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Easter A Christian festival that celebrates the resurrection of JESUS CHRIST, which took place three days after he was crucified. The date of Easter is not fixed but the festival takes place on a Sunday in March or April, according to a lunar calendar. Special church services are held and altars of churches are decorated with white flowers. Easter is one of the earliest CHRISTIAN FESTIVALS to be celebrated, dating back to the second century. The name Easter may be connected with an early Anglo-Saxon spring goddess, Eostra, with the spring festival being absorbed into Christianity. Other scholars feel it comes from the Latin ‘in albis’, the Christian term for Easter week, which in Old High German became ‘eostarum’.

Forty days of LENT precede Easter. The final week, known as Holy Week, has several sacred days. It begins with Palm Sunday, the day when JESUS entered Jerusalem in triumph, his path being strewn with palm leaves and branches; Maundy Thursday commemorates Jesus’s Last Supper with his disciples; GOOD FRIDAY is the day of his crucifixion; Easter Saturday marks the transition between crucifixion and resurrection, and the Holy Week concludes with Easter Sunday.

Popular Easter symbols include the rabbit and the Easter egg. Some believe these reflect earlier fertility symbols, while others feel they have a Christian origin. The rabbit is said to have been introduced in Protestant Europe in the seventeenth century, while the egg signifies birth and new life.

Easter is considered the most important Christian festival, as the concept of resurrection leading to eternal life is central to Christianity.

ecumenical movement A worldwide movement in Christianity to promote union and understanding between different types of churches. India is notable for the union of divergent Protestant Churches in the CHURCH OF NORTH INDIA and the CHURCH OF SOUTH INDIA. Among other groups are the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES OF INDIA, the COMMUNION OF CHURCHES OF INDIA, various CATHOLIC groups and the Evangelical Fellowship of India.

eightfold path The path of the right way of living, preached by the BUDDHA and described in Buddhist texts. The Buddha’s FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS state that life is full of sorrow, which can be overcome by following the eightfold path. This consists of (1) right views (samyak drishti), which indicates a knowledge and understanding of the four noble truths and other Buddhist concepts; (2) right thought (samyak samkalpa), which is thought that is free from lust, ill-will or cruelty, and leads to a life of benevolence and harmlessness; (3) right speech (samyak vacha), which means speaking the truth and not indulging in idle gossip or slander; (4) right action (samyak karmanta), refraining from killing, stealing and doing wrong, and maintaining control over the senses; (5) right mode of livelihood (samyak ajiva), which implies finding a way of life that is not harmful to living beings, does not involve bloodshed, sale of intoxicants or trafficking in women and slaves; (6) right effort (samyak vyayama), which includes eliminating evil thoughts and replacing them with good ones, and preventing wrong thoughts from arising; (7) right mindfulness (samyak smriti), through which the body, feelings, mind and mental states are viewed correctly, and the right state of mind is established; and (8) right meditation (samyak samadhi), which becomes possible when the five hindrances of covetousness, malevolence, lethargy, restlessness, worry and doubt are eliminated. There are then four successive states of meditation, which finally lead to NIRVANA or liberation.

Ekadanta A name of the Hindu god GANESHA. He is so named because he has only one tusk.

Ekambareshvara temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located at KANCHIPURAM, Tamil Nadu. It was first constructed in the time of the Cholas, but rebuilt in 1509 by the Vijayanagara emperor Krishnadevaraya. In the inner shrine is a Prithvi LINGA, or earth linga. The temple has three GOPURAMS or entrance gateways, one each on the south and west leading into the inner enclosure, while the main gopuram rises to a height of 58.5 m, and can be seen from anywhere in the city. To the front of the east-facing temple is a long MANDAPA or hall, and to the north, a fish-tank.

There are several legends associated with this temple. According to one legend in the Sthala Purana of the temple, when Shiva was concentrating on the universe, his wife PARVATI came and playfully closed his eyes. The universe was in chaos, and the angry Shiva asked Parvati to go down to earth. There she created this linga from earth and maintained and worshipped it with the help of VISHNU, though Shiva put all sorts of obstacles in her way. Finally, when Shiva was pleased with her, they were reunited. This reunion took place under a mango tree, and thus the temple got its name (eka = one, ambra = mango, ishvara = god). The marriage of Shiva and Parvati is celebrated here with great splendour in the month of Phalguna (February–March).

Ekanamsha A Hindu goddess associated with the gods BALARAMA and KRISHNA. She is normally depicted standing between the two gods, holding a lotus or a mirror. The BRIHAT SAMHITA says that this goddess can be depicted with two, four or eight arms. The goddess was popular in medieval times in eastern India.

