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Dabistan-i Mazahib A seventeenth-century text that describes religious and occult practices prevalent in India. Originally thought to have been written by the Kashmiri scholar Muhsin Fani, later research showed it was written by Mir-Zulfiqar Ardestani (d. 1670), also known as Mulla Moubad or Moubadshah. This authorship is generally accepted, though it has also been attributed to Kekosrow Esfandiar, the son of AZAR KAIVAN. The text contains a lengthy account of Zoroastrianism, which it calls the religion of the Parsian, i.e. of the PARSIS, and describes several Zoroastrian sects. Only two of them conform to Zoroastrianism as it is traditionally known, while the rest entail some aspects of Zoroastrianism along with mystical and esoteric concepts. It also describes Hinduism, Tibetan Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and various Islamic sects and philosophers, and includes a brief account of Sikhism. Among its sources is the DASATIR, a mystical text of the sixteenth century.

Dadestan-i Denig A Zoroastrian text of the ninth century written in PAHLAVI, consisting of questions and answers on the Zoroastrian religion. Mihro-khurshid, the son of Aturo-mahan, asked these questions to Manushchihar-i-Goshnajaman of Pars and Kerman, Iran. The questions relate to the nature of a righteous man, the life of a soul after death, and similar issues.

Dadhicha An ancient sage or RISHI, often considered the same as DADHYANCH. The MAHABHARATA states that he was the son of the rishi BHRIGU. The Hindu god INDRA sent Alambusha, a celestial APSARA, to disturb his penance. Excited by her, his semen fell in the river SARASVATI, who bore him a child named Sarasvat.

Dadhikra A divine horse described in the RIG VEDA, where there are four hymns in praise of him. He is swift, flying through the air like a swooping eagle. He fights against thousands and wins. He was given to the PURUS by the gods MITRA and VARUNA. He is also known as Dadhikravan and is associated with USHA, the dawn. He is said to be symbolic of knowledge, or the morning sun or, alternatively, a real horse who was deified.

Dadhyanch An ancient rishi, first mentioned in the RIG VEDA. He was the son of ATHARVAN and he kindled AGNI or fire. The ASHVINS wanted the secret knowledge of SOMA (Madhuvidya) revealed to him by the god INDRA. They replaced his head with that of a horse, as he had promised not to reveal the knowledge. After the horse’s head had told the Ashvins what they wanted to know, his real head was restored. The horse-head fell in a lake on Mt Sharyanavat and remains there, granting boons to men. Indra, with the help of the horse-head, killed ninety-nine Vritras (demons). Here again the horse, or the horse-head, is symbolic of knowledge.

Dadu A saint and teacher who lived from 1544 to 1603. Not much is known of his life, though according to some sources he was born a Muslim. He was a weaver and cotton carder by profession and lived mainly in the area of Rajasthan. He received a divine vision and composed verses to show that Hinduism and Islam were reflections of the same truth. He was against CASTE and unnecessary rituals, and did not believe in worshipping images or wearing sectarian marks. God, the One Essence, was found within oneself. His verses are similar to those of KABIR. His followers are known as Dadupanthis, and belong to Various groups, among them being: Viraktas, who are SANNYASIS and own only a cloth and a water-pot; Nagas, who carry weapons; and Vistar Dharis, who live a householder’s life. Naraina in Rajasthan is the main centre of worship for Dadupanthis, where the Khalsas, the main group, are based.

daevas A Zoroastrian term for DEVAS, a term used in Hinduism for deities. In Zoroastrianism, daevas represent false gods, just as in later Hindu texts ASURAS (Zoroastrian AHURA, a term for god) represent demons. According to the GATHAS, the daevas chose wrongly and followed the darkened mind (achista mana), leading them to confusion and wrong acts. In later texts, they are the arrogant dregvants or followers of the false path, dishonoured forever in the seven regions of the world. However, not all references to the daevas are negative, indicating that they were once considered spiritual beings.

The Gathas also state that Mazda (God) knows all actions, even those of the Daevas (Yasna 29.4). Everyone prays to AHURA MAZDA for bliss, including the daevas (Yasna 32.1), and he listens even to their prayers. The VENDIDAD states that those Mazda worshippers who wish to practise the art of healing with a knife should first practice it on the daeva worshippers. If they succeed, they can then practise on Mazda worshippers. Though this places daeva worshippers in a secondary position, it suggests that both groups lived together and that Zoroastrian healers treated both. In the tenth-century DINKARD, one of the questions relates to how a man, through his work, can become the equal of yazads (YAZATAS, Zoroastrian deities) and daevas, thus placing both in the same category. There are other such passages in various texts. In addition, several devas of the RIG VEDA have their counterparts in Zoroastrianism and are worshipped as yazatas. According to one theory, devas, devas and asuras are three different categories of beings. Availabe texts, however, do not indicate this.

dai A term for a leader of BOHRA Muslims.

daityas A class of ASURAS. They were born from Diti, daughter of DAKSHA, who was married to KASHYAPA, the grandson of the Hindu god BRAHMA and son of Marichi. Among the major daityas were HIRANYAKSHA, HIRANYAKASHIPU, PRAHLADA, and MAHABALI.

dakhma/dokhma In Zoroastrianism, a tower in which the dead are placed. The practice dates back to ancient Iran, when earth, fire and water were considered sacred and not to be polluted by corpses. The body was therefore exposed on a mountain and later in towers specially built for the purpose. Zoroastrians continued this practice in India, and dakhmas were erected in places where there were a number of PARSIS. After sanctifying the area with prayers and other rituals, a stone tower was constructed, about 9 m high, with steps leading to the top, where there are circular platforms (pavis) with a pit or hollow in the centre. Bodies are placed on the platforms, to be eaten by vultures, while the bones are later dropped into the pit. Many of these towers are still used. As there is currently a shortage of vultures, solar panels are sometimes used to decompose the bodies. Discussions on alternative methods of disposal are opposed by the othodox, who are in favour of breeding vultures to preserve the old traditions. In places where there are fewer Parsis, burial is practised, while some opt for cremation.

dakini Minor female deities, attendants of the Hindu goddess KALI or of the god SHIVA. They have various powers and can perform miracles and magical feats. In Tantric texts they are said to eat raw flesh. Various dakinis are described in Hindu and Buddhist TANTRAS. Dakini is also a specific deity, a form of SHAKTI, presiding over the MULADHARA CHAKRA.

In TIBETAN BUDDHISM, dakinis are consorts of YIDAMS or guardian deities. They are usually depicted in ferocious form and are widely worshipped.

Daksha A son of the Hindu god BRAHMA, and one of the PRAJAPATIS, described in ancient texts. He is also listed as one of the ADITYAS. According to the HARIVAMSHA, the god VISHNU took the form of Daksha. There are various accounts of Daksha in the PURANAS. In a famous story, Daksha conducted a sacrifice to which he invited all the gods except his own son-in-law, SHIVA, who was married to his daughter, SATI. This is said to reflect the rivalry between SHAIVISM and VAISHNAVISM, as Daksha dedicated the sacrifice to Vishnu. Angry at being excluded from the sacrifice, Shiva created the terrible deities Virabhadra and Bhadrakali, destroyed Daksha’s sacrifice, and cut off his head. According to some Puranas, Daksha’s head was replaced with that of a goat. Other myths centred around this sacrifice explain the creation of the MAHAVIDYAS, or alternatively, the worship of Sati at SHAKTA PITHAS. The Daksha Mahadeva Temple at Kankhal near Hardwar in Uttarakhand is said to mark the spot of Daksha’s sacrifice.

This myth is thought to be related to the absorption of SHIVA, initially possibly a non-Vedic deity, into the Brahmanical pantheon.

Another story connects Daksha with creation. Commanded by Brahma, Daksha, through the power of his mind, created the DEVAS, ASURAS, GANDHARVAS and NAGAS, but they were not multiplying quickly enough, therefore he thought he would create more deities through sexual union. From his wife ASIKNI he created the Haryashvas and later the Shabalashvas, but through a trick of the rishi NARADA, they wandered off and were never seen again. Then he had sixty daughters from his wife Asikni. He gave ten of these in marriage to DHARMA, twenty-seven to SOMA, and thirteen to KASHYAPA. Four were given to ARISHTANEMI, two to Bahuputra, two to ANGIRAS, and two to Krishashva. The twenty-seven married to Soma or the moon, became the NAKSHATRAS or lunar asterisms. From the daughters married to Kashyapa, all beings were descended. Some Puranas state he was married to Prasuti, and the number of his daughters varies from sixteen to sixty.

Some scholars believe these stories are about two different Dakshas, the first who was killed by Shiva being reborn as the second.

dakshina A gift given to a guru or to BRAHMANAS. In ancient days a cow was often given, while today clothes, money and food are more common.

Dakshina, goddess Dakshina, the act of giving, is personified as a Hindu goddess and is identified with Shri or LAKSHMI. She represents the sacrifice and protects her worshippers. According to the PURANAS, Dakshina was the daughter of Prajapati Ruchi and Akuti. Her twin brother was YAJNA (sacrifice), whom she married, and twelve sons were born from their union. They formed a class of DEVAS known as Yamas (Yaamas) at the time of the first MANU, Svayambhuva.

According to another Puranic story, Dakshina was reborn as Sushila, a friend of RADHA, the consort of the god KRISHNA. Sushila too loved Krishna, and RADHA, finding them together, cursed her. Sushila meditated on LAKSHMI and became absorbed in her. But the gods separated them because with Dakshina as part of Lakshmi they could not get the fruits of their sacrifice, as no goddess remained to grant it to them. Dakshina was then given to Yajnapurusha. She became pregnant and after twelve years a child named Phalada (fruits) was born. Phalada provides the rewards of all actions.

Dakshinamurti A form of the Hindu god SHIVA in which he is the universal teacher. Shiva is said to have taught the RISHIS or sages while facing south, hence the name of this form (dakshina = south). Dakshinamurti has four aspects: Yoga-Dakshinamurti, where he taught the rishis YOGA; Jnana-Dakshinamurti, the teacher of knowledge; Vina-Dakshinamurti, teacher of the vina, a musical instrument; Vyakhyana-Dakshinamurti, explainer of the Sutras or ancient texts. In this form, he is usually depicted seated on a throne, with one hand touching the ground (bhumisparsha-mudra) and the other raised. Most of the Dakshinamurti images occur in south India.

Dakshineshvara Temple A temple in West Bengal dedicated to the Hindu goddess Bhabatarini, a form of KALI. Rani Rasmani, a rich Hindu widow, is said to have had a vision in which she was directed to build a temple here. The construction was completed in 1847, but as Rani was not of the BRAHMANA CASTE, the temple was not appreciated by the orthodox, and it was difficult to find a BRAHMANA priest for it. Finally Gadadhar, later known as RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHANSA, who was still young then, began serving at the temple, which is now a famous and popular monument. Gadadhar dedicated himself to the deity and through constant worship was transformed into a great saint.

The temple is an impressive structure with nine cupolas. Near it are twelve smaller temples dedicated to the god SHIVA. Across the river Hughli to the south, the BELUR MATHA, headquarters of the RAMAKRISHNA MISSION, was later constructed.

Dalai Lama The title of a leader of Tibetan Buddhists who belongs to the GELUG sect, and is both the spiritual leader and the head of state. The Gelug school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM was founded in the fourteenth century by TSONG KHAPA, and the third head of the school was given the title Dalai Lama in 1578 by the ruler of Mongolia. It was applied in retrospect to the previous two as well. Literally, it means ‘one whose wisdom is as great as the ocean’. The Dalai Lama is considered a reincarnation of Chenrezi, the Tibetan name for the Bodhisattva AVALOKITESHVARA. When one Dalai Lama passes away, the next is chosen through certain signs that point to his reincarnation. Through dreams and visions, high lamas and the State Oracle predict where the Dalai Lama will be reborn. The boy chosen has to identify certain objects belonging to the previous incumbent. The third, fifth and thirteenth are considered the most significant Dalai Lamas, while the sixth is remembered for his poetry. The third (1543–88) revived Buddhism in Mongolia. The fifth (1617–82) unified Tibet and suppressed the rivals of the Gelug sect. The thirteenth (1876–1933) freed Tibet from Chinese rule and attempted to modernize the country. The current Dalai Lama, the fourteenth in line, came to India in 1959 and presides over the Tibetan government in exile.

