G

gachchha A group or subdivision among SHVETAMBARA Jains. Gachchhas were formed by various Jain leaders, usually monks, mainly between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. According to some accounts there were at one time eighty-four gachchhas, but probably many of these did not last long. Three gachchhas are still important, and most Shvetambaras in western and northern India belong to one of them. They are the Kharatara Gachchha, the Tapa Gachchha and the Anchala Gachchha. Each has its own temples and holy men, but there are no doctrinal differences between them. The Kharatara Gachchha, the most popular today, is mentioned in an inscription of 1090. There are several legends about its formation, one being that it was founded by Jineshvara Suri who, after defeating other monks in a religious debate, was given the title Kharatara (a strong character) by a king of Gujarat. The Tapa Gachchha is said to have been founded by Jagachandra Suri, who practised severe austerities (tapas) and therefore was given the title Tapa by the king of Mewar in the thirteenth century. The Brihat Kalpa list of Jain leaders states that these two gachchhas owe their origin to the Jain leaders Vardhamana and Sarvadeva, respectively. The Anchala Gachchha, earlier known as the Vidhipaksha Gachchha, was said to have been formed in the twelfth century, though it occurs in inscriptions only from the fifteenth century.

The Lonka Gachchha, founded by LONKA SHAHA in the fifteenth century, led to the formation of several sub-sects, among which the most important is the STHANAKAVASI. According to some scholars, gachchha is a later term for GANA, but the two words are also used simultaneously.

Gahambars A seasonal festival in Zoroastrianism which occurs six times a year. The term Gahambar means ‘full season’ and thus the festival occurs in the middle of summer, winter, and other seasons. Each Gahambar is linked with some aspect of creation. The mid-spring Gahambar (maidhyoizarema) is asociated with heaven or the sky, and with KHSHATHRA; mid-summer (maidhyoi-shema) with water and HAURVATAT; the harvest (paitishahya) with the earth and ARMAITI; mid-autumn (ayathrima) with vegetation and AMERETAT; mid-winter (maidhyairya) with animals and VOHU MANA; and early spring or the beginning of the year with humans and AHURA MAZDA. This last corresponds to the MUKTAD ceremonies for ancestors, according to the Fasli calendar. Initially, each Gahambar lasted five days, but now is often confined to one day. Prayers, feasts and acts of charity form an essential part of the festivals.

gahs A term in Zoroastrianism for the five periods of the day. In Zoroastrian temples, the BOI ceremony is performed by the priests at the changing of each of the gahs, and special prayers are said. Havan Gah lasts from dawn to noon, Rapithwan Gah from noon to 3 pm, Uziren Gah from 3 pm to sunset, Aiwisuthrem Gah from sunset to midnight, and Ushain Gah from midnight till dawn. The timings of the Boi ceremony almost correspond with NAMAZ timings in Islam, and according to scholars, Zoroastrian customs had an influence on Islam.

Gaja-Lakshmi A form of the Hindu goddess LAKSHMI. In this form, Lakshmi is depicted with an elephant on each side, who pour water on her from their trunks or from upturned pots. The goddess is seated or standing on a lotus, which usually grows out of a pot, and is surrounded by flowers or plants.

Gaja-Lakshmi, symbol of wealth, is among the earliest deities to be depicted and occurs on coins dating back to the second century BCE. She appears on carvings on the early STUPAS of central India, including SANCHI and BHARHUT, though some have identified this image with that of MAHAMAYA, mother of Buddha, or another Buddhist deity.

The VISHNUDHARMOTTARA provides a description of this type of image, stating that she should be depicted with a pair of elephants behind her head, pouring on her the contents of two jars. Variations of Gaja-Lakshmi are seen in several early temples, particularly in Orissa. Gaja-Lakshmi is also depicted in the KAILASHA TEMPLE at Ellora, as well as in some south Indian temples. This form of Lakshmi remains popular even today.