Eknatha A mystic and BHAKTI saint of the sixteenth century. He composed ABHANGAS or verses in Marathi in praise of the god KRISHNA and his form as VITTHALA, and wrote several texts and commentaries. Born in 1540 at ancient Pratishthana (Paithan in present Maharashtra), he studied Sanskrit and became a learned scholar by the age of twelve. He then travelled on his own to sacred places in the north, returning home at the age of twenty-five. He married Girija, who became his companion and support in his ascetic life. He edited Jnaneshvari, the work of the Bhakti saint JNANESHVARA, and restored it to its original form, removing later additions and interpolations. He also wrote works on VEDANTA, other philosophical systems and VAISHNAVISM. His best-known works are Ekanathi Bhagavata, which is a commentary on the eleventh chapter of the BHAGAVATA PURANA; the Rukmini Svayamvara, the story of Krishna’s marriage with RUKMINI; and the Bhavartha Ramayana, a version of the RAMAYANA, which he left unfinished and was completed by three other authors. He also translated the rest of the Bhagavata Purana into Marathi. He believed in the equality of all castes, and because of this, faced problems in the conventional society of his times.

Elamma A grama devata or village deity. Elamma is a mother goddess, a form of RENUKA in south India. According to myths, Renuka was the mother of PARASHURAMA, an incarnation of the Hindu god, VISHNU. At the request of his father, JAMADAGNI, Parashurama cut off her head because she was once unchaste in thought and desired a GANDHARVA. In most myths, Parashurama then received a boon from his father and restored her to life. But in the story of Elamma, Parashurama mistakenly placed the head of Renuka on the body of an ‘untouchable’ woman, one of the lowest castes. She was then named Elamma and worshipped by lower castes and outsiders. Elamma-Renuka is still worshipped in village temples in south India. Two images of her are usually made, one in stone and the other in metal, representing the two deities. Near her images are those of Parashurama and Jamadagni. Animal sacrifices are offered to the deity twice a year. The myth of Elamma indicates the absorption of lower castes into the Brahmanical system.

Elephanta Cave Temple A rock-cut temple of the Hindu god SHIVA, located on the island of Elephanta or Gharapuri, about 10 km offshore from MUMBAI in Maharashtra. The temple dates approximately to the sixth century and is carved into the side of a cliff. The inner shrine has a monolithic LINGA set in a pedestal. The north entrance, which is the main doorway today, has a large, triple-headed bust of Shiva, 6 m high, as well as images of LAKULISHA, an incarnation of Shiva, and NATARAJA, a form of Shiva. At the east entrance are Shiva and PARVATI seated on a mountain. They play a game of dice, undisturbed, as RAVANA tries to shake them off their perch. There are several other sculptures of Shiva and Parvati set in panels on the walls. Outside the temple are small courts with shrines of GANESHA, KARTTIKEYA and the MATRIKAS. The temple was named Elephanta by the Portuguese because a huge stone elephant stood at the landing point.

elephants, in religion Elephants form an important part of Hindu, Buddhist and other myths. In Hinduism, the god INDRA rides on the white elephant AIRAVATA, who also represents rain clouds. Eight male elephants, the ASHTADIGGAJAS, along with their female counterparts, are the supporters of the universe. GANESHA, one of the most popular deities, has the head of an elephant, while GAJA-LAKSHMI, another popular deity, has LAKSHMI being bathed by two elephants. GAJENDRA, the king of elephants, was saved by VISHNU when he prayed to him. In the PURANAS elephants are associated with rain and are like rain clouds. There are several stories about them in ancient texts, where they are also known as gaja or naga. According to one story, narrated in the MAHABHARATA and other texts, all elephants originally had wings. An elephant is also the symbol of the MULADHARA CHAKRA. Today elephants are kept by certain temples and used in processions. Temple records also have stories of elephants as divine worshippers. For instance, at the KALAHASTI temple, an elephant was one of the first worshippers of the LINGA there.

In Buddhism, a white elephant is considered particularly auspicious and is associated with the birth of the BUDDHA.

In Jainism, dreams of elephants are one of the signs of the birth of a Jain TIRTHANKARA.

In other cultures too, elephants formed part of religious myths.