Dalai Lama, Fourteenth The head of the Tibetan government in exile, located in India. Tenzing Gyatso, the fourteenth DALAI LAMA, was born in the village of Takster in north-east Tibet on 6 July 1935 in a peasant family. His original name was Lhamo Dhondrub, but he was recognized as the Dalai Lama at the age of two and was renamed Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzing Gyatso. He is known respectfully as Yeshe Norbu (the wish-fulfilling gem) or Kundun (the presence), or as Tenzing Gyatso. He began his studies at the age of six and obtained the GESHE Lharampa degree (equivalent to a doctorate) in 1959 at the age of twenty-four. By this time, in 1950, he had become the head of state and government. Meanwhile, the Chinese had invaded Tibet. Efforts to make peace with them did not work, and in 1959 Tenzing Gyatso and his followers took refuge in India. Since 1960 he has lived in DHARAMSALA in Himachal Pradesh, where he set up the Tibetan government in exile, and continues to be the leader of all Tibetans. He attempted to modernize the Tibetan system of government and in 1963, he promulgated a new democratic constitution by which Tibetans elect a parliament, which in turn elects the cabinet.

He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989 for his continuous attempts to find a peaceful and non-violent solution to the Tibetan problem. The Dalai Lama is a respected figure in India and abroad and continues his religious studies and practices, and also guides others on the Buddhist path.

dalits A term used by certain caste groups within the Hindu CASTE SYSTEM. The word dalit, from the Sanskrit root ‘dal’, means split, broken, destroyed, scattered or torn asunder. The noun ‘dala’ also has a positive connotation, of something unfolding itself. In the ancient caste structure, some castes remained at the lowest level, discriminated against by upper caste Hindus and called ‘untouchables’. These castes, deprived of rights such as eating with other castes, drinking water from the village well, or entering Hindu temples, suffered tremendous oppression. The BHAKTI movement and the various Bhakti saints transcended caste, and there were several gurus who discarded or modified the concept of caste. Later, the equality promoted by Islam and the SUFI saints helped to change the caste system. Christianity, which had an influence in India from the eighteenth century, fostered the growth of reform movements within Hinduism, particularly from the nineteenth century onwards. Mahatma GANDHI called the lowest castes ‘Harijans’ or ‘Children of God’, and went on long fasts to end oppression against them. Though all these movements brought about some change, on the whole upper castes continued to avoid contact with them. The British government listed these castes in a Schedule in 1936. This list, included in the new Constitution of India, inaugurated in 1950, led to their official name, ‘Scheduled Castes’. The Constitution abolished untouchability, and provided for reservations in government and in educational institutions to help Scheduled Castes reach equality. Another act passed in 1955 made untouchability an offence that could be punished by law. This was revised in 1976 and reframed as the Protection of Civil Rights Act, which imposes stricter penalties on those who discriminate against people on grounds of caste. In spite of all the laws, oppression and discrimination remain.

B.R. AMBEDKAR (1891–1956), one of the composers of the Constitution, was from the Mahar caste and even before Independence worked to improve the status of Scheduled Castes. However, he felt their status would never improve within Hinduism, and in 1956, he led them in a mass conversion to Buddhism. Ambedkar died soon after this, but conversions to Buddhism still continue.

Scheduled Castes gradually found their own identity and chose to call themselves dalits. This word was used even by Ambedkar and earlier by Jyotirao Phule (1827–90), but was used regularly only from the 1970s. Inspired by the Black Panthers of the USA, the Dalit Panthers were formed in 1972, but now only the word dalit is used. Dalit literature began to join the mainstream and by the 1980s several dalit political parties and groups had been formed. Despite all legal protection, oppression continues, and with increasing self-assertion, conflicts with the upper castes have become frequent. Most dalits, particularly in rural areas, still do not enjoy social equality. In some areas dalits still cannot enter temples, use the village well or eat with upper castes. Higher castes do not like them to wear shoes and clean clothes, to ride bicycles, or to ride horses for marriage ceremonies.

Dalits form 15 per cent of the population but are not all united, and conflicts exist among different dalit groups.

dalit deities DALITS who remain within Hinduism worship Hindu deities, but also traditionally have their own deities. The seventh-century SHAIVITE saint Nandanar, who was a Mahar, was asked by his elders not to strive to enter the temples of the higher castes. According to the PERIYAPURANAM, a twelfth-century Tamil text, he was told, ‘we have our own gods, our own work, temples and celebrations.’ The gods mentioned here include Katteri, Munian, Mukkan and Karuppan. Village mother goddesses, such as Pochamma and Kattamaisamma, are also worshipped by DALITS and other non-BRAHMANA castes in south India. Among dalit deities in the north are Saliya, Purbi and Masana. A number of these deities, for instance Karuppan, were later allotted space in the Hindu pantheon.

Damdama Sahib Gurdwara, Delhi A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in Delhi near Humayun’s tomb, built by Sardar BHAGEL SINGH in 1783. It marks the spot where the tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH met Prince Muazzam, son of the emperor AURANGZEB, and planned his accession to the throne. Prince Muazzam later became the emperor Bahadur Shah I.

The gurdwara was renovated by Maharaja RANJIT SINGH and further expanded in succeeding years. A new building was constructed in 1984. The shrine is a popular place of pilgrimage, particularly at the time of the HOLA MOHALLA festival.

Damdama Sahib Gurdwara, Dhubri A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Dhubri in Assam, at a spot said to have been visited by Guru NANAK. The gurdwara is built in memory of his visit. Dhubri is also associated with Guru TEGH BAHADUR. Raja Ram Singh, leading Mughal forces, asked Tegh Bahadur to accompany him on an expedition against the Ahom king. The guru agreed, but after going there, he brought peace between the two sides. Soldiers of both armies prayed at the shrine of Guru Nanak and built a mound of peace nearby. While he was here, the guru heard about the birth of his son in Patna. This boy later became the tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH.

danavas A class of ASURAS in Hindu mythology, similar to the DAITYAS. They were born from Danu, a daughter of DAKSHA, who was married to KASHYAPA, grandson of the god BRAHMA. Danu had a hundred sons, from whom ten families of danavas were descended. Among the danavas were VRITRA and the king, MAYA. Kalaka and Puloma, two other wives of Kashyapa, gave birth to 60,000 danavas, who were powerful and ferocious. They were called Paulomas and Kalakanjas, or Kalakeyas.

The terms daitya and danava are often used interchangeably.

dance, and religion Dance is often an expression of the divine. Bharata’s Natya Shastra, dated to about the second century, is one of the earliest texts describing various dance postures. The Hindu god SHIVA, in his form as NATARAJA, is the lord of dance. The classical dances of India, which include Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Odissi and others, have mainly religious themes, depicting the lives of KRISHNA, RAMA or other deities.

Certain SUFI orders use dance to reach a state of divine ecstacy.

Apart from these, traditional tribal dances are often performed to invoke the deities of the tribe. Dances take place in temples, in honour of the deities. Even harvest dances, are both an expression of joy at a good harvest, and a thanksgiving to god.

Danishmand Khan A noted philosopher in the time of the Mughal emperors Shah Jahan and AURANGZEB. Danishmand was born in Yazd in Iran, but came to the court of Shah Jahan in 1651. Though a Muslim, he was interested in all kinds of philosophy. He studied Hindu philosophy with a Sanskrit scholar and Western philosophy with a French doctor at the court. He was one of the few scholars in India who was familiar with the works of contemporary philosophers such as William Harvey (1578–1657) and Descartes (1596–1650). He died in 1670.

Dara Shikoh The eldest son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, who wrote about the unity of Hinduism and Islam.

Born in 1614 or 1615, he was killed by his brother AURANGZEB in 1659 during the struggle for succession after his father fell ill. Dara Shikoh was deeply interested in religion and spirituality, and studied Islam, SUFI texts, VEDANTA and Christianity. Assisted by Sanskrit pandits, he translated about fifty UPANISHADS into Persian and compiled them in a text known as Sirr-i Akbar. In his introduction to it, he stated that the Upanishads represented the ‘hidden book’ mentioned in the QURAN, and that they revealed the highest truth. He saw in them an explanation of the WAHDAT AL-WUJUD doctrine. It was through Dara Shikoh’s Persian Upanishads that these texts first became known in the West after they were translated into French and Latin.

His most important original work is Majmaul Bahrain, known in Sanskrit as Samudra Sangam, composed in 1654–55, in which he found significant parallels between Hinduism and Islam. He said there were no fundamental differences between the two religions and made detailed comparisons of related concepts. He also composed books on Sufism and verses in Hindi and Persian with mystical themes.

darbha A type of grass used in Vedic SACRIFICES. It is sometimes said to be the same as kusha grass. There are various stories about the origin of darbha grass. According to one account, it grew from a few drops of AMRITA that fell on the ground at the time of the churning of the ocean of milk.

Dar-e Meher A name for a Zoroastrian temple or AGIARY.

dargah A Persian word, literally ‘place of a door’, used in Iran usually for a royal court or palace. In India, however, it has a special meaning and refers to the shrine of a Muslim saint, often located at his tomb. Pilgrims visit the dargah to worship the saint. Among the most famous dargahs in India is that of Shaikh MUINUDDIN CHISTI, the SUFI saint. The concept of a dargah is similar to that of the SAMADHI of a renowned YOGI.

Daroli Bhai Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Daroli Bhai, a village in district Ferozepur, Punjab. The sixth guru, HARGOBIND, lived here, and his chola or cloak, as well as an iron tava he used for making chapatis, are preserved here. The guru is said to have cooked on this tava for a LANGAR on BAISAKHI day. His eldest son, Baba Gurdita, was born here. The guru’s wife Mata Damodri died in this village, and another gurdwara nearby was built in memory of her.

darshana A Sanskrit term meaning ‘sight’ or ‘viewpoint’, used in both these ways. As ‘sight’ darshana usually refers to a divine vision or glimpse of god, or of an image in a temple representing the divine. Through darshana one may see, or be seen, by god.

In its second use, it indicates a school of thought. The shad-darshanas or six darshanas, is a term used for the six early orthodox Indian schools of philosophy, which are: NYAYA, VAISHESHIKA, SAMKHYA, YOGA, MIMAMSA and VEDANTA. Darshana is also used to describe non-orthodox systems, including Jainism, Buddhism and materialism, and in an even wider context, for grammar, alchemy and other forms of knowledge.

dar-ul-harb Literally, ‘land of warfare’, an Islamic term for a land where Islamic practices could not be observed. This concept was used in India by the WAHHABIS and the FARAIDIS in their struggle against the British. There was much discussion among leading Muslims in India, on whether British presence made the land unholy, and on the concept of dar-ul-harb, which had earlier been expounded by the law-giver Abu Hanifa and others. The main condition for this was that Islam was suppressed in the land and the edicts of unbelievers were propagated. In a dar-ul-harb, it was acceptable to wage war or JIHAD against the infidels. Most Islamic authorities felt that India was not in this category, as the injunctions of Islam were still observed in the land, and therefore warfare against the British was not justified. The mufti of Mecca stated at this time that as long as some Islamic religious practices prevailed in it, India was dar-ul-Islam, a land of Islam.

dar-ul Islam A term that indicates a land or abode of Islam. Right from British days there were conroversies about whether India was dar-ul Islam, or dar-ul harb, a land against Islam. The interpretation of these terms has always been controversial. Some equate dar-ul kufr, a land ruled by non-Muslims, with dar-ul harb, a land against Islam. According to others, dar-ul Islam refers to any place where Islamic practices are allowed, regardless of by whom it is ruled. The mufti of Mecca stated at that time, that as long as some of the religious practices prevail in it, India was dar-ul-Islam. Several others had the same view. A recent book by Maulana Wahiduddin Khan feels these terms dar ul-Islam, darul-kufr (a non-Muslim land), dar-ul harb themselves should be questioned. The author points out that these three terms were not used by the Prophet, even though he lived under conditions covering all three, and this in itself provides sufficient guidance that there is no reason for their existence. Hence he feels that these terms themselves, created by later scholars, have no relevance.

Dar-ul-Uloom, Deoband A renowned religious and academic centre, the largest institution in India for Islamic learning, located at Deoband in western Uttar Pradesh. It was founded as a small madrasa attached to a mosque on 30 May 1866, at a time when Mughal power had been eclipsed, the British controlled most of north India, and Islamic learning was in disarray. There were no funds available, but the founders, Hazrat Maulana MUHAMMAD QASIM NANAUTAVI and Hazrat Maulana Rasheed Ahmad Gangohi, said that it would be run trusting in ALLAH, with public contributions. The institution began with just one student and one teacher, and an annual expenditure of Rs 68, but soon expanded. It was based on traditional SUNNI interpretations of Islam, the HANAFI school of law, and some SUFI ideals. Thus it was a centre of both SHARIAH and TARIQA. It believed in a purified form of Sufism, and was against the worship of PIRS or saints, but in favour of a close relationship between disciple and teacher.

The Deoband school propagated nationalist ideals and many of its students participated in the freedom movement.

Today it has more than 2000 students, including several from West Asia, as well as over 9000 affiliated institutes. Its large library has books and manuscripts in Urdu, Persian and Arabic. It has several different courses of study, with thirty-three departments. One department, the Darul Ifta, studies the QURAN and HADIS to provide religious decrees (FATWAS) on matters related to dogma. Graduate and postgraduate degrees are provided in Islamic theology, law (FIQH) and literature, as well as in Arabic studies. There are also courses in calligraphy and in crafts such as tailoring, book-binding and other skills.

