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calendars There are several calendars used in India. Two calendars are mainly used for official purposes: the Western Gregorian calendar, and the calendar of the Vikrama Samvat, an ancient era which begins in 58–57 BCE. To calculate dates of festivals, fasts or sacred days, each religion follows its own calendar.

The HINDU CALENDAR is not uniform. Several different systems are used, based on lunar and solar months, both for astrological purposes and for calculating the dates of festivals. An attempt has been made to standardize these, and in the standardized calendar, the new year normally begins on 22 March, though other calendars continue to be in use. Jains broadly follow the Hindu system, and begin the new year after DIVALI.

The ISLAMIC CALENDAR is used for calculating the dates of Muslim festivals and has twelve lunar months beginning with the month of MUHARRAM.

The ZOROASTRIAN CALENDAR has twelve lunar months of thirty days each, but there are three different calendars used in India, causing some confusion over festival dates.

Christians follow the solar calendar for certain festivals, for which days are fixed, such as CHRISTMAS, but dates of other festivals such as EASTER shift every year. Festival dates for ORTHODOX Churches, differ slightly. Jews follow a lunar calendar for fixing festival dates, with the new year beginning in September/October. The Buddhist calendar varies in different countries; Bahais have a calendar with nineteen months of nineteen days each, and four extra days or five in a leap year.

Canai Thoma A Christian from Syria, also known as Thomas of Canan, who came to India around 345 CE.

At that time Syria was part of the Persian empire which, under Shapur II of the Sasanian dynasty, was experiencing a Zoroastrian revival, creating problems for Christians there. Canai Thoma and other Christians settled in Kodungallur (Cranganore) in the Kerala region, where they were granted land by the Perumal (title of the king). They were known as SYRIAN CHRISTIANS, and this term was gradually applied to other Christians in the area as well.

Carey, William An Englishman who came to India and started the Baptist Mission at Serampore. Born in England in 1761, Carey was initially an ANGLICAN who converted to the BAPTIST CHURCH in 1783 and became a local preacher and pastor. In 1792 he founded the English Baptist Missionary Society and came to India the following year at the age of thirty-two. At this time the English were not allowing missionary activity, and in 1799 he moved with two other Baptists to Serampore (now Srirampur) near Kolkata, which was under Danish control. He studied Indian languages and translated the BIBLE into Bengali and Sanskrit, organizing and assisting in its translation into several other Indian languages. He also began the conversion of local people to Christianity and became a professor of Bengali and Sanskrit at Fort William College in Kolkata. He founded a college at Serampore that was later given the status of a university by the king of Denmark, and is still a functioning institution, with both secular and religious subjects. He prepared grammars and dictionaries of Indian languages, and, along with Joshua Marshman, translated part of the RAMAYANA into English. He died in India in 1834. His Mission provided an example for other PROTESTANT missionaries in India.

caste Caste, JATI or VARNA, is an important part of the Hindu socio-religious system. Hindu society is divided into four main castes, within which there are more than 3000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes, each with their own rituals, special deities and dietary laws. In olden days, the term Hindu was never used; each person identified themselves by caste, village, region of origin or deity worshipped. To some extent this continues today, despite attempts to link all castes within a common Hindu identity.

The caste system can be traced back to ancient times. The earliest reference to caste is in the RIG VEDA, which in one hymn states that the four main castes emanated from purusha, the primordial man. The BRAHMANA came from his mouth, the rajanaya or KSHATRIYA from his arms, the VAISHYA from his thighs, and the SHUDRA from his feet. The same account occurs in the MANU SAMHITA and the PURANAS, and there was a similar division into occupational groups in ancient Iran. In the ATHARVA VEDA there is a reference to ‘varna’, literally colour, also used as a synonym for caste. The four varnas are represented by the colours white, red, yellow and black. The Puranas state that caste divisions (varnashrama) did not exist in the golden age, the KRITA YUGA, but were created in the DVAPARA YUGA. The early caste structure was based more on occupation than on birth, and there was interchangeability among castes. Gradually it began to become rigid, and birth and occupation were linked. The brahmana had the priestly duties of conducting sacrifices and studying the VEDAS. Kshatriyas were kings or warriors, vaishyas were merchants or traders, and shudras were peasants or labourers. Gradually a lower group of ‘outcastes’ came into being, based on occupations considered unclean by the brahmanas, such as working with leather. They were considered ‘untouchables’ with whom higher castes would have no contact.

The growing rigidity becomes clear by the time of the RAMAYANA of Valmiki. According to the epic poem, things were not going well in RAMA’s kingdom. He discovered that the trouble was caused by a shudra, SHAMBUKA, who was practising ascetic penances, which was not permitted for his caste. After Rama cut off his head, order was restored in the kingdom.

The caste system was not uniform. It developed only at a later stage in east and south India, through the influence of the north.

Apart from the challenges posed to it by Buddhism, Jainism and other sects which rejected the Vedas, caste was also challenged from within the system. Both the two main later Hindu groups of VAISHNAVAS and SHAIVAS had sects which went beyond the caste system, while most of the BHAKTI saints totally transcended caste. TANTRISM was also largely beyond the sphere of caste. Nevertheless, the caste system remained a part of Hindu society, with endless sub-groups and sub-castes being formed.

In the nineteenth century there were several reform movements, such as the BRAHMO SAMAJ and ARYA SAMAJ, which attempted to transform Hindu society and the caste system. A more aggressive movement against caste was the twentieth-century DRAVIDIAN MOVEMENT in the south.

Despite modernization and positive legislation in favour of lower castes since independence, the caste system largely remains in place within society. Marriages between people of different castes are rare in rural areas and often have a violent end because of opposition from higher castes. Assertion of rights by lower castes has led to caste wars, particularly in Bihar, while the DALIT movement supports the rights of the untouchables or scheduled castes. However, the link between caste and occupation has changed, and has little impact in urban areas. Politics is linked with caste, with various political parties appealing to particular caste groups.

Tribes were generally outside the caste structure and had their own norms. Today, however, some of them are listed as castes, and there is a move to incorporate them in mainstream Hinduism.

Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, the other indigenous religions, initially rejected the caste system, but later Jainism gradually absorbed the caste system from Hinduism, particularly in north India, though it was never as rigid as in Hinduism. Many of the Jain castes are grouped into two broad categories of Visa and Dasa, the former being considered higher, and marriages between the two categories are rare. In north India these two groups are divided into several castes, whereas among the DIGAMBARAS of south India there are only four main castes, the Saitavala (which does not occur in Karnataka), the Chaturtha, Panchama, Bogara or Kasara, and three minor castes. Digambaras of the south usually do not inter-marry with Jains from other parts of the country.

Sikhism was also influenced by the Hindu caste system, and Hindus converted to Sikhism retained their original caste. However, there was more intermixing among castes and less rigidity, though dalits were looked down upon.

Converts to other religions, such as Christianity or Islam, usually retain their caste identities, and may be referred to as Brahmana Christians or Dalit Christians.

Catholic A term which means ‘universal’ or ‘general’ and is often used in Christianity instead of Roman Catholic. Catholic churches are under the authority of the Pope with his headquarters in Rome. In India these churches include the ROMAN CATHOLIC or LATIN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the SYRO MALABAR CHURCH and the SYRO MALANKARA CHURCH. Each group has its own representative organizations. The Conference of Catholic Bishops of India represents the Latin Churches, the Syro Malabar Bishops Synod, the Syro Malabar Church, and the Syro Malankara Bishops Conference, the Syro Malankara Church. There is also a unified organization, the Catholic Bishops Conference of India (CBCI), which is a forum for all the Catholic churches of India, while the All India Catholic Union represents all Catholic Christians in India.