Ellora The site of several rock-cut temples, dated between the fourth and thirteenth centuries, Ellora is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. There are Hindu, Buddhist and Jain shrines that extend for about 2 km, carved along the side of a basalt cliff. Twelve Buddhist caves are located to the south and can be dated between the seventh and eighth centuries. They belong to the MAHAYANA school of Buddhism, and include both CHAITYAS and VIHARAS. There are images of BUDDHAS and BODHISATTVAS, as well as various Buddhist deities, including TARA, MAHAMAYURI, HARITI and Panchika. To the north are five Jain temples dating to around the ninth century, which depict the TIRTHANKARAS and other Jain images. There are seventeen Hindu temples from between the seventh and ninth centuries. Among the temples are the Dashavatara Temple, which was begun as a Buddhist monastery but was converted into a Hindu temple. It has a free-standing MANDAPA, an inner shrine with a LINGA, and several SHIVA and VISHNU images. The Rameshvara Temple also has a linga shrine with a monolithic NANDI in the front court. Another temple has a DURGA shrine. Though most of the temples are cut into the cliff, the eighth-century KAILASHNATHA TEMPLE is the most extraordinary, as it is a full-size standing temple intricately carved out of rock, each aspect sculpted in great detail.

Eluttachan/Ezhuthachan A writer in Malayalam who lived in the sixteenth century, and composed works on religion. Born about 40 km from Kozhikode in Kerala, his full name was Tunchattu Ramanujan Eluttachan, and he was commonly known as Tunchan. He made a free translation of tha ADHYATMA RAMAYANA into Malayalam that became popular throughout Kerala. He incorporated into it aspects of Valmiki’s RAMAYANA, the works of KALIDASA, and the earlier Kannasa Ramayana in Malayalam. In the month of Karkataka (August-September), the last month of the Malayalam calendar, passages from his Ramayana were traditionally read for twenty-one days. There are several philosophical passages in his free translation, for example when RAMA, explaining to LAKSHMANA why he should not rebel against their father, says that life is transient and the world unreal. He adds, ‘We are like travellers resting for a night at a wayside inn. We meet and talk for a while, and depart in the morning.’ Eluttachan used a musical verse style known as Kilipattu (parrot song), which makes the oral reading of his Ramayana attractive. He also made a free translation of the MAHABHARATA, and of the BHAGAVATA PURANA.

episcopal A term relating to Christian church organization. Episcopal churches are administered by Bishops, under whom there are priests or presbyters (elders) and deacons. The Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches are episcopal.

Ettutogai Eight anthologies of Tamil verse that form part of the ancient SANGAM LITERATURE, and can be dated between the third century BCE and the fourth century CE. Most of them contain love poems or verses in praise of kings, but the Paripadal includes poems in praise of various gods. Others also have incidental references to religion. For instance, the Padirrupattu, which contains verses in praise of kings of the Chera country (Kerala), describes methods of worshipping the god VISHNU. Altogether, there are 2,372 poems in these texts.

eucharist A Christian form of worship, practised in churches in India and elsewhere, which celebrates the life of JESUS CHRIST, and is also known as holy communion. It dates back to the Last Supper that Jesus shared with his disciples before he was betrayed. After giving thanks for the meal, while breaking bread he said, ‘This is my body’, and while drinking wine, ‘This is my blood of the new testament, which is shed for many for the remission of sins’. He asked his disciples to eat bread and drink from the cup in remembrance of him. In churches today a wafer of bread and some wine are consecrated and given to worshippers by the priest. There are many scholarly debates on the real meaning of these words of Jesus and on the significance of this ritual, but for most Christians it represents a close contact with Christ and his spiritual essence, as well as a remembrance of his death and resurrection. The term eucharist comes from the Greek ‘eucharista’, which means ‘thanksgiving’. The ceremony is also an expression of gratitude for Jesus’s presence in the world. The eucharist forms part of the celebration of MASS and is often used as a synonym of it.

Evangelical Churches A group of Christian churches. The term ‘evangelical’ comes from ‘evangel’, the Greek word for ‘gospel’, which means ‘good tidings’ or ‘good news’, referring to the message of Jesus. It was first used by early PROTESTANT churches, particularly Lutheran Churches that emphasized belief in the BIBLE, divine grace, faith, and conversion through personal conviction. Today there are different types of evangelists, some being modern and liberal, others using a literal interpretation of the Bible and maintaining conservative views. Several evangelical groups are known for their missionary zeal and promote conversion. In India, there are two types of Evangelical churches: the LUTHERAN Churches and the more modern denominations, which include the PENTECOSTAL, BRETHREN, SEVENTH DAY ADVENTISTS, Assemblies of God, MENNONITE Churches, the Hindustan Covenant Church, and others. Many of the latter group are affiliated to the Evangelical Fellowship of India.