IMAMS who have graduated from the school are in demand even in other countries.

darvesh A Persian word for a religious mendicant, usually written in English as ‘Dervish’. The Arabic word is ‘faqir’. Both these words are used for SUFI saints, as well as the term PIR, meaning ‘an elder’ in Persian.

Dasam Granth A text sacred to Sikhs, attributed to the tenth Sikh guru, GOBIND SINGH, that was compiled by his disciple MANI SINGH. The text is composed in a mix of Punjabi, Persian and Braj Bhasha (a Hindi dialect), and consists of the guru’s writings, thoughts and ideas, as well as stories and ethical and philosophical sayings. Some of the stories and myths are borrowed from the PURANAS and other sources.

Parts of the Dasam Granth are included in the daily prayers of Sikhs. In the Savaiye (quatrains), the guru comments on how all follow some religion or the other, but none love God, or understand the divine: ‘The whole world is lost in false ritual, but no one knows the mystery of the One.’ The Dasam Granth incorporates most of the writings attributed to the guru, including the autobiographical Bachitra Natak and the ZAFAR NAMAH, a letter written to AURANGZEB.

Dasatir A text of the sect of AZAR KAIVAN, probably written by Kaivan himself in the sixteenth century. It was composed in a hitherto unknown language, which the author of the DABISTAN called ‘the heavenly language’, and seems to have a mixture of words derived from AVESTA, Hindi, Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit, as well as invented words. It has sixteen chapters or namas (books), each attributed to an ancient Persian prophet or legendary hero. The second part consists of a translation and commentary in Persian, said to be by the sixteenth ‘prophet’ Sasan V, a contemporary of the Sasanian ruler Khusrau II (ruled 590–628). Later research showed the whole text was of a late date and that the commentary and translation were probably by the author as well. The Dabistan indicates that the Dasatir was known in India in the seventeenth century, but it was widely publicized only after a copy was brought back from Iran by MULLA FEROZE and his father in 1778. On the basis of its description in the Dabistan, the English orientalist Williams Jones felt that the Dasatir was a significant sacred text. It was first translated and published in 1818–19. While some refer to this as a Zoroastrian text, others consider it pseudo-Zoroastrian.

Dasauli A folk deity worshipped in Bihar and Jharkhand. The deity is said to live in sal forests or groves, and is worshipped for prosperity and protection. Ritualistic folk dances form part of this worship.

Dasaveyaliya Sutta A Jain text of the SHVETAMBARA canon, one of the four MULA SUTTAS, known in Sanskrit as the Dashavaikalika Sutra. Literally, it means ‘Ten Evening Recitations’, and is to be studied by Shvetambara monks. The first section consists of Jain sayings and rules for monastic life, while the second contains the story of Rajimati, who became an ascetic and rejected the advances of Rathanemi, brother of ARISHTANEMINATHA. The story is also told in the UTTARAJJHAYANA. The Dasaveyaliya is said to have been written by Sejjambhava (Sanskrit: Shayyambhava). He was married, but after a vision of a JINA, he gained enlightenment and left home when his wife was pregnant. A son was born to her, whom she named Manaka. When Manaka was eight years old, his mother told him that his father was an ascetic and Manaka went off to seek him. Sejjambhava met his son, who became his disciple. He saw that the child was destined to die in six months and therefore summarized the main principles of Jainism and taught them to Manaka. In deep meditation, Manaka passed to another world and Sejjambhava wrote down what he had taught Manaka in the Dasaveyalia. This text thus summarizes the main principles of Jainism, and is one of the most important SHVETAMBARA texts.

Dashabhumika Sutra A MAHAYANA Buddhist text, that describes the ten stages or bhumis on the path of a BODHISATTVA. It was originally a part of the AVATAMSAKA SUTRA, but is used as a separate text. It is the most important text for Bodhisattva practices. The ten bhumis begin with the Pramudita-bhumi (joyful stage), and go on through the Vimala-bhumi or immaculate stage, to various other stages culminating in the Dharmamegha-bhumi, or stage of DHARMA, here indicating the ultimate.

Dashahara/Dasehra A ten-day Hindu festival celebrated in October. Dashahara literally means ten nights. In north India, the festival is linked with the god RAMA and his triumph over RAVANA, symbolizing the victory of good over evil. For the first nine nights (NAVARATRA), Ram Lilas—dramatic performances of episodes from the RAMAYANA—are held in every locality in villages, towns and cities. Some of these performances have grand props and costumes, while others are simple affairs. On the tenth night, huge effigies of Ravana, Meghanada and Kumbhakarna are made. They are usually stuffed with crackers and mounted on poles, and then set alight. In the more elaborate performances, the character acting as Rama shoots flaming arrows to ignite the effigies.

There are several regional variations in the festivities. In Kulu, in Himachal Pradesh, all the local deities are brought to pay homage to Rama, known here as Raghunathji, and to celebrate his victory over Ravana. About 150 to 200 deities arrive in Kulu, some in palkis (palanquins), drawn by carts, or carried by their devotees. When all the deities are gathered together, bands play music and sacrifices are offered.

In some areas of south India, the ten-day celebrations mark the victory of the goddess CHAMUNDA (a form of DURGA) over the demon MAHISHASURA. The traditional celebrations at Mysore, begin with a worship of Chamunda, and culminate in a huge procession of decorated elephants and horses, lights, dances and music.

In Bengal, the festival takes the form of DURGA PUJA, worship of the goddess DURGA. On the tenth day, images of the goddess are immersed in water, usually in a river.

Other deities are also worshipped on these auspicious days. Among them is SARASVATI, goddess of music and learning. Sarasvati Puja or worship of the goddess, is performed for four days. In Maharashtra, the goddess Lalita is worshipped on the fifth day of Dashahara.

In the Bastar region in Chhattisgarh, the local goddess Danteshvari is worshipped. The festival here also commemorates the granting of the title of rathpati (Lord of the Chariot) to their tribal king at the Jagannatha temple in Puri, an event that took place in the fifteenth century.

These are some examples of the different ways Dashahara is celebrated.

AYUDHA PUJA, reverence and thanks given to machines, tools and vehicles, also takes place at this time.

Dasharatha A king described in the RAMAYANA. He is the father of RAMA, a popular Hindu deity. Dasharatha ruled at AYODHYA and was of the Ikshvaku dynasty, the son of Aja and Indumati. Under his rule, Ayodhya was rich and prosperous. He had three wives: Kaushalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. A daughter named Shanta was born to Kaushalya. Dasharatha gave her to his childless friend Lomapada, king of Anga, and later she was married to RISHYASHRINGA. Dasharatha had no more children for a long time; to have sons, he conducted a great ASHVAMEDHA sacrifice. Rishyashringa assisted at the sacrifice and provided a sacred concoction for the queens to eat. Dasharatha was then blessed with four sons. Kaushalya gave birth to Rama, Kaikeyi to BHARATA, and Sumitra to LAKSHMANA and SHATRUGHNA. Rama was Dasharatha’s favourite, but Kaikeyi tricked him into sending Rama into exile. After Rama, his wife SITA, and brother Lakshmana departed for the forest, Dasharatha died of grief.

Dashavaikalika Sutra The Sanskrit name of a Jain text, the DASAVEYALIYA SUTTA

Dashavatara Temple A temple of the Hindu god VISHNU constructed in the sixth century, located at Deogarh in district Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. It is one of the earliest Hindu temples still existing today, though it is only partially preserved. The main shrine is square, built on a moulded basement. A shikhara or tower once rose above it, but no longer exists. The wall panels are beautifully carved and represent the high point of Gupta art. There are sculptures of Vishnu on GARUDA and sleeping on the serpent ANANTA, scenes from the life of KRISHNA and from the MAHABHARATA and RAMAYANA. Some of the narrative panels have been removed to museums.

Dasnami Ten orders of SHAIVITE ascetics founded by SHANKARA, the Advaitic philosopher, in the ninth century. These orders still exist today and are the following: Aranya, Ashrama, Bharati, Giri, Parvata, Puri, Sarasvati, Sagara, Tirtha, and Vana. Swamis, gurus and ascetics incorporate the name of their order in their names as, for instance, Vedaranya. Each of the orders is attached to one of the four MATHAS founded by Shankara, at BADRINATH, PURI, DVARAKA and SRINGERI.

Dastagir Sahib Dargah A DARGAH or shrine of a SUFI saint located near Srinagar in Kashmir. According to local legend, when the Prophet MUHAMMAD visited heaven, he rode on the lap of Dastagir, and therefore the saint is specially venerated.

The shrine is well-maintained with a graceful white and green exterior, and a colourfully decorated interior. The doorway has brass discs with writings from the Quran, connected with thick chains, and devotees touch these as they enter, to absorb sacred energy.

dastur A term for a Zoroastrian high priest. Lower priests are known as mobeds. Only boys from certain priestly families can become priests and are trained in special schools (madressas). Any male from a priestly family can perform rituals, even if he is not a full-time priest. The priestly caste of ancient Iran, known as athravan, was similar to the BRAHMANAS of India.

Data Ganj Baksh The popular name of the eleventh-century SUFI saint ABUL HASAN AL-HUJWIRI.

Dattatreya An ancient RISHI or sage who is described in the PURANAS and other texts and is considered an incarnation of the Hindu god VISHNU. Dattatreya was born as the son of the rishi ATRI and his wife Anasuya. He was mild, gentle and very learned. He was worshipped by the king Kartavirya, to whom he gave a boon of a thousand arms. The HARIVAMSHA states that Vishnu came to the world as Dattatreya to revive the knowledge of the VEDAS. His main characteristic is kshama or mercy. He is also the protector of DHARMA and the teacher of divine knowledge. As a deity, he sometimes represents the three gods BRAHMA, Vishnu and SHIVA together. A Puranic story explains how he came to represent all three deities. Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, once appeared to Anasuya as BRAHMANAS, and asked her to offer them food after removing all her clothes. Anasuya could not refuse them, but her purity enabled her to turn the gods into babies. Their wives pleaded with her to restore them to their original forms, and in return, she asked for a boon—that they be born to her. Thus Dattatreya was born. (In some stories the three deities are incarnated separately). In his images, the three gods are depicted together, or Vishnu is shown accompanied by the VAHANAS (vehicles) of the other two. Dattatreya images are often accompanied by a cow and four dogs. Some interpret these as representing mother earth and the four Vedas, which came under Dattatreya’s protection, though they may also represent his love for animals, for which the sage was known. In several temples Dattatreya is represented only by footprints.

From around the eighth century, Dattatreya the ancient sage, seems to have been appropriated by other sects. According to tradition, he composed the AVADHUTA GITA, probably of the ninth century, as well as other texts. This Gita describes the liberation of an avadhuta and has Advaitic passages. Dattatreya the ancient sage, and Dattatreya the avadhuta, probably belong to two different traditions. Other accounts in later texts state that he loved songs and musical instruments, and did not bother about caste. He was the creator of the SOMA plant and saved the gods from the asuras. Dattatreya is said to have been adept in TANTRA. The MARKANDEYA PURANA indicates that he was involved in Tantric rites and that he stayed at Mahur, a centre of SHAKTI worship. The NATHA YOGIS take Dattatreya as their guru, and believe he was a great siddha. The MAHANUBHAVA sect of the thirteenth century, also incorporated the worship of Dattatreya. Another aspect of Dattatreya is as a protector from evil influences.

There are Dattatreya temples all over India, particularly in Gujarat and Maharashtra. The worship of Dattatreya is also popular in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. At the Dattatreya temple on KALADUNGAR hill in Gujarat, prasad is still offered to jackals, in memory of Dattatreya’s kindness to these animals. Among other Dattatreya shrines, one on the Baba Budan Giri hill in Karnataka is interesting. Here Dattatreya is also worshipped as Dada Kalandar, a Muslim saint. Another important shrine is the SUCHINDRAM TEMPLE in Tamil Nadu. Dattatreya is also said to have had eighty-four disciples, who became SIDDHAS, perfected ones. Sacred centres were established by these siddhas, among which is LAKSHMANA SIDDHA. Recently there has been a growth in Tantric sects based on Dattatreya worship. Thus there are many forms and aspects of Dattatreya.

Several saints of the Gujarat–Maharashtra region are considered incarnations of Dattatreya. Among them is SAI BABA OF SHIRDI.