Chabad Lubovitch A branch of the Jewish Hasidic movement, founded at the end of the eighteenth century by Shneur Zalman of Liadi (1745–1812). It now has thousands of centres around the world, and several in India. Chabad (also spelt Habad) incorporates some aspects of the KABBALAH, and is an acronym of three intellectual processes known in Hebrew as chochma (wisdom), bina (understanding), and da’at (knowledge). Lubavitch comes from Lubavichi, a Russian town, once the headquarters of the movement.

Chabad philosophy gives importance to the mind and control over one’s inclinations, rather than to the heart and emotions. It emphasizes Talmudic study, and the need to integrate Torah into daily life. Chabad has more than 3500 emissaries, known as schluchim who run Jewish outreach centres across the world. They have four centres in India (in 2010), at Manali, Himachal Pradesh; Anjuna village, Goa; Bengaluru; and Mumbai, and will be opening more. These centres provide guidance and facilities to Jewish tourists and visiting business persons and to Jewish Indian residents, even if they are non-Chabad Jews. A Chabad House forms the main centre in any location, and is the residence of the shliach (emissary), and the living room is often used as a synagogue.

Chaitanya Goswamis The disciples and followers of the Hindu saint CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU. The term ‘Goswamis’ particularly refers to six disciples who lived at VRINDAVANA in the sixteenth century and developed a devotional system and a philosophy of Krishna Bhakti. Scenes from the god KRISHNA’s life were recreated and enacted, and BHAKTI, or love and devotion to Krishna, expressed. This could be done in four ways: as a dasa or devoted servant, a vatsalya or parent, a sakhya or friend, and a madhurya, or lover. The two main Goswamis were Rupa Goswami and Sanatana Goswami. Rupa and Sanatana were ministers of the king of Bengal, but left their worldly lives to go to Vrindavana. Their nephew Jiva joined them there and helped to spread the message of Krishna. There they wrote works on bhakti and on the philosophy of the sect, some of which are still preserved. The other Goswamis were Raghunatha Dasa, Raghunatha Bhatta, and Gopala Bhatta. The Mughal emperor AKBAR is said to have visited them, and was impressed by the teachings of Chaitanya. He not only allowed them to build temples, but arranged for special stone to be provided for the purpose, and four Krishna temples were set up at Vrindavana. The Goswamis had several followers themselves, and formalized the worship of RADHA along with that of Krishna. Rupa spread the message of love, while Gopala Bhatta codified the religious practices in his work, Haribhaktivilasa. The philosophical basis of the sect was laid down clearly by Jiva and further explained later by Baladeva.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu A VAISHNAVA saint who is believed to have been an incarnation of the Hindu god KRISHNA. Born in a BRAHMANA family in Navadvipa in Bengal in 1485, his original name was Vishvambara Mishra, though he was also known as Nemai Mishra. He studied the sacred texts and soon became very learned. At the age of twenty-two, he went to GAYA to perform the annual ceremony for his father, who had died some years earlier. At this time he received a divine experience and was filled with an ecstatic love for Krishna.

He became god-intoxicated and wandered to different places, describing the bliss of union with Krishna, which was symbolized for him by RADHA’s divine love. He went to DVARAKA, MATHURA, VARANASI and south India, but then settled down in Nilachal near Puri in Orissa. He advocated BHAKTI as a means to reach god, and encouraged singing, dancing and chanting the names of Radha and Krishna, to bring about divine ecstacy. Though born a BRAHMANA, he was against caste distinctions, and his followers included men and women of all castes and religions. A centre for Krishna worship was set up at VRINDAVANA near Mathura, where later a Krishna temple was built. His disciples were known as CHAITANYA GOSWAMIS, and the Chaitanya sect had a considerable influence both in Bengal and in Mathura.

Chaitanya probably died in 1534.

Chaitanya’s sayings were written down by his followers, one of the most important collections being the Chaitanya-Charitamrita of Krishna Das Kaviraj, who probably lived from 1517 to 1582.

The Shri Chaitanya Saraswat Matha was set up at Navadvipa in Bengal and still functions as the main centre for the worship of Chaitanya, while in Vrindavana the Goswamis carry on the Chaitanya tradition.

chaitya The term for a Buddhist shrine. Initially the word applied to any sacred Buddhist object worthy of worship, such as a relic or a STUPA. Later it came to refer to the hall or temple built around a stupa or other sacred site, where people gathered for worship and prayer.

chakra A Sanskrit term which literally means ‘wheel’. In religion it is used in several different ways and contexts. Some of these are given below: (1) The SUDARSHANA CHAKRA is the wheel or discus of the Hindu god VISHNU; (2) In Buddhism, the dharma chakra refers to the wheel of DHARMA, or of the divine law; (3) CHAKRAS are also mystical energy centres within the body.

Chakradhara The thirteenth-century founder of the MAHANUBHAVA sect. The sect was devoted to the worship of Krishna and DATTATREYA, both incarnations of the Hindu god VISHNU. The founders of the sect were also worshipped.

chakras Mystical energy centres within the human body. Chakras are first mentioned in the UPANISHADS and described in yogic (see YOGA) and TANTRIC texts. There are seven main chakras through which the KUNDALINI, or divine energy, is raised along the spinal cord or SUSHUMNA NADI, through meditative and breathing practices. These are the MULADHARA CHAKRA at the base of the spine (sacral plexus), the SVADHISHTHANA CHAKRA just below the navel, the MANIPURA CHAKRA at the solar plexus, the ANAHATA CHAKRA in the centre of the chest, the VISHUDDHA CHAKRA in the throat, the AJNA CHAKRA in the centre of the forehead, and the SAHASRARA CHAKRA on the crown of the head. In addition there are several other chakras, including chakras in the hands, feet and joints, as well as five higher chakras within the area of the brain.

Chaldean Syrian Church of the East Another name of the ASSYRIAN CHURCH OF THE EAST in India.

Chamkatti Mosque A mosque located at Gaur in Bengal, probably constructed in the fifteenth or sixteenth century. It has a single square brick chamber, with stone facing within, and a verandah on the east. There are four towers on the corners and a curvilinear roof surmounted by a dome. The panels are bordered with glazed tiles, and the mihrab is decorated with floral, chain and bell motifs. This mosque is one of the earliest built in the regional Bengal style, of which the square chamber with a single dome and attached verandadh, are typical. The mosque is thought to get its name from the Chamkatti Muslim community, who lived in the area. They were said to cut themselves in states of religious frenzy, and hence were known as Chamkatti, or skin-cutters.

Chamkaur A holy site for Sikhs located in Rupnagar district of Punjab. Here there are several GURDWARAS commemorating a battle fought by Guru GOBIND SINGH along with a small Sikh force of forty men, against a large Mughal army. The Sri Chamkaur Sahib Gurdwara is a memorial to those who died fighting. The Garhi Sahib Gurdwara marks the spot where a haveli was converted into a fortress to fight against the Mughals. The Tarhi Sahib Gurdwara is built at the place from where the guru and three surviving followers departed to safety in the middle of the night. Katargarh Sahib Gurdwara commemorates the death of Guru Gobind’s two elder sons, Ajit Singh and Jujhar Singh, who died fighting.

