, with saffron, flowers, fruit and sweets being offered to the deities. PRASAD, or sanctified food is distributed from the offerings. Incense is burnt, and ARTI, or circling of lights over the idol, is performed. Devotees are seated while worshipping the deities.

Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries there was a movement against these practices, and the TERAPANTHA sect emerged, which simplified the rituals in temples and attempted to ‘purify’ Jainism.

Bishnoi A community that follows the Bishnoi or twenty-nine precepts of their guru and leader Jambeshvara or Jambhoji, who lived in the fifteenth century. These precepts enable Bishnois to live in harmony with nature. They protect trees and wildlife, and do not distinguish between castes and religions.

Members of the Bishnoi community have often sacrificed their lives to save trees and animals. In 1730, in Khejadli village in the state of Jodhpur, they attempted to prevent the cutting of khejadi trees (Prosopis cineraria) by clinging to them, and thus were pioneers of the later Chipko movement. At this time 363 people clinging to the trees were killed, including women and children, before the maharaja stopped the massacre. Bishnois continue to live in the region and to defend the trees and wildlife with their lives. Recently, some have died while saving blackbuck from poachers.

Bishnupur A town in West Bengal with a number of temples of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, built by rulers of the Malla dynasty. The Mallas had ruled the area from around the seventh century but became prominent in the time of Bir Hambir, said to have been a wicked king who became noble after his conversion to VAISHNAVISM by Shrinivasa, a follower of CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU. He introduced the worship of the god Madana-Mohana (KRISHNA), and built the Rasa-Mancha in 1600, a large structure with a pyramidal roof. Here all the gods of neighbouring temples were brought together at a great Rasa festival. Succeeding kings built more temples, of which at least thirty still survive, most of them dedicated to RADHA and Krishna.

Bismillah A term in Islam that means ‘in the name of God’. It is used in two ways: Bismillahi-ar-Rahmanar-Rahim (in the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful) and Bismillahi-illahi-al-akbar (in the name of God, God the most great). Every Sura of the QURAN, except one, begins with the first statement, which is also used before any activity, such as eating, or any new venture. The second is used when slaughtering animals or fighting a battle.

Bithur A town located near Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh. In ancient times it was a sacred site for Hindus, and according to one tradition, the RAMAYANA of Valmiki was composed here. The god BRAHMA is said to have visited the place, and the mark of his footprint is still worshipped.

Bka-gdams-pa A school of Tibetan Buddhism, also spelt KADAMPA.

Bka-gyur A collection of Tibetan Buddhist texts, also spelt KAGYUR or Kanjur.

Bka-rgyud-pa A school of Tibetan Buddhism, also spelt KAGYU or Kagyupa.

Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna One of the two founders of the THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA, the other being Colonel H.S. Olcott. The Theosophical Society is an organization that aims to promote a search for the underlying truths of all religions.

Helena Hahn was born at Ekaterinoslav (now Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine) in the southern part of the Russian empire in 1831, and even as a child had mystical experiences and an interest in spirituality. At the age of eighteen, she married Nikifor V. Blavatsky, a middle-aged friend of the family, vice-governor of the province of Erivan. The marriage did not last long. Helena soon left Russia and travelled to Egypt, Greece and Eastern Europe before going to London. There she met the Master MORYA, who became her spiritual guide. She then went to the US and later to India and Tibet, where she studied with her Master. She returned to the US in 1873 and came in contact with Col. Olcott and W.Q. Judge, who had similar interests, and together they founded the Theosophical Society in 1875, with its headquarters at New York. An interest in Eastern wisdom led Madame Blavatsky and Olcott to visit India in 1878. Visiting Sri Lanka, they converted to Buddhism and then returned to India, settling there from 1879. In 1882, they bought a large estate, and set up a branch of the Theosophical Society at Adyar near Chennai. In 1884–85 Blavatsky was accused of being a fraud and moved to Germany and then to London, where she continued her work. She died on 8 May 1891.