Daud, Mulla A SUFI poet of the fourteenth century who wrote in early Hindi. Mulla Daud was born in Dalmau near Rae Bareli in present Uttar Pradesh, and was a saint of the CHISTI order. He is best known for his work, Chandayan, completed in 1379, which is the story of the love of a Rajput princess, Chanda, for Lorik, a man of the Ahir caste, and of their elopement. Sufi ideals are integrated into the story. According to Badauni, a sixteenth-century historian, sections from it were recited by a maulana or religious leader whose name was Taqiuddin, as part of his sermons in a mosque. The maulana believed the text conveyed the divine truth as revealed in the QURAN, despite the Hindu theme and references to BRAHMANAS, RAMA, and SITA.

dawa A term in Islam that means a call or invocation. It can be used in two ways: to invite or call someone to join Islam, that is, as a form of propaganda, or as an invocation, calling on the help of God or his angels. While magic and fortune-telling are forbidden in orthodox Islam, invocations using the name of God are allowed. The JAWAHIR-I KHAMSAH, a sixteenth-century text written by Shaikh MUHAMMAD GHAUS, is one of the texts that describes the various methods of dawa. According to Ghaus, dawa or dawat-i asma, could only be learnt from a perfected PIR or MURSHD.

Dayabhaga A Sanskrit text on Hindu laws of inheritance, compiled in the twelfth century. It was written by Jimutavahana and was part of a larger text, the Dharmaratna. The Dayabhaga includes topics on the division of the father’s and grandfather’s property, the inheritance of sons after the death of the father, those who should not inherit becouse of certain disabilities, and those who inherit if a man dies without a son. The MANU SMRITI is often quoted in this text. The Dayabhaga has influenced Hindu law.

Dayananda Sarasvati, Swami The founder of the ARYA SAMAJ. Swami Dayananda Sarasvati was born at Tankara, in Kathiawar, Gujarat, in 1824. His original name was Mulasankar and he was a Hindu BRAHMANA from a well-to-do orthodox family. He studied Sanskrit, the VEDAS and other texts, and was very learned. When he was eighteen years old, his sister died, and soon after, his uncle. Mulasankar began to think deeply about life and death, and left his home in search of answers when he was twenty-one years old. He took sannyasa and was named Dayananda Sarasvati, as he joined the Sarasvati order of ascetics. In 1860, after wandering through different parts of India, meeting gurus and SANNYASIS, he met Guru Virajananda at MATHURA and became his disciple. Virajananada, though blind, was extremely learned, and encouraged him to reveal the true Vedic knowlegde to the world. Dayananda then inaugurated the Arya Samaj at MUMBAI (Bombay) in 1875 to teach people to follow the Vedas and lead a life of nobility (arya = noble). The Samaj headquarters shifted to Lahore and it had a large following. Swami Dayananda tried to stop conversion to other faiths, which led to opposition from Islamic and Christian leaders. Dayananda also tried to bring about reforms in Hindu society, believing that the Vedas represented true Hinduism. He was against the CASTE SYSTEM, child marriage, and the oppression of widows. He wrote several books, including the Rigvedadi-bhashya-bhumika, a commentary on the Vedas in nine volumes; Samskara Vidhi, the philosophy behind sixteen important Hindu ceremonies; and his most famous work, Satyartha Prakasha, which explains the philosophy of the Arya Samaj. Members of his organization opened schools, colleges and orphanages, as well as homes for widows. Several of his followers participated in the freedom movement.

He was respected and revered but died an untimely death at Ajmer in 1883 after visiting the court of the maharaja of Jodhpur. According to a story associated with this, the swami was actually poisoned by a supporter of the maharaja after he rebuked the maharaja for his involvement with a dancing girl. However, the truth of this is not known.

The Arya Samaj is still a popular organization, with thousands of followers in countries all over the world.

Dead Sea Scrolls A term given to ancient documents found at sites near the Dead Sea, relating to Judaism and Christianity. Most of the documents were found in caves near Qumran, and include texts of the Hebrew Bible with variant readings, Jewish literature known as Intertestemental Literature, and the description of a religious community, led by someone known as the Teacher of Righteousness. This teacher was initially identified by some with Jesus, but research indicates he lived at least two centuries before Christ. Comparisons have been drawn between the Teacher of Righteousness and some passages in the Zoroastrian Gathas.

Delhi A city with a historic past, with innumerable medieval and modern monuments. In the time of the MAHABHARATA Delhi was known as INDRAPRASTHA, the city of Indra, and excavations at the presumed site of the old city indicate occupation dating back to 1000 BCE or earlier. This and other areas of Delhi were occupied by successive dynasties and kings, including the Rajputs, the sultans and the Mughals. The British made it their capital in 1911, and New Delhi became the seat of the independent Indian government in 1947. Delhi has more than 8000 religious monuments representing all religions.

Among the major temples are the LAKSHMI NARAYAN TEMPLE, the Jhandelwalan Kali Temple, the Yogamaya Temple in Mehrauli, the Kalkaji Temple, the Akshardham Temple, the Chhattarpur Shiva Temple, the Hanuman Temple in Connaught Place, the Shirdi Sai Baba Temple, and the ISKCON Krishna Temple. There are temples of deities from different regions, such as the Ayyappa Temple and the Swami Malai Mandir Temple. Historic mosques include the JAMA MASJID, the JAMALI KAMALI MOSQUE, the QUWWATUL ISLAM MOSQUE and others. Among the most popular DARGAHS of Sufi saints are those of NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA, CHIRAGH DILLI, QUTBUDDIN BAKHTIYAR KAKI and Matka Pir. There are several churches representing most Christian groups and denominations. Some of the earlier churches include ST. JAMES CHURCH, and St. Andrew’s Cathedral. Among historic GURDWARAS are the MOTI BAGH GURDWARA, BANGLA SAHIB GURDWARA and SISGANJ GURDWARA. There are Jain temples, of which the most prominent is the Digambara Temple, opposite the Red Fort, to which a charitable bird hospital is attached. Buddhist temples and stupas of Tibetan Buddhism co-exist with those of other Buddhist groups. Other religions are also represented through the BAHAI LOTUS TEMPLE, the Jewish Synagogue and the Zoroastrian Dar-e Meher or AGIARY. There are innumerable other old and new religious shrines.

Deoband School A popular term for the DAR-UL-ULOOM, a major institute of Islamic theology, located at Deoband in Uttar Pradesh.

Dera Baba Nanak A sacred place connected with the life of Guru NANAK, the founder of Sikhism, who lived here in the last years of his life. It is located on the river Ravi and is today on the Indo-Pak border. It earlier formed part of KARTARPUR, a township on both sides of the river. Today Kartarpur is on only one side of the river, now in Pakistan. A large GURDWARA was later built at Kartarpur, where the guru had died in 1539 and another, Darbar Sahib, on the Indian side of the river, at Dera Baba Nanak. It was reconstructed in 1827 by Maharaja Ranjit Singh A chola, or cloak of the guru, is preserved here, and it is an important centre of pilgrimage. The gurdwara is a simple structure with a single storey built on a square plan.

According to legend, the guru’s body was placed under a sheet, but when the sheet was removed, the body had vanished, leaving only flowers behind.

Dera Sacha Sauda An offshoot of the Radhasoami sect, set up in 1948 in Sirsa, Punjab. Dera Sacha Sauda was founded by Shehanshah Mastanaji Maharaj, a disciple of Baba Sawan Singh of Beas. He was succeeded in 1963 by Shah Satnam Singhji Maharaj, followed in 1990 by Gurmeet Ram Rahim Singh Maharaj. Like other groups with a Radhasoami origin, the sect is open to all religions and communities, and believes in following the true guru, engaging in satsang, and chanting the satnam (true name). It is said to have between 40 lakh and one crore followers in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and other states.

Dev Samaj An organization founded by Shiv Narain Agnihotri on 16 February 1887 in Lahore (now in Pakistan). Shiv Narain, later known as Bhagwan Dev Atma, was born on 20 December 1850 at Akbarpur, district Kanpur, present-day Uttar Pradesh, in a traditional brahmana family. After his early education, he joined an engineering college, and in 1873 became drawing master in Government School, Lahore. Always spiritually inclined, he became a prominent member of the BRAHMO SAMAJ, and later of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. In 1882 he changed his name to Satyanand Agnihotri, and became a full time member of the Samaj. He founded his own Samaj in 1887, which was initially considered an offshoot of the Brahmo Samaj, but later diverged. Shiv Narain believed that all living beings and non-living entities had evolved over millions of years, and were not created by God. Each living being has a life-power, often called the soul, which comes into existence with the birth of the being, and ends with death. True salvation of the soul involves shedding all negativity, as well as wrong and selfish ideas and beliefs. Obtaining mastery over one’s thoughts and actions, enable one to ‘enjoy the bliss of an altruistic and truly religious life’. The different aspects of nature are still not fully known, but true knowledge is not in scriptures, but in learning and understanding the laws of nature. Despite these ideas, he focused on the guru, in the form of himself, as the guide to a higher life. He advocated social reforms such as the education of women, was against caste, other social evils such as child marriage, and laid down strong ethical principles. The Dev Samaj Higher Life Academy, was founded on 15 August 1905 to spread these ideas. Shiv Narain wrote a number of books and articles on the subject. Dev Shastra, a four volume work, provides the main ideas of his Vigyan Mulak Dharma or ‘Science grounded religion’. Shiv Narain died in 1929.

deva A divine being. All Hindu gods are known as devas or devis. Deva is a Sanskrit word, that stems from the root ‘div’, which means ‘to shine’, similar in origin to the Latin ‘deus’. In the literature of Zoroastrianism, the word ‘daeva’, initially a spiritual being, later came to mean a demon.

devadasis A term for girls or women attached to Hindu temples and dedicated to the service of the gods. This practice probably developed in the ninth and tenth centuries, though it originated earlier and was more common in south India. It has, by now, largely been abolished but still exists in some areas. The girls worshipped the deity and sang and danced before it and in processions. They belonged to the temple and in later times were also sometimes used as prostitutes. Early texts classify devadasis into seven categories: datta, who voluntarily dedicates herself; vikrita, who sells herself; bhritya, who gives herself to increase the prosperity of her family; bhakta, who comes to the temple out of devotion to god; hrita, who is presented to the temple after being enticed away from her home; alankara, a well-trained girl given to the temple by a king or noble; gopala, one who is paid wages for her service to the temple.

Many devadasis were dedicated to the temple between the ages of six or eight. They could never marry, as they were considered married to the deity. Though they had a certain status and privileges, with their own customs and laws of inheritance, they often led unhappy lives.

Devadatta A cousin and rival of the BUDDHA. Devadatta became a monk at a young age and was prominent in the SANGHA. He sought more power for himself and conspired with AJATASHATRU, son of BIMBISARA, the ruler of MAGADHA, to overthrow the king and to displace the Buddha. His plot failed, but he succeeded in creating a schism in the sangha. His followers later rejoined the original sangha.

Devaki The mother of the Hindu god, KRISHNA. She is usually said to be the daughter of Devaka, who was the brother of Ugrasena. She was married to VASUDEVA and they lived in the region of MATHURA. The king of Mathura was Kamsa, son of Ugrasena, and thus related to Devaki. According to a prophecy, he would be killed by the eighth son of Devaki. Therefore he imprisoned her and VASUDEVA and killed her first six sons. By divine intervention, her seventh and eighth sons, BALARAMA and Krishna, were born. Devaki and her husband were released by Kamsa when he realized the baby Krishna was no longer with them. In some accounts they were later reimprisoned and remained in prison until Krishna was able to kill Kamsa.

According to Puranic legends, in a previous birth Devaki was Kaikeyi, wife of King DASHARATHA of the RAMAYANA, responsible for sending RAMA into exile. Rama forgave her and promised to be reborn as her son, and thus was born as Krishna. But because of her past sins, Devaki never really had the pleasure of being together with her divine son. Devaki is also revered as a goddess.

Devaloka The LOKA or world of the gods in Hindu mythology.

Devanagari A Sanskrit word meaning ‘the divine script’. Devanagari developed from the early Brahmi script used in the third century BCE inscriptions of the emperor ASHOKA, and is the script in which Sanskrit, Hindi and Marathi are written today. Each letter is said to have a specific divine meaning. According to TANTRIC texts, the Devanagari alphabet is arranged in the seven main CHAKRAS, and is recited in special rituals.

devarishis RISHIS or sages who had perfected themselves when on earth and now dwell among the gods. NARADA is one of them.

devata A Sanskrit term meaning god, used as a synonym of DEVA, or for a minor deity.

Devi A generic term for any Hindu goddess, as well as a term for one supreme goddess. In the latter context, she is often referred to as MAHADEVI.

Devi Bhagavata Purana A Sanskrit text, a PURANA dealing with the worship of DEVI or SHAKTI.

Devi-Mahatmya A Sanskrit text which glorifies the Hindu goddess DEVI and forms part of the MARKANDEYA PURANA. It is is used for the worship of DURGA and is recited in Durga temples and at the time of DURGA PUJA. It was probably composed before the sixth century.

Dge-Lugs-pa A school of Tibetan Buddhism, also spelt GELUG or Gelug-pa.

dhamma The Pali term for DHARMA.