Chamunda/Chamundi A Hindu deity, a form of the goddess DURGA. According to the PURANAS, Durga created her from her forehead in order to defeat the two ASURAS, Chanda and Munda. Chamunda is often depicted along with a corpse and is shown emaciated or with a terrible form. In the Malti Madhava of BHAVABHUTI, an eighth century writer, the goddess Chamunda is described as dancing wildly. Her temple is said to be near cremation grounds. She wears a garland of skulls that laugh on their own, and is covered with snakes. Flames shoot out from her eyes and destroy the world. Chamunda thus represents the ferocious or negative aspects of the deity. There are several Chamunda temples, among them the large CHAMUNDA TEMPLE at Mysore. Others include a temple located on a hill near the city of Dewas in Madhya Pradesh, and a temple at Bhubaneswar in Orissa.

Chamunda Temple, Mysore A temple dedicated to the Hindu deity CHAMUNDA, who is the guardian deity of the Wodeyar dynasty, which once ruled Mysore, and remains the tutelary deity of the Wodeyar family. The temple is located on a granite hill near Mysore in Karnataka. The base of the temple can be dated to the twelfth century, though the main construction is of the seventeenth century, with additions made later. It has two GOPURAMS or gateways, the outer one with a high tower that is a modern construction. The silver-embossed doors have panels with various goddesses. The main shrine housing the goddess is small. The image of the goddess, who is considered the protector of Mysore, is made of gold. The ten-day DASHAHARA festival for which Mysore is famous, begins with a puja (worship) at this temple.

On the road leading to the temple is a 5 m high NANDI image carved out of a single rock, dating to 1569.

Chandi or Chandika Purana A Shaivite text in Sanskrit that deals with the worship of the goddess CHANDI. It is an UPAPURANA or minor PURANA.

Chandi/Chandika A Hindu deity, a form of the goddess DURGA. Chandi is mentioned in the Kadambari, a work written by Bana in the seventh century. There she is worshipped with animal sacrifices by the Shabaras, a local tribe. Later the goddess became popular in Bengal, where there are medieval texts, known as Mangalakavyas, dealing with her myths, legends and methods of worship. In Bengal she is depicted with four arms, holding a pomegranate, LINGA and trishakha in her hands. At her feet is a godhika (iguana).

In a Puranic story Chandi is described as a protector of animals. Once, it is said, there was a cruel hunter named Kalaketu. The animals appealed to the goddess to protect them from him, and she persuaded Kalaketu to give up his cruel ways. Chandi is also known as Mahamaya (great illusion) or Abhaya (the one without fear). There are numerous temples of Chandi Devi.

Chandidas A Vaishnava BHAKTI saint of the fourteenth or fifteenth century, who composed verses and songs in praise of KRISHNA and of the divine love between Krishna and RADHA. Not much is known of his life, but his poems are said to have been popular at the time of CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU, who lived between 1485 and 1534. Two villages in Bengal are associated with Chandidas, Chhatna near Bankura, and Nanur in district Birbhum. According to tradition, he loved a washerwoman known as Tara, Ramatara, or Rami, and compared his love for her with that of Radha’s for Krishna. Rami was his companion in parakiya rasa sadhana, or the worship of god through loving a woman who is not one’s wife.

Poems of Chandidas are found scattered in VAISHNAVA anthologies, and their uneven quality has led scholars to presume that there were several poets who used the same name. A number of poems deal not only with divine love, but also with his love for Rami. A manuscript discovered in the twentieth century with poems of one Badu Chandidas has also been ascribed to him and published under the title Sri Krishna Kirtana.

Poems assigned to Chandidas also form part of TANTRIC worship, and are associated with the SAHAJIYA cult. Some of these, however, probably belong to a later period.

Chandi-Mahatmya/Chandi-patha Another name of the DEVI-MAHATMYA, a Sanskrit text glorifying the goddess DURGA.

Chandra An alternative name of SOMA, or the moon, a Hindu deity. Chandra or Soma is one of the NAVAGRAHA and also a DIKAPALA or guardian of the north-east quarter. He is the father of BUDHA or Mercury.

Chandragupta Maurya The founder of the Mauryan dynasty who ruled from 321 to 297 BCE, with his capital at PATALIPUTRA (modern-day Patna, Bihar). According to Jain tradition, he was a pious Jain who accompanied BHADRABAHU to south India and died at SHRAVANA BELAGOLA through the rite of SALLEKHANA (self-starvation).

Chandrakirti A MAHAYANA Buddhist who lived in the seventh century and belonged to the PRASANGIKA sect of the MADHYAMIKA school. He continued the work of BUDDHAPALITA and wrote the Prassanapada and the Madhyamaka-vatara.

Chandramoulishvara A name of the Hindu god SHIVA.

Chandravamsha A lineage of kings who claim to be descended from CHANDRA or the moon. According to genealogies given in the PURANAS, BUDHA (Mercury) was descended from Chandra. From him was born PURURAVAS, followed by Ayus and Nahusha. Nahusha had two sons, Ayati and Yayati. Yayati in turn had five sons, three from his wife Sarmishtha (Druhyu, Anudruhyu and PURU) and two from his wife Devayani (YADU and Turvasu). Several dynasties were descended from these, including the Kurus, Yadus and Vrishnis, who all played a part in the great MAHABHARATA war. In later times a number of kings who had no connection with the dynasties described in early texts claimed to belong to Chandravamsha dynasties. Among these were some of the Rajputs. SURYAVAMSHA dynasties, or those tracing their descent from the sun, also existed.

Chanukah/Hanukah A Jewish festival of lights that commemorates the victory of the Jews, led by the Maccabees, over the Greek rulers of Palestine in the second century BCE. During this festival, oil lamps or candles are lit over a period of eight days in memory of a miracle that took place at the time of the victory, when a lamp with oil sufficient for one day remained alight for eight. The festival usually takes place in December and emphasizes the qualities of charity, good deeds, sacrifice and devotion.

charana (1) A group of people following one particular Vedic school. In ancient days there were many different versions of the VEDAS, and a charana consisted of people who adhered to one particular Shakha or recension.

(2) An ascetic who had special powers and was said to be able to fly through the air.

Charanas or Chaaranas A group of minor Hindu deities who live in heaven and are singers and dancers. They sing in praise of heroes.

Charar-e Sharif The shrine of the SUFI saint NURUDDIN (1377–1438), who was also known as Nund Rishi. It was destroyed by militants in 1995 but later partially rebuilt. Popular among both Hindus and Muslims, the shrine in Kashmir is located 32 km from Srinagar and was built in the reign of the Mughal emperor AKBAR. It was elaborately carved, with a tiered roof supported on four pillars of wood, each formed by the trunk of a deodar tree.

Nearby is a mosque constructed by Atta Mohammad Khan, an Afghan governor, who was a devotee of the saint.

Chariya Pitaka A HINAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON. It consists of a collection of thirty-five Jatakas or stories of the previous births of the BUDDHA, in verse. These express the PARAMITAS (perfections) of the Buddha in his life as a BODHISATTVA. Some of these stories occur in more detail in the JATAKA texts, but the concept of Paramitas is a comparatively late development.

Charminar A monument located in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, constructed in 1591 by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (ruled 1580–1612), who founded the city of Hyderabad. It is approximately 57 m high and 30.5 m wide, with minarets surmounted by domes on the four corners. Important announcements were made from here, and there was once a mosque on the first storey. According to legend there was plague spreading through the region and Muhammad Quli promised to build a monument to God if the disease was controlled. He honoured his promise by building the Charminar in the centre of the city. Syncretic legends also relate it to the goddess LAKSHMI, who is said to have visited the monument and been compelled to stay there, thus increasing the prosperity of the region.