By this time she had written a number of profound works on philosophy and mysticism, which she claimed revealed the secrets of the Tibetan mystics. She also put forward a hierarchical view of spiritual masters who governed the world but were unknown to most. Her publications include Isis Unveiled (1877); The Secret Doctrine (1888); The Key to Theosophy (1889) and The Voice of the Silence (1889). Her collected writings amount to sixteen volumes. Her work is mainly based on a mix of Hindu and Buddhist ideas, and still has considerable influence on spiritualists and New Age mystics in the Western world.

Annie BESANT was inspired by her to join the Theosophical Society and come to India. She played a crucial role in the freedom movement and in popularizing indigenous religions.

Bnei Menashe A Jewish group in north-east India who claim to be descendants of the Menashe (Manasseh) tribe of Israel, one of the ten lost tribes. They include tribal groups of Manipur, Mizoram, Assam and Nagaland, extending into Bangladesh and Myanmar. They claim they were enslaved by the Assyrians in the eighth century BCE, and after escaping from them, reached China, from where they later entered north-east India and adjacent areas. They followed tribal practices and were converted to Christianity in the nineteenth century, but later dreams and revelations enabled them to understand their Jewish identity. Around 1951, Tchalah, a local chief, said that God had told him they should return to their original religion and land (Judaism and Israel). Some of the Manipur Jews state that all the original residents of Manipur and Tripura belonged to the Menashe tribe, though there is no historical support for this. DNA tests said to have been conducted on some of the claimants indicate their affinity with Jews of Uzbekistan.

The Bnei Menashe have received instruction from Jewish rabbis and several have converted to Judaism while some have emigrated to Israel. Others have designed their own flag and wish to set up a Jewish state in the north-east.

Bodh Gaya A place in Bihar, that marks the spot where the BUDDHA attained enlightenment under the BODHI TREE. Bodh Gaya is located 9 km from the city of Gaya, and the MAHABODHI TEMPLE here, built in front of the Bodhi Tree, is visited by pilgrims from all over the world. Behind are other shrines recording the events of the seven weeks Buddha spent here. Modern Buddhist temples here include Korean, Thai and Japanese temples. Huge Buddhist statues have been erected, among which are a 25 m Buddha in Japanese style and an even larger statue of the Bodhisattva MAITREYA, on the outskirts of the town.

Bodhi Tree The tree under which the BUDDHA sat in meditation and attained enlightenment. Located at BODH GAYA in Bihar, it has been identified as Ficus religiosa, commonly known as the pipal tree. The Mauryan emperor ASHOKA sent a shoot of the tree to be planted in Sri Lanka. Shashanka, ruler of Gauda (in Bengal), destroyed the original tree at Bodh Gaya in the seventh century, but another was planted at the spot from a shoot of the tree in Sri Lanka.

Bodhicharyavatara/Bodhisattvachary-avatara A MAHAYANA Buddhist text composed by SHANTIDEVA who lived in the seventh to eighth centuries. It provides guidance for those on the BODHISATTVA path.

bodhichitta A state of mind referred to in Buddhist texts. It implies cultivating the BUDDHA mind, that is, envisaging the goal of enlightenment as the first step on the BODHISATTVA path. The Bodhisattva aims to become a Buddha in order to help all sentient beings, and by fixing this goal in the mind one realizes the bodhichitta. The BODHICHARYAVATARA is among the texts that describes cultivating the bodhichitta as the first step.

Bodhidharma An Indian Buddhist scholar and philosopher who contributed to the spread of Buddhism in China. Bodhidharma probably reached Loyang in northern China between 516 and 526, or even earlier. He is revered in the Chan school of Chinese Buddhism as the founder and first patriarch of this school, though historians question the authenticity of this tradition. He is said to have been a disciple of the scholar Prajnadhara, and to have had a specialized knowledge of the LANKAVATARA SUTRA. There are several legends about him in Chinese sources. According to one story, he sat in meditation continuously, without moving for nine years, at a temple in Loyang. Another account states that when asked by Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty, ‘What is the absolute holy truth?’, he replied, ‘Great emptiness; and there is nothing holy about it.’ The word Chan comes from the Sanskrit dhyana, and its equivalent in Japanese is Zen.