Dhammapada A Buddhist text which forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON. Literally the title means ‘path of DHAMMA’. The text consists of 423 verses, arranged in twenty-six sections or vaggas. It is really an anthology, a collection of Buddhist ideas and principles, and is the best-known Buddhist work, translated into all European languages. More than half the verses can be found in other texts of the Pali Canon, whereas others are original. Some typical examples of verses in the Dhammapada are given below:

‘What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our present thoughts build our life of tomorrow: our life is the creation of our mind. If a man speaks or acts with a pure mind, joy follows him as his own shadow.’ (1.2)

‘Better than a thousand useless words is one single word that gives peace’. (8.100)

‘It is better to go alone on the path of life rather than to have a fool for a companion. With few wishes and few cares, and leaving all sins behind, let a man travel alone, like a great elephant alone in the forest.’ (23.330) (Trans. by Juan Mascaro)

Dhammasangani A HINAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA of the PALI CANON. It explains the finer points of the DHAMMA and is meant for advanced monks. The philosophy of the NIKAYAS is classified and summarized in this text.

Dhanteras A Hindu festival celebrated two days before DIVALI in October/November, in honour of the deity DHANVANTARI, the divine physician. As Dhanvantari emerged from the ocean of milk carrying a vessel filled with AMRITA or divine nectar, on this day it is traditional to buy some kind of vessel. Dhanteras is also a festival of wealth, and buying other items as well is considered auspicious. The festival is celebrated particularly in north India.

Dhanvantari A Hindu deity considered an incarnation of VISHNU, and the traditional founder of Ayurveda or Indian medicine. Medicine and the science of healing were gifts of the gods, and Dhanvantari was at first the physician of the gods, before bringing the art of healing to the world. At the churning of the ocean for AMRITA, the drink of immortality, Dhanvantari emerged carrying the divine liquid in a vessel. Several Dhanvantaris are mentioned in texts, all of whom were associated with medicine and healing. Divodasa, a legendary king of KASHI, was said to be the incarnation of the first Dhanvantari and to have classified surgery into two branches, apart from developing a scientific methodology for medicine. Another Dhanvantari was associated with the legendary king Vikramaditya. Dhanvantari is worshipped and prayed to for health and healing.

Dharamsala A town in Himachal Pradesh, now the headquarters of the Tibetan Buddhist leader, the DALAI LAMA. The head of the KARMA-KAGYU sect has also made his home there. Dharamsala is located at a height of 4876 m. Apart from other buildings, it has a number of monasteries and a large Tibetan settlement. The Tsuglagkhang complex contains the residence of the Dalai Lama, the Namgyal monastery and the Tsuglagkhang Temple, all located in McLeod Ganj, the upper town. Gangcheng Keyshong, the administrative centre of the Tibetan government in exile, is halfway between the upper and lower towns. Here there is a large library of Tibetan texts and an institute of Tibetan medicine, with the Nechung monastery nearby.

dharana A Sanskrit term that means ‘concentration’. Dharana is the sixth step in the system of Raja YOGA, and is also a part of other philosophical systems.

dharma A Sanskrit term from the root ‘dhri’, that has many different meanings.

(1) It is generally interpreted as duty, right conduct or truth. In Hinduism, the DHARMA SHASTRAS are texts which describe customary laws, though the sources of dharma include all the sacred Hindu texts. The knowledge of texts is usually confined to the learned, but according to tradition, there are four sources of dharma: SHRUTI, that which is revealed; SMRITI, that which is heard; sadachar, the conduct of good people; and atmatushti, moral reason or conscience. For an ordinary person, dharma or the right way of action is often derived from myths and legends (katha) from the RAMAYANA, MAHABHARATA, PURANAS and other texts, retold with a local flavour. The lives of certain individuals and deities are emphasized to provide examples of lives which embody dharma. Thus SITA and SAVITRI are examples of ideal wives, RAMA, of an ideal man and king. LAKSHMANA is the perfect brother, HANUMAN is known for loyalty and devotion to Rama, and GANESHA for the worship of his parents. Each caste or person has a specific dharma. The dharma of a BRAHMANA is thus to study the VEDAS and perform sacrifices, of a married man to take care of his wife and children, etc.

In Buddhism, dharma (Pali: dhamma) primarily refers to the teachings of the BUDDHA and is part of the TRIRATNA or ‘three jewels’, and one of the three refuges of all Buddhists. It includes the law, doctrine or ethical precepts, and implies an understanding of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS and the EIGHTFOLD PATH. In the third century BCE, the Mauryan emperor ASHOKA laid down his policy of dhamma, a code of conduct to be followed by all his subjects, based on Buddhist principles.

In Jainism, dharma or right conduct involves cultivating the TRIRATNA or three jewels of right belief, right conduct and right knowledge, and following the five vows of AHIMSA (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), aparigraha (non-greed), and BRAHMACHARYA (chaste living). These five, which also form the YAMAS or restraints of the yogic path, are practised at different levels by ascetics and non-ascetics. Jain ascetics follow them strictly, while non-ascetics can marry and acquire what they need, and have fewer restrictions on food.

For Sikhs, dharma refers to a moral way of life, based on god’s will or a divine command (hukam), and explained in their scriptures. In Zoroastrianism, the concept of ASHA is similar to that of dharma.

Right conduct is part of all religious systems, though the term dharma may not be used.

(2) Dharma can also be translated as ‘religion’.

(3) In Buddhism, Jainism and other early philosophies, dharma is also used in a different context, as an element or substance. In Buddhism the mental and physical world comprise various dharmas, including mental faculties and material elements. In Jainism dharma is one of the six DRAVYAS or basic substances of the world. It pervades the whole world, is continuous and extends through space, but is devoid of any qualities such as smell, sound, colour or taste.

Dharma Deva A Hindu deity. DHARMA, or right conduct, has also been personifed as a deity or person who upholds right action. KUNTI in the MAHABHARATA meditated on Dharma Deva and YUDHISHTHIRA was born to her. When the PANDAVAS started their journey to heaven at the end of their lives, Dharma accompanied them in the form of a dog.

According to the PURANAS, Dharma was the son of BRAHMA and one of the PRAJAPATIS.

DAKSHA gave ten (or in some texts thirteen) of his daughters in marriage to Dharma. Various Puranas have different lists of these, but according to one version, they were: Arundhati, Vasu, Yami, Lamba, Bhanu, Marutvati, Sankalpa, Muhurta, Sadhya and Vishva. Other names include Shraddha, Maitri, Hri and Murti. Among their sons were NARA and NARAYANA.

As Dharmaraja is a name of the god YAMA, Dharma Deva is often identified with Yama, though the two have different origins and myths.

Dharma Shastras Sanskrit texts which deal with the customs, practices, ethical conduct and laws of Hindus. The term Dharma Shastra is sometimes taken to include all texts dealing with Hindu law, but it also refers to a specific set of texts, probably composed from the second century onwards, which expand on the DHARMA SUTRAS. The Dharma Shastras form part of SMRITI or ‘remembered’ literature, rather than the more sacred SHRUTI or divinely revealed literature, such as the VEDAS. The Manava Dharma Shastra (of Manu), also known as the MANU SMRITI, is the earliest, while those of YAJNAVALKYA, VISHNU and NARADA are probably from the third to fifth centuries CE. There are several other Dharma Shastras, including those assigned to ATRI, Apastamba, ANGIRAS, BRIHASPATI, DAKSHA, PULASTYA and VYASA, some dating to medieval times. Commentaries on these, such as the DAYABHAGA and MITAKSHARA, are additional sources for customary Hindu law.

Dharma Sutras Sanskrit texts which form the earliest sources of Hindu law. They were originally composed between the sixth and seventh centuries BCE, with additions made later. The customs and ethics described in these, are written in short aphorisms or sutras and were later expanded and written in verse, forming the DHARMA SHASTRAS. Dharma Sutras are attributed to different authors, among them the sages or RISHIS Apastambha, Baudhayana, Gautama and VASISHTHA. They form part of SMRITI or ‘remembered’ literature, rather than that directly revealed by the gods.

Dharma Thakur A village deity of Bengal. He is also known as Dharma Raj, or Dharma Rai. Dharma Thakur is worshipped and depicted in different forms, often as a simple stone or mound of earth, as a tortoise, or sometimes in the form of a man with a large moustache. All castes make offerings to him, though the priests are usually from the lower castes. According to one scholar, the deity owes its origin to the Buddhist concept of DHARMA, which was represented as a STUPA, similar to the shape of a tortoise. This is said to account for his worship by lower castes, while other deities were part of Brahmanical Hinduism. His consorts or female counterparts are known as Dharma Kaminyas and include Kalkali Devi, Kaliburi, Rai Buri, Rai Baghini and others, some of whom have separate temples dedicated to them. The worship of these deities is widespread in rural Bengal, and there are several Bengali texts in praise of Dharma Thakur, known as Dharma-Mangalas. Later, Dharma Rai was also absorbed into the Brahmanical pantheon as a form of SHIVA or VISHNU, known as SASTHA or Dharma Sastha. As a guardian deity, he is portrayed seated on a horse. His southern counterpart is AYYANAR.

Dharma Rai is worshipped with sacrificial offerings of goats, pigeons and chickens, as well as with offerings of terracotta elephants and horses.

dharmachakra pravartana Literally, ‘the turning of the wheel of law’, a term referring to the first teachings of the BUDDHA in the deer park at SARNATH. Here he is said to have revealed the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS and the EIGHTFOLD PATH, forming the basis of the Buddhist DHARMA or teachings. The dharma chakra in the form of a spoked wheel is an important Buddhist symbol depicted in art. In early art it represents the Buddha and his teachings.

Dharmaguptaka A HINAYANA Buddhist sect, a branch of the VIBHAJYAVADA, which formed a part of the STHAVIRAVADA sect. Literally, the name means ‘protectors of the DHARMA’. They have their own versions of the Suttas, VINAYA and ABHIDHAMMA, and later became popular in Central Asia and China. Their texts describe a number of rituals, as well as rules, not commonly observed by other sects. For instance, there are twenty-six rules regarding correct behaviour at a STUPA. Among their other differences from the various Hinayana sects were their views on gifts given to the SANGHA. They felt gifts should be given to the BUDDHA separately and that gifts to stupas were also meritorious.

dharmakaya A Buddhist concept. In early HINAYANA literature, the BUDDHA is said to have a body ‘born of dharma’, i.e, a ‘dharmakaya’. According to THERAVADA doctrines, the two bodies of the Buddha were the rupakaya (physical) and the dharmakaya (body of truth). After passing to NIRVANA, the rupakaya remained in his relics and the dharmakaya in his teachings.

The concept was further developed in later texts of MAHAYANA and VAJRAYANA. The Buddha is said to have three bodies or states (TRIKAYA), dharmakaya being the third. It represents the Absolute, the state of Buddhahood, that is reached at the final stage on the path.

Dharmakirti A MAHAYANA Buddhist philosopher who lived from c. 600 to 650 and critically assessed the approaches of the YOGACHARA school of Buddhism. His main work is Pramanavarttika, which elaborates and comments on the work of DIGNAGA, an earlier Buddhist philosopher. Another of his works is Nyayabindu, a text on logic. His writings mark an important stage in the development of Mahayana Buddhist logic and philosophy.

Dharmapala A MAHAYANA Buddhist philosopher who lived in the sixth century and belonged to the YOGACHARA school of Buddhism. He was a disciple of DIGNAGA and took over from him as head of NALANDA University. Dharmapala’s best-known text is the Vijnatamatrata-siddhi, which was translated into Chinese. It classifies DHARMAS or elements into five categories, including mental dharmas or states of consciousness, mental faculties, material elements, things or situations, and non-created elements. It states that consciousness exists, though other things are unreal. It became the main text of the Fa-hsiang school of Chinese Buddhism.

Dharmaputra A name of YUDHISHTHIRA, one of the five PANDAVAS in the MAHABHARATA. He was the son of DHARMA DEVA and is also known as Dharmaraja.

Dharmaraja A Hindu deity, usually a name of YAMA, god of death. Among others referred to as Dharmaraja is YUDHISHTHIRA.

Dhatr A Hindu deity first mentioned in the RIG VEDA. He is said to have created the sun, moon, heaven, earth and air, and to be the lord of the world. In post-Vedic texts, he is the creator and preserver of the world, the equivalent of PRAJAPATI or BRAHMA. He is also one of the Adityas.

Dhatukatha A Buddhist HINAYANA text that forms part of the ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA of the PALI CANON. It deals with the dhatus (elements) and their interconnections, and has fourteen short chapters in question and answer form.

Dhishana A deity mentioned in the RIG VEDA. She is the wife of the gods and a goddess of abundance.

Dhritarashtra A king described in the MAHABHARATA who ruled at HASTINAPURA. Born blind, he was the son of the rishi VYASA from Ambika, widow of King Vichitravirya. He was married to GANDHARI and was the father of a hundred sons, collectively known as the KAURAVAS.