Charvaka A materialistic school of thought in ancient India, also known as Lokayata. It was said to have been founded by a philosopher named Charvaka, but Charvaka was also a generic name for materialistic philosophy. In some texts, BRIHASPATI is said to be the founder of the school. Charvaka philosophy is known mainly through Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, which are all extremely critical of the Charvakas. The focus of the philosophy is on sense perception and matter. Matter is the only reality, and perception through the senses the only method of gaining knowledge. The four elements of earth, water, fire and air combine in different ways, leading to all forms of life, which end in death. There is no soul or ATMAN, no gods, demons or superior beings, but only the natural world and the forces of nature. Moral rules are created by people, and the aim or goal of life is pleasure. Sorrow is part of the world and has to be accepted for the sake of the joy that is also found.

Materialist philosophers were against the VEDAS, sacrifices and rituals, and probably emerged in reaction to the dominance of BRAHMANAS and the focus on rituals. Scholars believe these ideas existed even before the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.

While materialist ideas can be seen in some texts of ancient India, among later texts that put forth these ideas is the Tattvopaplavasimha, written by Jayarashi in the eighth century. Jayarashi criticizes all existing religious systems and attempts to show that they were false.

chaturmasya vrata (1) A four-month period of religious observances practised by Hindus to obtain merit and blessings, beginning at the end of the lunar month of Ashadha (June–July) and observed in Shravana, Bhadrapada and Ashvina, ending in Karttika (October to November). During this time the god VISHNU is said to enter yoga nidra, or a yogic sleep, and the rituals end when he reawakens. Though usually practised by heads of VAISHNAVA monasteries, it is open to all. For its correct practice one should live in solitude, study the scriptures and meditate on the god VISHNU, but modifications are allowed for lay persons.

Each of the four months has particular dietary restrictions. In the first month certain vegetables are avoided; in the second, curd or yoghurt; in the third, milk products; and in the fourth, dicotyledon grains, vegetables with seeds, and tubers. Additional special fasts can also be undertaken during this period.

(2) Chaturmasya also refers to rituals performed at the beginning of each four-monthly season.

Chaubara Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Goindwal in Punjab, which consists of a three-storeyed structure, with a square plan. Nearby is a baoli or well with eighty-four steps, symbolizing the series of 84,00,000 incarnations through which an individual is said to pass. The gurdwara is associated with the lives of three gurus. Guru AMAR DAS lived here, and Guru RAM DAS was bestowed with guruship here in 1574. An annual fair is held here to commemorate this day. Both these gurus died here, while Guru ARJAN DEV was born here.

Chauburji Mosque A mosque located in DELHI, constructed by Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq who ruled between 1351 and 58. This double-storeyed mosque has a large central chamber with smaller chambers around it. It once had four towers, now crumbled, from which it gets its name. A short distance away is another double-storeyed structure, also in ruins, part of which was also once used as a mosque. It is known as Pir Ghaib, as a saint (pir) once lived in one of its rooms and one day disappeared (ghaib) mysteriously. Both these structures formed part of Firuz Shah’s palace complex.

Chenchu religion Chenchus, a Telugu-speaking tribal group of Andhra Pradesh, live in the hilly forested regions of the state. Traditionally, they collect and sell forest produce, but now their lifestyles are changing. Chenchus have always had a close relationship with Hindusm and worship Hindu deities. They are associated with the sacred sites of AHOBALAM and SRISAILAM, and there are two parallel legends about their connection with the deities here. At Ahobalam, a centre for the worship of VISHNU as NARASIMHA, it is said that the goddess LAKSHMI was once born in the Chenchu tribe, and Narasimha married her. According to the legend at SRISAILAM, the god SHIVA came here on a hunting expedition and fell in love with a beautiful Chenchu woman. All Chenchus are descended from their union. Thus Chenchus call Shiva Chenchu-Malliah or Linga-mayya, while his consort is known as Maisamma or Peddamma. A panel in the Srisailam temple shows Shiva followed by a forest woman, with four dogs. Chenchus are allowed to enter the inner shrine of the temple and have a special role in all temple festivals.

Chennakeshava Temple A temple of the Hindu god VISHNU, dedicated to the deity Vijaya Narayana, located at BELUR in Karnataka. It was constructed in 1117 by Vishnuvardhana, a king of the Hoysala dynasty, in celebration of his victory over the Chola dynasty. Built of grey-green chloritic schist, it has the typical star-shaped ground plan of Hoysala temples. The main shrine is connected with a columned MANDAPA and built on an intricately carved raised basement. There are susidiary shrines on three sides. The whole is enclosed in a courtyard, entered through a GOPURAM on the east, with a soaring tower. Around it are more shrines. Guardian figures, Vishnu images and MAKARAS decorate the doorways. The pillars have mouldings and carved bracket stones, decorated with female figurines.

Cheraman Jumma Mosque A mosque located in Mehala village near Kodungallur in Kerala. The mosque is a double-storeyed structure dating from the sixteenth century, partially reconstructed recently. Once made entirely of wood, its wooden interiors are still intact, and unlike other mosques, it has a large oil lamp in the centre. According to local tradition, King Cheraman Perumal of the seventh century went to Mecca, where he converted to Islam and was renamed Tajuddin. He married the daughter of the king of Jeddah and settled there. Before his death, he appealed to the king to help propagate Islam in Kerala, and the king or his messenger paid a visit to the raja of Kodungallur and with his help converted the Arathali temple into a mosque. This was allegedly the first mosque in India. Another legend is that it was built by a Muslim who arrived there in the seventh century. However, there is no historical evidence supporting these traditions.

Islamic festivals are celebrated at the mosque, and people of other religions also offer oil for the lamp on auspicious occasions.

Cheya Suttas (Cheda Sutras) A series of Jain texts of the SHVETAMBARA canon, composed in ARDHA MAGADHI. The texts are the Nisiha (Nishitha); Mahanisiha (Maha-Nishitha); Vavahara (Vyavahara); Ayaradasao (Acharadashah) or Dasasuyakkhanda (Dashashrutakandha), briefly called Dasao; Kappa (Brihat-Kalpa); Pamchakappa (Pancha-Kalpa). (The Sanskrit equivalents are in brackets.) Some lists contain the Jiyakappa (Jita-Kalpa) of Jinabhadra, instead of the Pamchakappa. The Cheya Suttas contain the rules for monks and nuns, interspersed with legends, biographies and other aspects of Jainism. The first three texts deal mainly with atonements and penances for the transgression of rules. Of the three, the Vavahara is considered the earliest. The fourth text, the Dasao, is said to have been written by BHADRABAHU. The eighth section forms the KALPA SUTRA, in itself an extensive text and one of the most important Shvetambara texts. The Brihat Kalpa Sutra is earlier than this, and is the basic text of rules for monks and nuns. The Pancha Kalpa is no longer in existence. Additional texts are sometimes added to the list of Cheya Suttas.

