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Fa Hsien (Faxian) A Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited India and Sri Lanka in the fifth century, during the reign of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty. Born in 337, he left China in 399, when he was over sixty years old, arriving in India by an overland route through the Himalayas. In India he studied Sanskrit and travelled to Buddhist sites before going to Sri Lanka. He collected several Buddhist scriptures and left for China in 414 by sea, reaching home after a journey of 200 days, as his ship had been blown off course. He wrote an account of his travels in which he described the places he visited, the kings of India, and the state of Buddhism. The texts he took back to China included the Vinaya of the MAHASANGHIKA and of the MAHISHASAKA sect, as well as part of the SARVASTIVADA texts and the MAHAPARINIRVANA SUTRA. These were later translated into Chinese and were important for the growth of Buddhism in China.

Fa Hsien died in 422.

Faizi A poet who lived in the sixteenth century at the time of the Mughal emperor AKBAR. He was the brother of ABUL FAZL and the son of Shaikh Mubarak. Born at AGRA, he wrote a number of poetic works and was given the title Malik al-Shuara or ‘king of poets’ at Akbar’s court. His books include Nal Daman and a commentary on the QURAN. His poetry was influenced by his SUFI beliefs, and in his last years he changed his name to Fayyazi (super-abundance), saying, ‘As I am now chastened by spiritual love, I am the Fayyazi of the Ocean of super-abundance (God’s love)’. Another example of his verse is given below:

O Thou who existest from eternity and abidest forever

Sight cannot bear Thy light, praise cannot express Thy perfection.

Thy light melts the understanding, Thy glory baffles wisdom;

To think of Thee destroys reason, Thy essence confounds thought.

Faizi died at the age of forty.

fana Literally, ‘extinction’, a term used by SUFIS, for the state of ecstacy reached when the soul merges with God.

faqir/fakir The Arabic term for a religious mendicant, also known as a darvesh or PIR in Persian. In India the term came to be used both for SUFIS and for Hindu saints.

Faraizis/Faraidis Followers of a nineteenth century Islamic movement started by Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur, The movement was widespread in east Bengal. The name Faraizi comes from ‘farz’, meaning obligatory duties laid down by Allah. Haji Shariatullah gave it a broader connotation, interpreting it to include all the religious duties laid down in the QURAN and SUNNAH.

The Faraizis aimed at reforming Islam and removing practices such as the worship of saints, and Hindu deities.

In addition, Shariatullah declared that India had become DAR-UL-HARB, ie. an unholy land, literally, ‘a land of warfare’, and therefore suspended Friday and Id prayers, and asked his disciples to carry out a struggle against the British. His son Dudu Miyan (1819–60 or 1862) converted it into a wider movement, against the British supported by peasants, as he stated that the earth belonged to God, and no one had the right to own it or levy taxes on it.

The Faraizi Movement declined after Dudu Miyan’s death, though it still had some followers. In 1947, most Faraizis were in the newly formed area of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Faraizis adhere to the Hanafi school of Islamic law, with some variations.

Farid, Baba A SUFI saint (c. 1175–1265) from Ajodhan in Pak Patan, now in Pakistan. His full name was Faridud-din Ganj-i Shakar, but he was popularly known as Baba Farid. Baba Farid’s father was a scholar and his mother was extremely pious, spending long hours in prayer. Influenced by her, Farid became a disciple of QUTBUDDIN BAKHTIYAR KAKI, a Sufi saint of the CHISTI ORDER in DELHI. Farid was revered in Delhi, but constant visitors disturbed his meditations. He moved to Ajodhan, where he set up his KHANQAH with a Jamaat Khana, a thatched hall where everyone lived together, and a separate cell for his meditation. He lived simply, and fasted all day, eating only in the evening. Here too he had many visitors and did not refuse entry to anyone.

One of the most renowned Sufi saints, he died in 1265. His chief disciple was NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA. Some of Baba Farid’s verses are included in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB, though scholars feel a few of these could be assigned to his successors.

Faridun A legendary king of ancient Iran revered by Zoroastrians. Faridun was the later name of THRAETONA, described as a sage in Avestan texts. According to the SHAH NAMAH and some Pahlavi texts, helped by Kava, the blacksmith, he defeated the evil tyrant Zohak, who had killed King JAMSHED, and chained Zohak to the Daemavand mountain. This event is celebrated in the Meherangan festival, which occurs on the Meher day of the Meher month, as the triumph of good over evil. Faridun knew a number of NIRANGS (sacred chants) by which he could heal diseases and change his form at will. Some of these Nirangs are still used as prayers today.

farishta A Persian word meaning an angel or angelic being. The term is used in both Islam and Zoroastrianism.

Fatiha, al The first sura or chapter of the QURAN, which is considered particularly sacred. It begins:

Praise be to God, Lord of all the Worlds,

The compassionate, the merciful;

King on the day of judgement.

Thee do we worship, and to Thee do we cry for help!

Guide us on the right path.

The Prophet MUHAMMAD is said to have stated it was the greatest sura of the Quran. It forms part of the daily prayers and is also used when praying for the sick or the souls of the departed.

fatwa A religious or judicial decree pronounced by an Islamic authority, such as an IMAM, MUFTI or QAZI. It is generally written and can relate to some interpretation of Islamic law or may provide advice on a course of action. It is not legally binding. In India there are several collections of fatwas dating from medieval times, that provide both religious and historic material. Among them is the Fatwa-i Alamgiri, compiled at the time of the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB in the seventeenth century. This text belongs to the HANAFI school of law. Various Islamic bodies in India, continue to pronounce fatwas on issues pertaining to personal law or general issues. Recently fatwas have been issued against terrorism, stating that it is un-Islamic.

fiqh A term for Islamic law or jurisprudence. The term Fiqh means ‘understanding’ and included both law and theology, but now refers mainly to law. Fiqh incorporates laws relating to prayers, rituals, social obligations and punishments. There are four main schools of law for SUNNIS. These are the Maliki, HANAFI, Shafi and HANBALI, each based on texts initially compiled by individuals of those names. The Hanafi school is mainly followed by SUNNIS in India, though some follow the Shafi school. Several compilations of FATWAS provide additional material for the followers of these schools. SHIAS have separate schools of law.