Dhruva The pole star. In Hindu myths, he was the son of Uttanapada by his second wife Suniti, and the grandson of MANU Svayambhuva. Though born a KSHATRIYA, he practised austerities and became a RISHI. VISHNU was pleased with him and elevated him to the sky, making him the pole star. In some texts, Dhruva is considered an incarnation of Vishnu.

Dhumavarna A king of the NAGAS. According to the HARIVAMSHA, a Sanskrit text, he took YADU, son of YAYATI, to his capital and married his five daughters to him. The YADAVAS were descended from them. This myth probably indicates inter-marriage between different groups.

Dhumavati A Hindu goddess, one of the ten MAHAVIDYAS or TANTRIC goddesses. She is said to be a widow, dressed in dirty clothes, pale, tall, stern and unsmiling. Her hair is dishevelled, she has a crooked nose, a quarrelsome nature, and rides a crow. Dhumavati represents darkness and the negative powers of life. Worshipping her enables transcendence of negativity and leads to inner silence and illumination.

Dhumrorna A Hindu goddess, one of the wives of the god YAMA. She is depicted along with the god in some images, either sitting on his lap or standing nearby. She is said to represent the smoke of the funeral pyre.

Dhurjati A name of the Hindu god RUDRA or SHIVA.

dhyana A Sanskrit term for meditation and contemplation. It is the seventh stage of Raja YOGA, and is also practised in other philosophical systems.

Dhyaneshvara A Maratha BHAKTI saint. His name is also spelt JNANESHVARA.

Dhyani Buddhas A term used for celestial BUDDHAS of the northern Buddhist pantheon. It refers to five Buddhas representing the five SKANDHAS, who head families of BUDDHIST DEITIES. They are popularly called Dhyani Buddhas, as in iconography they are shown in miniature form in the crown or head of the deity which forms part of their family. These Buddhas are described in detail in the GUHYASAMAJA TANTRA. Each is assigned a MANTRA, a SHAKTI or female counterpart, a colour, a direction, and a guardian of the gate. The five are VAIROCHANA, RATNASAMBHAVA, AMITABHA, AMOGHASIDDHI and AKSHOBHYA.

Diamond Sutra The popular English name of a MAHAYANA Buddhist text, the VAJRACHCHHEDIKA-PRAJNAPARAMITA-SUTRA, one of the many PRAJNAPARAMITA texts.

Diamper, Synod of A Christian council held in 1599 at Udayamperur (Diamper) near Kochi in Kerala. It brought the SYRIAN CHRISTIANS under the Portuguese Catholics in Goa and thus united the Syrian Christians with the ROMAN CATHOLIC Church. After 1653, when the COONEN KURISU revolt took place, the Syrian Church broke up into different groups, one branch remaining Latinized.

Digambara One of the two main sects of Jainism. According to tradition, in the fourth century BCE there was a great famine in north India. A leader of the Jains, probably BHADRABAHU I, went to south India around this time, along with 12,000 followers, and settled at the place now known as SHRAVANA BELAGOLA in Karnataka. CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA, the emperor of the Mauryan dynasty, also came with them, though according to some accounts he reached Shravana Belagola slightly later.

Those who went south had certain differences with those who remained in the north. The southern Jains came to be known as Digambaras, while the northern were SHVETAMBARAS.

Digambara literally means ‘sky-clad’, that is, those who do not wear any clothes, while Shvetambaras are those who wear white garments. The initial rule of MAHAVIRA was that Jain monks should discard clothes as part of their asceticism.

The two sects largely follow different JAIN TEXTS, though they have some in common. In the north the Shvetambaras collected the teachings of Mahavira and compiled them into the ANGAS and other texts. These were not accepted as authentic by the Digambaras, who have their own set of texts. Two important texts for Digambaras are the KARMAPRABHRITA and KASHAYA-PRABHRITA, though there are others as well. Despite this there are not many differences between the ideas and concepts of the two main sects.

Some key differences are: (1) For JAIN ASCETICS, rules are more strict for Digambaras, with nudity practised in advanced stages. Nuns in both groups wear clothes. (2) Digambaras believe a woman cannot attain enlightenment, while Shvetambaras believe both men and women are capable of gaining enlightenment. Digambaras explain this by saying that because of societal pressures, a woman cannot practise the extremes of asceticism required, such as abandoning clothes. (3) Digambaras believe that once a person becomes a TIRTHANKARA, he does not need food, even if he is still in this world; Shvetambaras do not agree. (4) Digambara images of Tirthankaras and deities are plain, with downcast eyes. Images in Shvetambara temples have open eyes and are richly decorated. (5) Digambaras have different versions of the life of Mahavira.

Among the major sub-sects of the Digambaras are the BISAPANTHA, TERAPANTHA and TARANAPANTHA or Samaiyapantha. Other minor sub-sects include the GUMANAPANTHA and TOTAPANTHA. A recent sub-sect is the KANJIPANTHA. The sub-sects differ mainly in the type of rituals performed in temples. The Bisapantha and Terapantha normally do not visit the temples of other sects.

Diggajas Elephants in Hindu mythology. They protect the eight points of the compass and are therefore known as ASHTADIGGAJAS.

Digha Nikaya A HINAYANA Buddhist text of the PALI CANON, literally ‘long suttas (sutras) or discourses’. A part of the SUTTA PITAKA, the Digha Nikaya consists of thirty-four suttas on the teachings of the BUDDHA, each quite long. Some of the suttas are in prose, the others in a mixture of prose and verse. The first sutta, the Brahmajala Sutta, criticizes BRAHMANA practices, while the second, Samana-phala Sutta, describes non-Buddhist ascetic teachers. These are then contrasted with the Buddhist way. Other interesting suttas inlude the sixteenth, the MAHAPARINIBBANA SUTTA, which is an account of the last years of the Buddha’s life and his sayings and speeches at this time. The twenty-second, the Mahasatipatthana Sutta, discusses the different kinds of mindfulness and the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. While in some suttas the Buddha is treated as a human being, in others, various miracles, powers and divine qualities are ascribed to him. Some suttas have creation stories, as in the PURANAS. On the whole, the Digha Nikaya is one of the most valuable texts for the main teachings of Hinayana Buddhism.

Dignaga A MAHAYANA Buddhist philosopher and logician of the YOGACHARA school who lived from c. 480 to 540. He spent many years at NALANDA and is known for two texts, the Pramanasamuchchaya and the Nyayamukha.

Dikapalas Hindu deities who are guardians of the eight directions. They are also known as Lokapalas and live in the different zones of Brahmaloka, on Mt MERU. Accoding to the BHAGAVATA PURANA, they are: in the east, INDRA, in his city of Amravati; in the southeast, AGNI, in his city of Tejovati; in the south, YAMA, in his city of Samyamani; in the south-west, NIRRITI in his city of Krishnanjana; in the west, VARUNA, in his city of Shraddhavati; in the north-west, VAYU in his city of Gandhavati; in the north, KUBERA, in his city of Mahodaya; in the north-east, SHIVA, in his city of Yashovati. BRAHMA sits in the centre in his city called Manovati. Other texts give different lists, including SURYA, SOMA and Ishana among the guardian deities. Each of the guardian deities has a pair of elephants which help in the protection of that quarter. These are known as the ASHTADIGGAJAS and Ashtadikkaranis.

Dilwara Temples A group of Jain temples located at Dilwara at Mt ABU in Rajasthan. The ADINATHA or Vimala Vasahi temple is the earliest, built in 1032, with additions from later periods. The patron of the temple was Vimala, a minister of Bhima I, a king of the Solanki dynasty. Constructed entirely in white marble, the inner shrine has an image of RISHABHA or Adinatha, the first TIRTHANKARA, and is connected to an enclosed MANDAPA with two porches. There are two more mandapas and an enclosing wall lined with small shrines. There are several other Jain images in niches, as well as an image of Vimala on a horse in the front porch. The pillars and side walls are elaborately carved with deities and scenes from their lives, surrounded by delicate scrollwork. On the ceiling are concentric circles with rows of musicians, dancers, soldiers, horses and elephants.

Next to it is the NEMINATHA or Luna Vasahi temple, constructed in 1230 and later, by two merchants, Vastupala and Tejapala. Similar in structure to the Adinatha temple, it is also of white marble and even more elaborately carved.

Another Adinatha temple here dates to the fourteenth century and has a large brass image in the inner shrine. The PARSHVANATHA temple of 1459 is built in grey stone and has a double-storeyed shrine. About 5 km away at Achalgarh fort are two more Jain temples.

Din-i Ilahi A popular term for the religion or system of worship founded by the Mughal emperor AKBAR in 1582, more correctly known as the Tauhid-i Ilahi. The religion is described in the Ain-i Akbari, the writings of the contemporary historian Badauni, the DABISTAN-I MAZAHIB, and other texts. Akbar established himself as the leader of the religion, which contained a mix of ideas derived mainly from Hindu and Zoroastrian sources. Sun worship formed an important part of it, and Akbar is said to have recited the 1001 names of SURYA, the sun god, in Sanskrit every day. Fire was also revered and a sacred fire was always kept alight. In addition, lamps were lit every day. Followers were urged to give up eating meat and particularly to avoid beef; the slaughter of animals was forbidden on certain days. Disciples also paid obeisance to Akbar, as the guru or head of the religion. The contemporary historian Badauni states that at this time public prayers and the AZAN were prohibited, and mosques and prayer halls were converted into store-rooms, though this is probably not true.

Orthodox Muslims were against these practices, and the Tauhid-i-Ilahi died out after the death of Akbar in 1605. According to some accounts, Akbar himself lost interest in it in his final years, but this has been questioned.

Dinkard A Zoroastrian text of the tenth century that is encyclopedic in nature and consists of an analysis of various aspects of the religion, some of it in question-answer form. It includes a description of the NASKS and of several rituals, and is based on material from earlier texts. The Dinkard has nine books, though the first two books and part of the third book no longer exist.

Dinyar, Dastur A Zoroastrian priest who is said to have been a companion of the Prophet MUHAMMAD, though this is not historically confirmed. According to the esoteric school of Zoroastrianism, Dinyar was the same person as Salman-e-Fars, or Salman the Persian, one of the Prophet’s companions. This school also believes that Muhammad and his son-in-law Ali, granted freedom of worship to Zoroastrians, a view which goes against traditional PARSI history.

Dip Singh, Baba A Sikh scholar and priest. Born around 1680, he came in touch with Guru GOBIND SINGH in 1700 and became a KHALSA. He, along with Bhai MANI SINGH, transcribed copies of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB for distribution. He fought in the battle of Sirhind and later in other battles, and was the GRANTHI, or head priest of Damdama Sahib. In 1762, after the Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali had desecrated the GOLDEN TEMPLE or Har Mandir Sahib, Dip Singh marched to AMRITSAR with a small force. On the way he was wounded in battle, but he reached the Golden Temple and died near the sacred pool there.

Dipankara A Buddha who existed long before the historic BUDDHA, Shakyamuni. According to the BUDDHAVAMSHA and later Buddhist tradition, he was the first of twenty-four BUDDHAS. Long ago he spoke about the path to enlightenment, and among those inspired by him, was a young man known as Sumedha. Sumedha took the vows of the BODHISATTVA, and after countless lives was reborn as Gautama Siddhartha, who became a Buddha, known as Shakyamuni.

Dipavamsha A Buddhist text which deals with the history of Sri Lanka and with the growth and development of Buddhism there. It dates to the fourth century and was probably a composition of several writers.

Diti A deity first mentioned in the RIG VEDA, associated with ADITI. Her children became the MARUTS. In the MAHABHARATA and Puranas she was one of the daughters of DAKSHA and was married to KASHYAPA. Apart from the MARUTS, her children were the daityas, HIRANYAKSHA and HIRANYAKASHIPU, and their sister Simhika. Other DAITYAS were descended from them.

Ditthivaya (Drishtivada) A Jain text, the last of the twelve ANGAS. This text no longer exists, but other texts state that it had five divisions and included preparations for the right understanding of the sutras and stories of the TIRTHANKARAS. Two DIGAMBARA texts, the KARMAPRABHRITA and the KASHAYA-PRABHRITA, are said to be based on the Ditthivaya.

Divali One of the most important Hindu festivals. It occurs in October/November on the last day of the dark half of the month of Karttika. It is a festival of lights, celebrated by placing lights outside and within the home, and letting off firecrackers. Several different myths and deities are associated with this festival. Among deities, the most important is the god RAMA. After his exile of fourteen years, Rama is said to have returned to AYODHYA on this day, and the citizens decorated the city with lights to welcome him home. Divali recreates this event. It is also a day associated with LAKSHMI, goddess of wealth, who enters lighted homes and brings prosperity for the rest of the year. Games of chance, particularly dice and cards, are played, symbolizing the role of luck in acquiring and losing wealth. In some areas of south India, the festival marks the victory of the god KRISHNA over NARAKASURA.