Chhandogya Upanishad An UPANISHAD belonging to the SAMA VEDA, consisting of eight out of the ten chapters of the Chhandogya Brahmana. It is one of the earliest Upanishads, dating to about 600 BCE. It discusses the nature of BRAHMAN and its identity with the ATMAN. In a famous passage, Uddalaka explains to his son Shvetaketu how Brahman pervades everything. He asks Shvetaketu to break the seed of a banyan tree, and then to tell him what he sees. Shvetaketu responds that he sees nothing, and Uddalaka says: ‘What you cannot see is the essence, and in that essence is the mighty banyan tree. In that essence is the Self of all that is.’

Chhath A Hindu festival in honour of SURYA, the sun god, celebrated mainly in Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. The festival begins soon after DIVALI, with a ceremony inaugurating a three-day fast. The fast ends after worshipping Surya at sunset and sunrise, and bathing in a river or tank. The festival has spread to other states where migrants from Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh live.

Chhevin Padshahi Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Jalandhar in Punjab. It marks the spot where Guru HARGOBIND had a spiritual discussion with a SUFI saint, known as Shaikh Darvesh. An eighteenth century handwritten copy of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB is preserved in this gurdwara.

Chidambaram A town located in Tamil Nadu, which is a centre of pilgrimage, famous for its SHIVA temples. The NATARAJA TEMPLE here, in which Shiva is worshipped as the lord of dance, is the most famous, and its origin dates back to the sixth century. There are several other temples built in Dravidian style. The Akasha Linga, the ethereal or invisible LINGA of Shiva, is also said to be located here. In ancient days Chidambaram was known for its scholars and as an abode of BHAKTI saints.

Chinmayananda, Swami A renowned guru and spiritual teacher who spread the teachings of ADVAITA VEDANTA throughout India and the world.

Born in 1916 at Ernakulam, Kerala, his original name was Balakrishna Menon. His mother died when he was five years old and Balan, as he was known, grew up in an extended joint family of aunts, uncles and cousins. He attended an English school and also studied Sanskrit and Malayalam. In 1940 he joined Lucknow University and simultaneously began to participate in the freedom movement. He was arrested and imprisoned but released when, because of illness, he was on the point of death. Nursed back to health by a Christian lady, he completed his education, graduating in English literature and law, and joined the National Herald newspaper as a journalist.

Dissatisfied with his life, he read the ancient texts and finally entered the ashram of Swami SIVANANDA, and was ordained as a Swami on 25 February 1949, his new name being Swami Chinmayananda Sarasvati. He studied for eight years with Swami Tapovan in the Himalayas, and then began to teach and explain the truths of the ancient scriptures.

This was the first time that anyone had given lectures on these topics in English, that were open to all, and he met with opposition from traditional swamis. However, his movement soon took off and spread throughout India. He said, ‘Vedanta makes you a better Hindu, a better Christian, a better Muslim, as it makes you a better human being’. He also began to teach abroad. After forty-two years of continuous teaching, Swami Chinmayananda died at San Diego, California, on 3 August 1993.

The Chinmaya Mission continues to work for his ideals. Two main ashrams in India are at Siddhbari in the Himalayas and at Mumbai, while there are several more in the USA. The Mission runs schools, hospitals, orphanages and old-age homes, and his disciples continue to teach and spread the message of Vedanta.

Chinnamasta A Hindu goddess who is widely worshipped. She is one of the ten MAHAVIDYAS or TANTRIC goddesses, and is described as standing on a cremation ground on the bodies of KAMA and RATI, or KRISHNA and RADHA. She has cut off her own head and holds it in one hand, while in the other she holds a sword. Chinnamasta is worshipped to gain SHAKTI or power, as well as in Tantric rites.

Chintamani A wish-fulfilling gem that could grant all desires. It belonged to the Hindu god BRAHMA, who is also known by this name.

Chintpurni Temple A temple of the Hindu deity SATI, wife of SHIVA, located in Una District of Himachal Pradesh. It represents a SHAKTA PITHA, a place of divine power, as according to legend, it is one of the places where fragments of Sati’s body fell. Her feet are said to have fallen here, and an ancient temple marked the spot. The present temple is said to have been erected by Mai Dasa, a devotee of the goddess DURGA. Thousands of pilgrims visit it, particularly at the time of NAVARATRA. The goddess here is worshipped in the form of a LINGA.

Chinvat Bridge In Zoroastrianism, the bridge crossed by souls at the time of death. It is called the Chinvato Peretu, the bridge of separation, because it separates the good from the evil. At the bridge the soul is greeted by a symbolic representation of his deeds in life, which takes the form of either a beautiful young woman or an ugly old one. Accoding to the VENDIDAD, she is accompanied by dogs who can distinguish between the good and the bad. The good then go to heaven, while the wicked are dragged down. The Arda Viraf Namah written by ARDA VIRAF in the third century, has a similar account of the Chinvat, while some stories and legends state that one’s own pet dogs appear to guide one safely over the bridge. In Islam, a description of the bridge between the two worlds (Sirat) is thought to be based on Zoroastrian sources. Other early myths too, speak of a bridge to be crossed after death.

Chirag-i Dilli’s Dargah A DARGAH or shrine of a SUFI saint located in DELHI. NASIRUDDIN MAHMUD, who died in 1356, was the successor of NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA, a saint of the CHISTI sect, and was popularly known as Roshan Chiragh-i Dilli (‘the illuminated lamp of Delhi’). He was buried in the room in which he lived, along with the articles he treasured, the cloak, staff, cup and prayer carpet given to him by Nizamuddin, as he could not find a worthy successor to whom he could pass these on.

The tomb is in a twelve-pillared square chamber enclosed by perforated screens. A gold cup hangs over the grave. Above the tomb chamber is a red sandstone dome, and there are other mosques and tombs in the enclosure. The settlement around it was named ‘Chiragh-Dilli’ after the saint. The Dargah remains a holy site and a place of pilgrimage.

chisti A term in Zoroastrianism for the ray of light that brings divine illumination. In the GATHAS it indicates the divine insight that leads to enlightenment. Later Chisti is personified as a YAZATA or minor deity, and is also known as Chista or Razishta Chista.

Chisti Order An order of SUFI saints. The Chisti order derives its name from Chisti, a village near Herat in present Afghanistan. In India it was founded by Khwaja MUINUDDIN CHISTI who came here from Sijistan (Sistan) in 1191.

Chistis follow the QURAN and SHARIA, but maintain a liberal outlook, accepting that there is only one Truth, but many paths to God, and no difference among the followers of different religions. They preach that God is love, and all creation belongs to the family of God. Most of the Chisti saints lived a life of asceticism and poverty. They attracted many followers in India and are revered by both Hindus and Muslims.

Chisti saints believe in helping and serving others. Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti said the highest form of devotion to God was ‘redressing the misery of those in distress, fulfilling the needs of the helpless, and feeding the hungry’. He urged his disciples to ‘develop river-like generosity, sun-like affection and earth-like hospitality’. Chistis also use music and dance to reach the divine.

Most Chisti mystics are followers of WAHDAT AL-WAJUD, a doctrine similar to that of Oneness in the UPANISHADS. In social life this implies treating people of all religions equally, and total freedom from religious prejudices. Chistis are not in favour of conversion to Islam. Shah Muhibbullah of Allahabad, a Chisti saint, told DARA SHIKOH that any discrimination between Hindus and Muslims was against the spirit of Islam. Another saint, Shah Kalimullah of Delhi (d. 1729), told his khalifahs to teach people to remember God (ZIKR) rather than to convert them.

The Chisti order was one of the most popular in India, and spread to Bengal, Malwa, the Deccan and other areas.