Firdausi A Persian poet of the eleventh century who wrote the SHAH NAMAH or Book of Kings, a legendary history of the kings of Iran. His real name was Abul Kasim Mansur.

Firdausi silsila An order of SUFI saints, a branch of the SUHRAWARDI, that gained importance in the fourteenth century. It was established in DELHI by Shaikh Badruddin of Samarqand, a disciple of Shaikh Saifuddin Bakharzi, who in turn was the Khalifa or senior disciple of Shaikh Najmuddin Kubra (d. 1221). Shaikh Ruknuddin Firdausi succeeded Shaikh Badruddin, and hence this branch came to be known as Firdausi. Shaikh Badruddin and his disciples were prominent in Delhi before the CHISTI order reached India. The Firdausi saints did not reject contacts with the sultans and Shaikh Najmuddin Sughra, a saint of this order (sughra = junior), was the minister of religious affairs at the time of Sultan Iltutmish (1211–36). Firdausis were on the whole, pious and austere, and for some time the branch remained confined to Delhi. It then became prominent in Bihar, where Shaikh SHARAFUDDIN YAHYA MUNYARI (d. 1381) was one of the leading saints.

fire Fire is considered sacred in several religions, with various rituals related to it. In Hinduism all ceremonies and sacrifices are performed with fire. AGNI, the god of fire, is important from the time of the RIG VEDA. The three essential fire offerings are mentioned in the VEDAS: the garhaptya or fire of the hearth, dakshina or fire offerings to deities, and ahavaniya or fire used in sacrifices and worship. The Agnihotra or fire sacrifice consists of daily worship of the domestic and sacrificial fires (garhaptya and ahavaniya). In the KATHA UPANISHAD, the boy Nachiketa learnt the fire sacrifice from the god YAMA. According to the VISHNU PURANA, PURURAVAS received instructions for the threefold fire sacrifice, and by performing this was reunited with Urvashi. Forty-nine sacred fires are mentioned in early Sanskrit texts, personified by Agni along with his sons and grandsons.

Celebrations of several festivals, particularly that of Divali, include the lighting of lamps, while ARTI, the circling of flames, is performed in temples and at sacred sites.

In Zoroastrianism, fire is known as ATAR or Atash, and is considered sacred. The sacred flame is kept burning in temples and homes. JASHANS and YASNAS, similar to the Sanskrit YAJNAS, are conducted around the sacred fire on auspicious occasions and at special ceremonies. In Buddhism and Jainism lamps are lit in temples or sacred places.

In Christianity, too, candles are lit in churches, while in Judaism the menorah is a many-branched candlestick used in rituals, and the Ner Tamid, representing eternal light, is kept burning in SYNAGOGUES. CHANUKAH is also a festival of lights. In Islam a flame often burns at the shrine of a PIR or saint.

five pillars of Islam The five basic practices for all Muslims. These are: (1) bearing witness that there is no god but ALLAH; (2) offering NAMAZ (salat in Arabic) or prayers five times a day; (3) ZAKAT, giving the prescribed alms once a year; (4) roza (saum in Arabic) or fasting during the month of RAMZAN; (5) going on a pilgrimage (HAJ) to Mecca at least once in a lifetime.

four noble truths The basis of the philosophy of the BUDDHA, which formed part of his first sermon at the Deer Park in SARNATH. The four truths are: (1) Life is suffering (dukha); (2) Suffering is caused by desire or craving (trishna, literally ‘thirst’); (3) Suffering can end through the elimination of desire; (4) Desire can be removed by following the EIGHTFOLD PATH.

The four truths are accepted by all schools of Buddhism, as Part of the basic philosophy of the religion.

frashokereti A concept in Zoroastrianism that signifies the renewal of existence. The idea occurs in the GATHAS, where ZARATHUSHTRA says, ‘O living One, Ahura, by your power, renew (ferashem) [my] life, and re-create it as you wish’ (Yasna, 34.15). Another passage in the GATHAS (Yasna 30.11) states that there will be a long period of suffering for the wicked, while the truth leads to bliss but finally, light prevails everywhere. The word frashokeriti, however, occurs only in later texts. It implies a perfect world that will ultimately exist as a culmination of the struggle of good against evil. All souls will be purified and live in this world, which is not merely a spiritual state but an actual material existence.

fravashi A term in Zoroastrianism, for a divine spark that exists in every living being, including animals and plants, and functions as a guardian spirit. The fravashi is always pure and perfect and cannot be destroyed or corrupted. Each being has its own fravashi, which provides guidance, persuading the individual to follow the right path. There are some similarities with the concept of the ATMAN or soul, or the JIVA, but the difference is that the fravashi provides active guidance. The fravashi is the ideal, and thus when individual souls reach perfection they unite with their fravashis. The term is not mentioned in the GATHAS, though it is implied, but the concept is fully developed in later texts. In the BUNDAHISHN the fravashis are given the choice of entering the material world and battling against evil, or remaining in the spiritual world. The fravashis of the righteous are remembered in all prayers and ceremonies, and particularly in the MUKTAD. The Fravardin Yasht is a special prayer dedicated to righteous people of the past, present and future, and to their fravashis. The later term used in Pahlavi is fravahr or farohar. In art, the fravashi is depicted as a winged deity.