Other festivals are associated with Divali and celebrated before or after it. DHANTERAS, when new utensils are bought, occurs two days before. On the day after Divali in rural areas, cattle are worshipped and decorated, and given special food. Two days after Divali is the festival of BHAI DUJ, when sisters honour their brothers.

Jains celebrate Divali as the day when the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, MAHAVIRA, attained nirvana.

Over the years Divali celebrations have changed in nature and character. Once only earthen lamps were used, filled with oil and with home-made wicks, while now candles and electric lights are more common, at least in urban areas. Shops are decorated days in advance of Divali, as it is a festival where gifts are given to friends, relatives and business associates. All communities join in the celebrations.

Divine Light Mission A religious organization founded in the early 1960s, which gained popularity abroad but declined by the 1970s. It was founded by Shri Hans Maharaj ji, originally a member of the Vaishnava VALLABHACHARYA sect. On his death in 1966, his son Prem Pal Singh took the title Guru Maharaj Ji, and spread the movement in the USA, where it had a large following. His followers lived with him and were known as Premis (lovers). After his marriage to an American woman in 1974, the Mission’s activities and popularity declined. A successor organization, the Elan Vital, was then founded in 1983, and still attracts followers in the West.

Divine Light Society A social and religious organization founded by Swami SIVANANDA and registered as a trust in 1936. The organization, with its headquarters at Rishikesh, has several branches in India and other parts of the world. It disseminates information on religion and philosophy through publications, lectures and conferences, and runs educational institutions, dispensaries and other charitable organizations. The manifesto of the society states that: ‘Anyone devoted to the ideals of truth, non-violence and purity can become a member of the Divine Life Society, which is a non-sectarian institution embodying in its widest perspective the common fundamental principles of all the religions of the world and of spiritual life in general.’.

Divyavadana A MAHAYANA Buddhist text in Sanskrit which probably dates to the second or third century. It contains a number of Buddhist legends and stories. The text was translated into Chinese by the year 265.

dog, in religion The dog is a very significant animal in Zoroastrianism, and to some extent in Hinduism.

In Hinduism, dogs are associated with some of the deities. In the RIG VEDA, the god INDRA was helped by a female dog, SARAMA. Sarama is mentioned in later texts as well. In the MAHABHARATA, YUDHISHTHIRA refuses to enter heaven without his dog, which finally turns out to be the god DHARMA in disguise. RUDRA is called Shvapati, or lord of dogs, while SHIVA in his form as BHAIRAVA is accompanied by a dog. The god YAMA has two dogs, known as the SARAMEYAS, the descendents of Sarama. The rishi DATTATREYA, an incarnation of VISHNU, is also associated with dogs. In later Hinduism, dogs were condemned by BRAHMANAS as unclean, but certain myths and stories in texts indicate that they were also held in high regard.

In Zoroastrianism, there are several passages in texts that discuss the dog. For instance, the VENDIDAD states that the dog is one of the creatures of the good spirit (SPENTA MAINYU), which always serves man and should be cared for. Another passage points out its usefulness: ‘The dog, O Spitama Zarathushtra! I, Ahura Mazda have made self-clothed and self-shod, watchful, wakeful and sharp-toothed, born to take his food from man and watch over man’s goods… Whosoever shall wake at his voice, neither shall the thief nor the wolf steal anything from his house…’ (xiii.106–07). Part of the Vendidad also lists punishments for ill-treating a dog, or not feeding it properly.

A ritual known as the Sagdid ceremony takes place after the death of a person, when a dog is brought to view the dead body.

The dog is also associated with the other world. In the Arda Viraf Namah, composed by ARDA VIRAF in the third century, Zerioug Goash is a dog that guards the CHINVAT BRIDGE. Devils quake at his bark, and any soul who on earth has hurt, ill-used or destroyed any of these animals, is prevented from going further.

Dol Purnima A Hindu festival similar to HOLI, held in March/April in West Bengal. An image of the god KRISHNA is made, decorated with flowers and coloured powder, and worshipped. Then it is placed in a swing and taken out in a procession, accompanied by music and dance. The birthday of CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU, the BHAKTI saint of the sixteenth century, is celebrated on the same day.

Donyi Polo A sun and moon cult prevalent among some of the tribal groups of the north-east. The Apatanis and other tribes worship the sun (Donyi) and the moon (Polo) for prosperity, fertility and protection from calamities. Worship includes offering apong (rice beer) and rice flour, and animal sacrifices, particularly of a mithun (a small variety of bull).

Draupadi The wife of the PANDAVAS in the MAHABHARATA. Draupadi was the daughter of king Drupada of Panchala. ARJUNA, the third of the Pandavas, excelled all others in his skill with the bow, and thus won her hand at her svayamvara. When he took her home he called out to his mother, KUNTI, that he had acquired something good, and without knowing what it was, she asked him to share it with his brothers. Though Kunti tried to retract her words when she saw Draupadi, a mother’s words cannot be made false, and so Draupadi became the joint wife of the five brothers. She shared with them their good and bad fortune, and went with them into exile. KRISHNA was her great supporter, and when her husbands failed her, she called on him for protection. BHIMA, the second Pandava, often defended her, though her favourite was Arjuna. Draupadi is usually depicted along with the Pandavas, but also separately. In south India, Draupadi is worshipped as a goddess.

Dravidian Movement A movement which started before Independence in the region of Tamil Nadu. It opposed BRAHMANAS, superstitious religious practices, and north Indian dominance. One of its main leaders was E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, who led a protest which included burning copies of the RAMAYANA, that he considered a primarily north Indian epic. In 1944, Naicker and C.N. Annadurai founded the Dravida Kazhagam (Federation of Dravida People). Later, two political parties were founded: the Dravida Munnetra (Progressive) Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949 and the All-India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) in 1972. Initially they were against caste and against a number of religious practices, including blind devotion to gods and goddesses. They remain major political parties in the state, but are no longer entirely against religion.

dravya A Sanskrit term meaning a substance, thing or object. In philosophy it indicates the basic substances that comprise the world. According to NYAYA philosophy, there are nine dravyas, including the five elements, KALA or time, dik or disha (direction space or region), ATMAN (the soul) and manas (mind). In Jainism, there are six dravyas: the five realities or ASTIKAYA, which are JIVA, AKASHA, DHARMA, ADHARMA and PUDGALA, as well as kala. Other philosophies have different categorizations.

Drigung Kagyu A school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM, a sub-sect of the KAGYU lineage. It was founded by Drigung Kyopa Jigten Gonpo (1143–1217) and has several monasteries in LADAKH. The school is currently (2005) headed by Drigung Kyabgon Che-Tsang, the thirty-seventh successor of the founder.

Drogmi/Drokmi/Brogmi A Buddhist scholar, the teacher of Khon Konchok Gyalpo, who founded the SAKYA school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM. Born in 992, he was the disciple of Gayadhara, an Indian Buddhist. He studied at VIKRAMASHILA monastery in India for eight years, where he received teachings on the KALACHAKRA and other aspects of VAJRAYANA BUDDHISM. In Tibet, he had a number of disciples, one of whom, Gyalpo, built a monastery known as the Sakya or ‘grey earth’ monastery, from which this school got its name. Drogmi died in 1074.

Dromston The founder of the KADAMPA school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM. He lived from 1008 to 1064 and was the disciple of ATISHA. He built a STUPA and monastery housing the relics of Atisha, and based this school on the teachings of Atisha.

Drona/Dronacharya A teacher of military arts in the MAHABHARATA. He taught both the KAURAVAS and the PANDAVAS, and in the great war sided with the Kauravas.

druj A term in Zoroastrianism for ‘untruth’ as opposed to the true path of ASHA or righteousness. In the RIG VEDA, druh is a similar term.

Drugpa Kagyu A school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM, a sub-sect of the KAGYU lineage. It was founded by Choje Gyare Yeshe Dorje, also known as Ling Repa (1128-89), and is now (2005) headed by the twelfth Drugchen Rinpoche, who has reestablished his monastery in Darjiling.

Duff, Alexander A Scottish missionary (1806–78) who came to India in the nineteenth century and successfully propagated Christianity. He initiated educational missions which combined traditional Indian and Western concepts, and encouraged intellectual debates on Christianity. He was associated with Ram Mohan ROY and was responsible for converting some prominent citizens of Kolkata (Calcutta) to Christianity.

Dughdova The mother of ZARATHUSHTRA, the founder of the Zoroastrian religion. Born in Rae or Ragha in Media, she was sent away by her father Frahimrava to Arak because her whole body glowed with light and people in her home town were afraid of her. In Arak, Paitaraspa was impressed by her and married her to his son, Pourushaspa. They had five sons, of whom ZARATHUSHTRA was the third.

Dukh Niwaran Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Patiala in Punjab. It marks the spot visited by the ninth guru, TEGH BAHADUR. Nearby is a sacred tank.

According to the story associated with this shrine, the area was once a village known as Lehal, which is now part of Patiala city. The residents of Lehal were affected by a mysterious illness and one Bhag Ram asked the guru to visit the place, so that his blessings would remove the illness.

Guru Tegh Bahadur visited Lehal in 1672, and sat beneath a banyan tree near a pond. The residents regained their health, and the place where the guru sat was known as Dukh Niwaran, the remover of suffering. The waters of the pond are believed to have developed curative powers, through which both people and animals are healed.

Raja Amar Singh of Patiala (1748–82) had a garden planted in the area around the sacred banyan. The construction of a gurdwara began in 1930 and the gurdwara complex now covers several acres. The main building is double-storeyed, the interior has white and grey marble floors, white marble pillars and a ceiling decorated with floral designs. A large tank has replaced the original pond. Basant Panchami is the main festival here, celebrated as the day of the guru’s visit.

Another historic gurdwara in Patiala is the Moti Bagh Gurdwara.

dukhang A term for an assembly hall in a Tibetan Buddhist monastery.

Durga A Hindu goddess who has many forms and roles. Her main role is as a fierce and independent deity, but she also has benign or gentle forms. Though eternal, she incarnates in order to defeat demons and protect her devotees.

Durga is not known in the RIG VEDA. One of her names, AMBIKA, appears in some later Vedic texts and in the Taittiriya Aranyaka, Ambika is also called Durga Vairochani, Katyayani and Kanniyakumari. Some other names associated with her, such as Uma Haimavati or KALI, are mentioned in the UPANISHADS. Durga is fully described for the first time in the MAHABHARATA, but this is a late addition. The PANDAVAS prayed twice to Durga, who granted them boons. Worshipping Durga on the eve of the war, ARJUNA says: ‘You are famous as Kumari, Kapila, Kapali, Krishnapingali, Bhadrakali and Mahakali.’ The other names he mentions are CHANDI, because of her terrible (prachanda) anger, Katyayani, because of her beauty, and Kali, because of her dreadful form. He also calls her Uma, Shakambhari, Shveta, Krishna, Kaitabhanashini, Hiranyakshi, Virupakshi, and Sudhumrakshi, and the defeater of the asuras Mahisha, Chanda and Munda. Thus the concept of Durga was well-developed at least by around CE 400. Images of Durga also date back to this time.

In the HARIVAMSHA, a later appendage of the MAHABHARATA, Durga is associated with various tribes and is said to have been worshipped by the Shabaras, Barbaras and Pulindas. One of her names in the PURANAS is Vindhyavasini, dweller of the Vindhyas, and she may have originated as a tribal goddess in the Vindhyan region. In a later version of the RAMAYANA written by Krittivasa, Durga is worshipped by RAMA. This story occurs in the PURANAS as well.

In the DEVI BHAGAVATA, she is said to have emerged in order to defeat an asura known as Durgama. In the SKANDA PURANA, PARVATI takes the form of Durga to defeat this demon. Durga is best described in the DEVI MAHATMYA of the MARKANDEYA PURANA. Here the killing of the asuras is described, and in addition, she is said to represent SHAKTI, MAYA and PRAKRITI. She is often called Mahamaya. Stories about Durga relate that she was very beautiful and had many suitors. She stated that she would only marry someone who could defeat her in battle, but no man could.

Durga is also the mother of the world, known as Jaganmata or Jagadamba. She is also called Bhagavati, MAHADEVI or Devi. She is the giver and protector of weapons.

In early texts she is associated with KRISHNA or VISHNU. In the Durgastotra of the MAHABHARATA, she is said to have been born in the womb of YASHODA. The goddess EKANAMSHA may represent this early form. Later she is more closely associated with SHIVA, and is considered a form of Parvati. Her worship is important to the Shaktas and she is the main deity of SHAKTI cults, and in her various forms, of Hindu TANTRISM.