Among notable Chisti saints were Muinuddin’s disciples Shaikh QUTBUDDIN BAKHTIYAR KAKI and Shaikh HAMIDUDDIN from Nagaur. Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar of Ajodhan, popularly known as Baba FARID, was the chief khalifah (deputy) of Kaki. Three of his disciples founded sub-orders: Shaikh Jamaluddin Hanowi established the Jamaliyah order, which soon died out; Shaikh Alauddin Sabir founded the SABIRI ORDER; Shaikh NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA founded the Nizamiya order, the most widespread in India.

In the Deccan, prominent Chistis were Shaikh BURHANUDDIN GHARIB, Shaikh Muntakhab and Khwaja Hasan. One of the greatest was Mir GESU DARAZ of Gulbarga, who died in 1422. In Malwa, saints included Shaikh Wajihuddin Yusuf (d. c. 1328), Shaikh Kamaluddin Multani Mughisuddin, and in Gujarat, Shaikh Husamuddin Multani (d. c. 1354), Shaikh Barikullah and Syed Hasan. Akhi Siraj, also known as Shaikh Sirajuddin, introduced the Chisti order in Bengal. He died in 1357. His notable successors include Shaikh Alaul Haqq (d. 1398), Shaikh Nur Qutb-i Alam (d.1419), and Shaikh Ashraf Jahangir Simanani (d. 1405). These saints greatly influenced the religious life of Bihar, Bengal and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Sultan Husain Shah of Bengal started the SATYA-PIR movement under their influence and the Bengal sultans had several Hindu texts translated into Bengali. Shah Muhammad Saghir, Zainuddin, Shaikh Kabir and others wove Iranian traditions into Indian legends. Thanesar (in Haryana), Lucknow, Gangoh (east of Delhi), Jaunpur and Burhanpur were among other major Chisti centres.

Chisti saints are still worshipped in India by all communities, and their DARGAHS are popular centres of pilgrimage.

Chitpavan brahmanas A Hindu BRAHMANA community of Maharashtra. According to legend they were foreigners who were shipwrecked on the western coast. All of them died but were revived by PARASHURAMA, an incarnation of VISHNU. They are said to have originally been Jews or Zoroastrians. This legend probably arose to account for the assimilation of outsiders into the Brahmana community. It is also similar to the legend of the Jewish BENE ISRAEL community, said to have been revived by the Prophet Elijah.

Chitragupta The assistant of the Hindu god YAMA. He lists the good and evil actions of each person after death and judges their worth. He is depicted along with Yama in sculptures.

Chitrakuta A place mentioned in the RAMAYANA. The ashram of the rishi VALMIKI was located here. It is identified with a place of the same name in Chitrakut district in southern Uttar Pradesh. There are several temples and shrines here, and it is a place of pilgrimage. The sacred places of Chitrakuta extend across the border into Madhya Pradesh.

Chitraratha The name of several people in ancient texts, but particularly of the king of the GANDHARVAS. He was the son of the RISHI KASHYAPA and his wife Muni. According to the MAHABHARATA, he fought a battle with ARJUNA and was defeated, but later the two became friends.

chitta A Sanskrit term that cannot be defined exactly, but indicates the conscious mind. Manas is another term for the mind, while vritti and BUDDHI indicate different mental states.

choekyong A protector deity in Tibetan Buddhism. Choekyongs were originally Hindu or Bon deities, later incorporated into Buddhism. The Nechung, the oracle who protects the DALAI LAMA, originated as a Bon deity. Mahakala, a popular choekyong, is the embodiment of the Hindu god SHIVA. Hayagriva, a BODHISATTVA, is also considered a choekyong. There are several other choekyongs.

Chokha Mela A BHAKTI saint of the thirteenth or fourteenth century who worshipped the god Vithoba or VITTHALA at PANDHARPUR. Born in a Mahar or low-caste family, he at first lived at Mangalvedhya and later moved to Pandharpur. As he was of a low caste, for a long time the priests would not allow him into the temple. However, he and his wife Sairabai continued to be devoted to the deity and encouraged their relatives too, to live a pious life. According to legend, the god himself once took him into the temple, but he was thrown out by the priests. Later, convinced of the favour the god showed him, he was allowed to enter. Chokha Mela was associated with the saint NAMADEVA and composed devotional ABHANGAS in Marathi, praising Vitthala. He also spoke against the caste system and emphasized the importance of one’s own body and soul, which was in itself a temple of god and therefore must be kept pure and clean. Chokha Mela and other workers died when they were buried under the debris of a wall they were building at Pandharpur.

chorten A type of Buddhist shrine, the Tibetan term for a STUPA. The basic structure has a square base with a dome. Steps lead to a parasol, above which are the twin symbols of the sun and moon. Chortens are erected near VIHARAS or sacred places, and usually contain any sacred object.

Chote Hazrat ki Dargah A Muslim shrine located in Hyderabad. It was built in the sixteenth century during the reign of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah in honour of Hazrat Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet MUHAMMAD. According to tradition, Yusuf, a eunuch of Ibrahim Quli, climbed a hill and saw a vision of Hazrat Ali. He also found an impression of Hazrat Ali’s palm in a rock and installed this in a shrine. Later other structures, including a mosque, were constructed nearby. The shrine is still visited by pilgrims from all over the world, particularly on the eighth and tenth days of MUHARRAM.

Christian festivals and sacred days There are a number of Christian festivals linked with the life of JESUS CHRIST. Some have fixed dates, while the dates of others are variable. The main festivals are: Advent, which begins before Christmas and is a four-week penitential season preparing for the birth of Christ; CHRISTMAS, on 25 December; Epiphany, on 6 January, which commemorates the visit of the MAGI to the baby Jesus (Eastern Christians celebrate this as Theophany, or the baptism of Jesus); Ash Wednesday, which marks the beginning of LENT; Palm Sunday which marks the beginning of Holy Week; and the Sacred Triduum of Holy Thursday (the commemoration of the Last Supper), GOOD FRIDAY (the day of the crucifixion), and Holy Saturday, followed by EASTER Sunday, the day of the resurrection. The Easter season continues for forty days till Ascension Thursday, followed by the Feast of the Pentecost, also known as Whit Sunday, the day when the Holy Spirit descended on the APOSTLES, seven weeks after Easter.

Other festivals include Candlemas, when Jesus was presented to the temple, celebrated on 2 February; the Annunciation, on 25 March; the Transfiguration, on 6 August; and the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin on 15 August. According to some accounts, AKBAR, the Mughal emperor of the sixteenth century, who took an interest in Christianity, celebrated this day.

Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Christians have most of the same festivals, with some variations and additions. They use a different ecclesiastical calendar, therefore several of their festivals fall on days different from those of Western Christians, though Christmas is on the same day.

In India Christmas and Easter are popular festivals, others being observed only by Christians.

Christian saints Christianity recognizes a number of saints who were once Christian leaders, martyrs or missionaries. Very often, some miraculous occurrence is associated with them. Saints of the past include the APOSTLES and a number of others who lived later. New saints continue to be recognized by the Holy See, while Orthodox Churches recognize saints through Synods of bishops. Protestants revere saints but do not declare new ones, though they acknowledge the contribution of some notable Christians. Among saints associated specifically with India, ST. THOMAS and ST. FRANCIS XAVIER are the most important.

In addition, two Indian Christians, Gonzalo GARCIA (1557–97), and Sister Alphonsa (1910–46) were canonized as saints, while three other Indians were beatified (a blessed state less than sainthood). They were Joseph VAZ (1651–1711), Kuriakose Elias Chavara (1805–71), and Mother Mariam Thresia Mankidiyan (1876–1926). The last two belonged to the Syro-Malabar Church. Mother TERESA, a naturalized Indian, was beatified in 2003. The CHURCH OF NORTH INDIA has a list of notable Christians, including Roberto de NOBILI, Samuel AZARIAH and Sadhu SUNDAR SINGH.

Christianity Christianity, a worldwide religion, centres around JESUS CHRIST and his teachings. Its basic text is the NEW TESTAMENT, along with the OLD TESTAMENT, together forming the BIBLE. It has a very rich literature of additional texts written over the centuries.

Early Christians were Jews, but later Christianity and Judaism separated. In 381 Christianity became the religion of the Roman empire, and by this time it had also spread to Persia, India and Ireland. As Christianity spread through the world, it became divided into two groups, the Western, known as Catholic, covering most of western Europe, and the Eastern, known as ‘Orthodox’, including eastern Europe, Greece, Constantinople, Russia, as well as Africa and Asia. This division had taken place by the eleventh century. The Western Church was under the Pope, while the Orthodox, including the Russian and Greek Orthodox Churches and other national churches, had a symbolic centre in Constantinople (Istanbul). In the sixteenth century the REFORMATION and Counter Reformation split the Western Church into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. A number of different Protestant sects emerged, while at the same time Western Christianity spread to the USA, Africa, Asia and South America. Christianity now has three broad groups: ROMAN CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS and ORTHODOX Christians. Some Orthodox Churches are recognized by the Pope and affiliated to the Roman Catholic Church, though they follow their own modes of worship. The number of Christians in the world today is difficult to assess, though it is estimated at between one and two billion, thus forming the largest religion in the world.

Christianity in India Christians consist of 2.3 per cent of the population of India, comprising 2,40,80,016 people (2001 census), forming the third-largest religious group after Hindus and Muslims. A number of Christian denominations are represented, including CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS, and ORTHODOX Christians.

According to tradition, Christianity was introduced in India in the first century, when ST. THOMAS, an APOSTLE of Christ, came to India. According to Eusebius, a historian of the fourth century, the presence of Christians in India was confirmed by Pantaenus, a Jewish teacher from Alexandria, who visited India in the second century. Pantaenus stated that the Indian community was founded by St. Bartholomew, another of Jesus’s Apostles. At the Christian Council of Nicea, held in 325, one of the delegates, John, was described as ‘the Bishop of Persia and Great India’, indicating the presence of Christians in India. These early Christians were locally known as Nazranis, or followers of the Nazarene.

Around 345, another group of Christians came to India from the Persian empire, led by Thomas of Canan, or CANAI THOMA. They settled at Kodungallur, in Kerala, where they were granted some land by the local king. Along with Thoma came bishops and priests from Syria, which led to the emergence of SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.

Cosmas, an Egyptian merchant known as Indicopleustes because of his frequent voyages to and around India, in the sixth century, recorded the existence of Christian communities in the regions of Malabar (Kerala) and Kalyan, identified either with Kalyan in Maharashtra or in Karnataka.

Christian inscriptions have been found on two seventh or eighth-century crosses from Malabar and Mylapore. In the ninth century, King Alfred of Britain sent gifts to the Christians of India. Other Christians from Syria arrived in the ninth or tenth centuries and settled in Kollam (Kerala). In the thirteenth century, the traveller Marco Polo found communities of Christians in south India. Till then, Indian Christians were associated mainly with West Asia and the ORTHODOX Church. Some Roman Catholic missionaries including Giovanni da MONTECORVINO, reached south India in the thirteenth century, but did not have much influence there.

In the sixteenth century, the Portuguese settled in GOA and brought Catholicism with them. Portuguese priests travelled to north India and Tibet, and were invited to the court of the Mughal emperor AKBAR. They also went to south India, where they attempted to establish ascendancy over the Syrian Christians and block their traditional links with West Asia. They received their authority from the PADROADO, an agreement between the Pope and the king of Portugal. The Synod of DIAMPER (Udayamperur near Kochi in Kerala), held in 1599, brought the Syrians under Portuguese authority. Within Goa, the Portuguese also organized an INQUISITION.

As Portuguese power declined, the Syrians organized a revolt in 1653, known as the Revolt of COONEN KURISU. After this the Syrian Church was split into different groups.

Meanwhile the ARMENIANS formed another group of Christians in north India, but did not attempt conversion or proselytization.

The seventeenth century saw the British and other European nations establishing their settlements and trading centres in India. With them arrived Christian Protestant missionaries. Danish Lutherans set up missionary centres at Tranquebar in south India and Serampore in Bengal in the early eighteenth century. Initially the British did not allow missionaries, therefore the Englishman William CAREY established his Baptist Mission at Serampore. In 1814, however, the ban was lifted, and Protestant missionaries of all denominations entered India. Conversion to Christianity took place in various parts of India, including the tribal areas of the NORTH-EAST. The Indianization of Christianity was started, notably by Roberto de NOBILI.

From the nineteenth century onwards, Christianity had an effect on several reformist movements in India, as well as on individuals. Its ideals of love, service and compassion influenced many. The BRAHMO SAMAJ, started in 1828, had some Christian concepts and rituals. RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHANSA had a mystical experience of JESUS, and the RAMAKRISHNA MISSION embodied the Christian ideals of service. Sri AUROBINDO incorporated a passage on Jesus in his epic poem Savitri, in which he wrote: ‘He who has found his identity with God/Pays with the body’s death, the soul’s vast light.’ Mahatma GANDHI loved the Sermon on the Mount, from the NEW TESTAMENT, and his favourite hymns included Abide With Me. PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA equated the essence of Jesus with that of KRISHNA. Even those who totally rejected Christianity used its ideas while remodelling and reforming Hinduism.

By 1947, there were several Christian denominations in India which asserted their Indian identity. Some of these have formed unions, such as the CHURCH OF SOUTH INDIA and the CHURCH OF NORTH INDIA, apart from associations of CATHOLIC CHURCHES. Among the most notable Christians after Independence was Mother TERESA, who was beatified in 2003. Many of the Christian churches have Indianized and hold their services in local languages. Christian missions continue to work with the underprivileged and to provide relief at the time of calamities. Christian hospitals, hospices, and educational institutions are highly regarded by all classes and communities. However, conversion, which continues particularly among DALITS and tribals, remains a controversial issue.

Christmas A festival that takes place on 25 December every year, celebrating the birth of JESUS CHRIST, the founder of Christianity. Though historically it is doubtful whether Jesus was born on this day, it is the day traditionally associated with his birth. In India it is also a popular festival for other communities, particularly in urban areas. Christians celebrate the day by going to church, exchanging gifts, greeting friends and family members, and eating and serving elaborate meals. Myths and legends are associated with this festival, including those of Father Christmas or Santa Claus, who flies over rooftops in a reindeer sleigh, distributing gifts to houses along the way. The concept of Santa Claus is based on the story of St. Nicholas of Myra (c. 340), reputed for his kindness and help to the poor. A tree, real or artificial, representing the tree of life, is usually decorated and placed inside the house. The gifts are placed under it, and Christmas carols, or hymns celebrating the birth of Christ, are sung.

Church The term is used in Christianity in two ways. It refers both to a place of worship and to a Christian denomination or sect.