In Kashmir, Durga is known as Amba or Bhavani. In Uttar Pradesh, one of her names is Katyayani, and in Mithila she is called Uma. In east India, she is Jagatdhatri, Durga, and KAMAKSHI. In west and central India, Ambika, Hingalaj, Rudrani and Uma are among her names. In south India, Kannaki, Mukamba, Jokulamba and Kamakshi are considered forms of Durga. There are several other forms of Durga; many of the village mother goddesses also represent Durga.

Durga is in addition represented in nine forms, Nava Durgas. Texts have different names for these; in the Devi Mahatmya the nine forms are given as: Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kush-manda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalaratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri. Another list is: Brahmani, Kalika, Durga, Karttiki, Shiva (Shivaa), Raktadantika, Shokarahita, Chamunda and Lakshmi, and there are other variants as well.

Durga worship takes place in different ways. In some temples there are animal sacrifices. DURGA PUJA, a festival in October, is specially dedicated to the worship of the deity, and here she is also worshipped as a young married woman, visiting her parents’ home. Durga is thus a complex and composite deity, indicating feminine power in both its fierce and benevolent aspects.

Durga temples exist all over India under the various names of Durga. Images of the deity are known from about the second century CE, where she is shown with two or more arms as Mahishasuramardini (killing Mahisha). In medieval iconography she has several arms displaying her weapons, which include a trishula (trident), khadga (sword) and chakra (disc). In later images she is seated on a lion, while in earlier images the lion is absent or stands nearby. The Nava Durgas are sometimes represented in panels.

Durga is still a popular deity, depicted in modern temples, as well as in art, with multiple arms, seated on a lion or tiger.

Durga (fort) Temple, Aihole A temple of the Hindu god VISHNU, in AIHOLE, Karnataka, which belongs to the sixth or seventh century, the time of the Chalukya dynasty. It is not a temple primarily of the goddess Durga, but gets its name from the Kannada phrase ‘durgadagadi’, meaning ‘temple near the fort’. The temple is on a high basement, with an apsidal-ended plan like a Buddhist CHAITYA, possibly indicating an earlier date. The inner shrine is semi-circular, with an ambulatory passageway, a MANDAPA and porch. There was once a tower above the shrine, of which only a part remains. The sculptures within the temple are among the best of the Chalukyan period and include NARASIMHA, VARAHA, VISHNU with GARUDA, HARIHARA, DURGA and SHIVA with NANDI. Relief panels depict scenes from the RAMAYANA and MAHA-BHARATA. The columns at the entrance are carved with guardian figures and couples, while the ceiling panels have lotus and NAGA motifs.

Durga Puja A ten-day festival for the worship of the goddess DURGA, celebrated at the same time as DASHAHARA in October. It is most important in West Bengal. Images of the goddess DURGA are set up in houses and temples, as well as in temporary shrines or pavilions, and worshipped for nine days. Songs are sung and verses relating to the goddess are recited, and dances take place before the goddess. The pavilions or pandals also depict contemporary events. On the tenth day the images are taken out in a procession and then immersed in water. The tenth day of Dashahara thus commemorates the victory of the goddess over the demon Mahishasura, representing the victory of good over evil. The festival also has different aspects. Traditionally, DURGA as Shakambhari or the goddess of vegetation is also worshipped at this time. Nine plants (navapatrikas) are placed in an earthen vessel or pot, representing the fertility aspect of the goddess. These are: rambha (plantain), kachu, haridra (turmeric), jayatri (barley), bilva (wood apple), darimba (pomegranate), ashoka, mana and dhanya (rice).

Durga is usually an unmarried and independent deity. However, as Uma or PARVATI, she also represents the young married woman, who visits her parents home, just as other young women visit their parents at the time of Durga Puja. The four days when Durga stays at her parents’ home form the main part of the festival. Her arrival is celebrated, and her departure, symbolized by the immersion of the idol, is marked by tears.

Durvasa/Durvasas An ancient RISHI or sage described in the MAHABHARATA and PURANAS, who was the son of the rishi ATRI and his wife Anasuya. Durvasa was known to be both powerful and bad-tempered. According to the VISHNU PURANA, the DEVAS suffered after he cursed INDRA for disrespect to a garland he gave, and their fortunes could only be restored by churning the ocean for AMRITA. In the MAHABHARATA a story is told of how he was angry with KRISHNA, and foretold how Krishna would be killed.

Duryodhana A KAURAVA, the eldest of the hundred sons of King DHRITARASHTRA, whose story and conflicts with his cousins the PANDAVAS, are described in the MAHABHARATA. He was killed on the last day of the great Mahabharata war. Duryodhana was envious of his cousins and wanted to destroy them, which finally led to his downfall. However, he was not without his qualities and could be a loyal friend, as he was to KARNA, who was born to KUNTI before her marriage, and was thus a brother of the PANDAVAS,

Dushyanta A king who is described in the MAHABHARATA. He was the father of BHARATA, a legendary ruler, after whom India is said to have been named Bharatavarsha. The story of Dushyanta and his wife Shakuntala was retold by KALIDASA in the fifth century, in his play Abhijnanashakuntalam.

Dvaipayana Another name of the ancient rishi VYASA.

Dvaita A dualistic school of VEDANTA, one of the six classical systems of ancient Indian philosophy. Its main exponent was MADHVA, who lived in the thirteenth century. Basing himself on the BRAHMA SUTRA, UPANISHADS and VEDAS, Madhva challenged SHANKARA’s concept of One Reality. He held that there are three distinct entities, god or BRAHMAN, the individual soul, and the world. The latter two cannot exist without God and yet are distinct from it. He saw the highest God as KRISHNA or VISHNU, with his consort LAKSHMI. He advocated BHAKTI and the worship of god in the form of the avataras or incarnations of Vishnu, SHIVA, or the PANCHAYATANAS or five deities. He did not recognize the worship of RADHA. According to his philosophy, knowledge and a moral life lead to the love of God, and salvation is attained by the grace of God. However, even those who have attained liberation remain separate individuals, connected with, but not identical to, God. Madhva differed from RAMANUJA in stating that individual souls are not of the same essence, and not all are eligible for salvation. The texts for this school of philosophy are mainly Madhva’s works, particularly his commentaries on the Brahma Sutra, Upanishads, BHAGAVAD GITA, BHAGAVATA PURANA, and the first forty hymns of the RIG VEDA. His work Anuvyakhyana explains his interpretation of the Brahma Sutra. Bharatatatparyanirnaya is a work on the MAHABHARATA, while his Prakaranas expand on some philosophical themes. All these works are collectively known as the Sarva Mula Grantha. Commentaries on Madhva’s works include those of Jayatirtha and Vyasaraya. Some scholars have suggested the influence of Christianity on his ideas, such as his concept of the individual soul.

Dvaitadvaita One of the schools of VEDANTA, which is one of the six main systems of ancient Indian philosophy. Dvaitadvaita states that both duality and unity or oneness are real. Its major exponent was NIMBARKA, who probably belonged to the twelfth century. His two main works are a commentary on the BRAHMA SUTRA called Vedantaparijata-saurabha, and a work of ten verses, Dashashloki. He believed the soul (JIVA), god (ishvara or BRAHMAN) and the world (jagat) were distinct, yet united. He felt both duality and unity or oneness were real. The soul and the world possess attributes different from Brahman, yet cannot exist independently, being dependent on Brahman, and reflecting a transformation of Brahman. The universe is not an illusion, as it is the manifestation of the nature of god. The pure nature of the soul is clouded by its karma. Through submission to god, as well as devotion or BHAKTI and an ethical life, one can realize god. Nimbarka stressed devotion to a personal god, KRISHNA, along with RADHA.

His philosophy is slightly different from that of RAMANUJA, who placed greater emphasis on unity or identity.

Among other exponents of this school was Keshavakashmirin, who wrote a commentary on the BHAGAVAD GITA called Tattva-prakashika.

Dvapara Yuga In Hindu mythology, the third of the four YUGAS or periods of time, which together comprise a MAHAYUGA. The Dvapara Yuga follows the TRETA YUGA, and in it the righteousness that existed in the first yuga is reduced by half. Its primary virtue is sacrifice, and the sacred texts of this age are the PURANAS. Very few follow truth or duty without seeking rewards. Misery, disease and disasters prevail, and the CASTE SYSTEM has come into existence. Human beings live for 2000 years and children are born through sex, which was not the case earlier. A man can have only one wife, and marriage can only take place at the time of the first menstruation of the woman. This yuga lasts for 2400 divine years, which are equal to 8,64,000 human years, and is symbolized by the colour yellow. It is succeeded by the KALI YUGA.

Dvaraka (Dwarka) A sacred town in Gujarat, traditionally associated with the Hindu god KRISHNA. According to the story in the MAHABHARATA, the HARIVAMSHA and the PURANAS, Krishna left MATHURA, which was being repeatedly attacked by King Jarasandha of Magadha, and went to Dvaraka on the Saurashtra coast. Along with him went his family and the whole YADAVA clan. Here a magnificent, well-defended city was built. Defeating his enemies, he and his brother BALARAMA ruled the region for thirty-six years. However, at the end of the great Mahabharata War, Krishna was cursed by GANDHARI, mother of the KAURAVAS, for killing all her sons. All that he had built up, she said, would be destroyed.

The curse was fulfilled, when the Yadava clan began to indulge themselves in drink and wild behaviour. Balarama and Krishna banned alcohol, but once allowed them to drink at Prabhas Patan nearby. Intoxicated, the Yadavas fought and killed each other. Krishna and Balarama retired to the forest at Prabhas Patan. Balarama meditated and left his body, while Krishna was accidentally killed by the hunter Jara. Dvaraka was then submerged by the sea.

The present town of Dvaraka (Dwarka) on the seacoast is full of temples. The most important is the DVARKADHISH TEMPLE. Among other temples is the Rukmini Temple, dedicated to KRISHNA’S chief queen, RUKMINI. The Bhadrakali Temple, dedicated to the goddess KALI, is constructed at a SHAKTA PITHA, or a site associated with SATI, the wife of SHIVA. Nearby lies the Siddheshvara Mahadeva Temple, a Shiva temple with a LINGA said to have been consecrated by the god BRAHMA. The Chakra Narayana Temple is a VISHNU temple, where Vishnu is worshipped as a chakra (disc) on a stone. In the Gomati Temple, the local river Gomati is worshipped as a goddess. She is said to be a form of the river GANGA, who flowed here as the Gomati at the request of some rishis. The Panchanada Tirtha, another sacred site, is associated with the five PANDAVAS. Here there are five sweet-water wells, surrounded by the salty sea. The Samudra Narayana Temple marks the confluence of the Gomati with the sea.

Dvaraka also has one of the four SHANKARACHARYA MATHAS first set up by SHANKARA in the ninth century.

Not all accept that the present town is the site of the ancient city. Marine archaeologists believe they have recovered the remains of a submerged city near the island of Bet Dvaraka, 30 km away, and suggest that this is the real site. Local tradition holds that the island is all that remains of Krishna’s ancient city. The island has another Dvarakadhish Temple, with an image of Krishna, as well as several other temples. Several other sites in Gujarat are also identified with Dvaraka.

Dvarakadhish Temple A temple dedicated to the Hindu god KRISHNA, located at DVARAKA in Gujarat. It was constructed in the sixteenth century, though parts of it date back to the twelfth century, and it is said to have been built on the site of an ancient temple. The structure has seven storeys and rests on seventy-two carved pillars. Made of granite and sandstone, it covers a large area of 540 m and rises to a height of 51 m, with a soaring tower and a cluster of smaller towers. The multi-storeyed MANDAPA is decorated on the outside with open balconies. In the GARBA-GRIHA or inner shrine, is an image of the deity, the latest of several images installed in the temple. Earlier images are said to have been of Krishna in warrior form; they were moved to other temples, the last to the Dvarakadhish Temple at Bet Dwarka. The present image is dressed in jewels and silks, placed on a silver throne, and has four arms holding the chakra, mace, conch and lotus. He is known here as Dvarakadhish, the lord of Dvaraka. Krishna is also affectionately called Ranchorji, the ‘one who ran away from battle’, a reference to his leaving MATHURA to avoid King Jarasandha. The main entrance to the temple is through the Svarga Dvara, or ‘heaven’s door’, which has steps leading up from the river Gomati. JANAMASHTAMI, the celebration of KRISHNA’S birthday, is the biggest festival here.

There are other Dvarkadhish temples at various places, including at Bet Dvaraka and Mathura.

dvarapalas Minor Hindu deities who guard doors or entrances. They are depicted in several temples as large guardian figures, sometimes in the form of YAKSHAS.

Dyaus A deity mentioned in the RIG VEDA. He is the god of the sky or heaven, often associated with PRITHVI, the earth. USHA, the dawn, is said to be his daughter. Other sons or descendants are the Ashvins, Agni, Parjanya, Surya, the Maruts and the Angirasas. By the later Vedic period, Dyaus had lost his importance. His counterpart in Greek mythology is Zeus.