Church of God (Full Gospel) An international Christian Pentecostal Church. In India, Robert F. Cook started a Full Gospel Church in 1914. In 1936, J.G. Ingram of the Church of God came to India, and Cook merged the Malankara Full Gospel Church, which had sixty-six churches, with the Church of God. The Church of God spread all over India, and in 1972 its administration was divided into seven autonomous zones. In 1994, the Church of God at Kumbanad separated from the group.

Members of the Church of God follow the King James Version of the BIBLE and believe in unity, simplicity and modesty.

Church of North India A union of six PROTESTANT Churches or denominations, formed on 29 November 1970. The Churches are: United Church of Northern India, Baptist Churches of North India (British Baptists), Churches of the Brethren of India, the Disciples of Christ (Anglican) the Church of India, and the Methodist Church (British and Australian Conference). Negotiations for this union had started as far back as 1929, and meetings and discussions took place regularly. In 1965 a constitution for the Churches was drawn up, known as the ‘White Book’, and finally the Churches united at Nagpur in 1970. Its administrative body is a Synod that meets once every three years. A moderator elected by it, who should be of the level of a bishop, supervises the day-to-day affairs. Its headquarters are in New Delhi.

Church of South India A union of PROTESTANT Churches in south India, which includes ANGLICAN, PRESBYTERIAN, CONGREGATIONAL and METHODIST (British) Churches.

After twenty-eight years of negotiations, the union took place on 27 September 1947. At this time the groups of Churches which joined were the Madras, Malabar, Madurai, Jaffna, Kannada, Telugu and Travancore Church Councils of the South India United Church (SIUS); the South India province of the Methodist Church, comprising the Madras, Trichinopoly, Hyderabad and Mysore districts; and the Madras, Dornakal, Tinnevelly, Travancore and Cochin dioceses of the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon. The union then had fourteen dioceses. The North Tamil Church of the SIUS joined in 1950, the Bombay Karnataka Council of the United Basel Mission Church in 1958, and the Anglican Church of Nandyal Diocese in 1975. The union now has twenty-one dioceses, covering south India and Sri Lanka. The Church of South India is autonomous and its ordained ministry includes bishops, presbyters and deacons. A Synod administers the affairs of the church.

Church organization The ROMAN CATHOLICS, PROTESTANTS and ORTHODOX Christians have different spiritual hierarchies. For Roman Catholics, the Pope is the highest authority, God’s representative on earth. He is responsible for the spiritual guidance and welfare of all Roman Catholics. Cardinals, who are appointed by the Pope, are his main advisers. The whole church is divided into dioceses, which are territorial areas, guided by bishops, each of whom is appointed by the Pope. Under the bishops are pastors, who take care of parishes, or smaller areas, within a diocese.

PROTESTANT churches are broadly of three kinds: Episcopal, Congregational and Presbyterian. Episcopal churches are governed by bishops, Congregational by members elected from the congregation, and Presbyterian by elders.

In the ORTHODOX Church, a diocese is called an eparchy and a bishop is known as an eparch. Eparchs are usually given the title Mar (Lord). Some of them are under Patriarchs of West Asia, while others recognize the authority of the Pope.

Churnis A term for commentaries on SHVETAMBARA Jain texts. A number of Churnis were written between the sixth and ninth centuries.

Chyavana An ancient sage or RISHI who was the son of the rishi BHRIGU by his wife Puloma. When he was a young man, Chyavana sat in meditation for so long that a mud-hill covered him. One day Sukanya, daughter of the king Sharyati, poked at the mound of earth. Chyavana asked her to stop, but she poked a thorn at two glowing points she saw, which were his eyes, and Chyavana was blinded. He did nothing in response, but as he was an ascetic, Sharyati’s whole kingdom began to suffer. When he came to Chyavana to apologize, Chyavana asked for Sukanya’s hand in marriage. Sukanya looked after the old and blind sage with great devotion, and finally the ASHVINS, who had healing powers, gave him back his youth and eyesight.

Cochin Jews An ancient Jewish settlement existed at Cochin (Kochi) in Kerala. See KERALA JEWS.

Communion of Churches of India A Christian organization formed in 2004, consisting of the CHURCH OF NORTH INDIA, the CHURCH OF SOUTH INDIA, and the MAR THOMA CHURCH. The Communion represents the joint interests of Christians in these Churches.

congregational A term relating to Church organization. Congregational churches are governed by officers elected by the congregation, or all the members of the church. Initially each congregational church retained its autonomy, though later they joined other church associations.

consciousness Several states of consciousness are described in Hindu philosophy, both in the UPANISHADS and in later YOGA and TANTRA texts and commentaries. The MANDUKYA UPANISHAD states that the Self has four parts. The first is Vaishvanara or Vishva, who enjoys the world through Jagarita, or the waking state; the second is Taijasa, whose sphere is Svapna, the dreaming state; the third is Prajna, the state of Sushupta or deep sleep; and the fourth is Nanta Prajnam or Turiya, the state of awareness beyond these. The spiritually advanced person remains in the state of Turiya. A fifth state of Turiyatita is also described in some texts, which is beyond all others, as well as three states below normal consciousness. In the highest state the individual consciousness is undivided and whole, identified with BRAHMAN or the Paramatman, or closely related to it.

Coonen Kurisu, revolt of A revolt of SYRIAN CHRISTIANS against Portuguese control over their Church, which took place in 1653. The Portuguese tried to bring the Syrian Church under their control and to sever its ties with West Asia. These attempts had been going on for some time, but the limit was reached when Mar Atallah, from the Patriarchate of East Syria (Antioch), arrived in Mylapore but was imprisoned and sent back by the Portuguese. Taking an oath in front of the St. Thomas Cross (known as Coonen Kurisu), at Mattancherry, SYRIAN CHRISTIANS vowed never to obey the Jesuits or recognize the Latin Bishops. Instead they acknowledged their local Archdeacon, now known as Mar Thoma, as their leader. After this several groups emerged among Syrian Christians. One recognized the authority of the Pope and of the Archbishop of Goa. The other followed Mar Thoma and came under the West Syrian Church of Antioch, known as the Jacobite Church. There were later developments and factions in both these groups, as well as the emergence of other groups. Thus the Coonen Kurisu revolt marks not merely an assertion of indigenous rights, but an end to the unity of Syrian Christians.

cow, sanctity of Among several animals considered sacred in Hinduism, the most sacred is the cow. The original reasons may have been partly economic, as the cow provided milk, butter and ghi. She was looked upon as a nourisher and a symbol of motherhood and of the earth. In the RIG VEDA, USHA, the dawn, is the mother of cows, who draw her chariot. The cow is also called a goddess.

The sanctity of the cow probably dates back to the Indo-Iranian period, and in early Zoroastrian texts, GAUSH URVA, the soul of the cow, represents mother earth. Similar associations are made in the PURANAS and the RAMAYANA, where BHUDEVI, the earth goddess, takes the form of a cow to complain to the god VISHNU of the suffering of the earth.

Extraordinary cows wih great powers are mentioned in several texts. One such was KAMADHENU, who could grant all requests. Others were SURABHI or Nandini, often considered the same as Kamadhenu. All other cows were descended from Surabhi.

The cow has a major role in myths and stories of KRISHNA, who was a cowherd. In iconography, Krishna, as a child and as a youth, is often depicted with a cow. Over the years, the sacredness of the cow became an integral part of Hinduism. The banning of cow-slaughter has been advocated in the Directive Principles of the Constitution, and has been implemented in several states.