Gajendra The king of elephants in Hindu mythology. According to stories in the PURANAS, when playing in the water with his wives, Gajendra was seized by a graha, an aquatic monster. He was unable to free himself and began to pray to VISHNU, who rescued him. In his previous life, Gajendra is said to have been a king named Indradyumna, but he was cursed by the rishi AGASTYA and became an elephant. After his rescue by Vishnu he attained a divine form. This episode is depicted in art and sculpture, and is known as Gajendra-moksha, the liberation of Gajendra.

gana A Sanskrit term that means a class or group.

(1) In a specific sense, the term refers to the attendants of the god SHIVA. These ganas are described in various texts as fearful and strange. Drawing on earlier material, the sixteenth-century RAMACHARITAMANASA of Tulasidasa provides a graphic description of the ganas who accompanied Shiva in his marriage procession: ‘Some had lean and thin bodies, while others were very stout; some looked pure, and some impure. They wore frightful ornaments, carried skulls in their hands, and were all smeared with fresh blood. Their faces looked like those of donkeys and dogs, swine and jackals. Their various forms, which included spirits (pretas, pisachas), and yoginis, were beyond description.’

Ganas are thought to be a collection of non-Aryan deities, assimilated in the worship of Shiva and his sons GANESHA and KARTTIKEYA or Skanda. Ganesha is usually considered their leader. Some Ganas are attendants of the god Skanda and are known as Parshadas. They have faces of animals or birds.

(2) Other groups of minor deities are also referred to as ganas. Among these are: ADITYAS, RUDRAS, VASUS, VISHVADEVAS, TUSHITAS, ABHASVARAS, Anilas, Maharajikas, and SADHYAS. They are mentioned in the VAYU PURANA and other texts.

(3) Ganas also refer to various groups and classes, including clans of RISHIS or sages.

gana, Jain In Jainism, a group or school headed by a GANADHARA. Ganas were divided into branches known as shakhas and kulas, and often formed part of a SANGHA. There was not much difference between one gana and another. The KALPA SUTRA contains a list of ganas, their shakhas and kulas, and their ganadharas. Some of these are also known from inscriptions. The names of ganas were often derived from their place of origin.

ganadhara The chief disciples of a Jain TIRTHANKARA or leader, who usually headed a GANA or group of Jains. MAHAVIRA, the twenty-fourth TIRTHANKARA, had eleven ganadharas.

Ganapati A name of the Hindu god GANESHA, who is also the leader of the GANAS, a group of minor deities.

Ganapatihridaya A Buddhist mother goddess with an elephant head. When GANESHA was incorporated into Buddhism, several Buddhist deities gained elephant heads.

Ganapatya A Hindu sect that worships the god GANESHA, also known as GANAPATI. Its practices are described in the GANESHA PURANA, the Ganapati Upanishad, and the Ganesha Gita. The last is similar to the BHAGAVAD GITA, except for the insertion of the name of Ganesha instead of KRISHNA. At one time the Ganapatyas had six different sub-sects, worshipping different aspects of the god, known as Maha, Haridra, Svarna, Santana, Navanita, and Unmatta-Uchchhista. These included Tantric sects. Another sect, also Tantric, was the HAIRAMBA or Heramba. The Prapanchasara Tantra describes the Tantric worship of Ganesha. Tantric-Ganesha rites were also incorporated into VAJRAYANA Buddhism. The MAUDGALYA PURANA describes various aspects of Ganesha and his worship.

The Ganapatyas never became a major sect like the SHAIVITES or VAISHNAVITES, as Hindus of most sects incorporate the worship of Ganesha in their rituals, invoking the god at the beginning of any venture, and on auspicious occasions.

Gandavyuha Sutra A MAHAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the AVATAMSAKA SUTRA, but is used as a separate text. It narrates the story of Sudhana and his search for enlightenment, which he ultimately attained. The Bodhisattva MANJUSHRI inspired him to experience the bodhichitta, or thought of enlightenment. He then journeyed through south India, listening to the teachings of several others, including the Bodhisattva MAITREYA. Finally, after meeting the Bodhisattva SAMANTABHADRA, he attained enlightenment.

Gandhamadana A mountain in Hindu mythology, where some of the gods live, including INDRA, KUBERA and the YAKSHAS. It is said to be located south of Mt KAILASHA. Fragrant and healing herbs grow on it. The god HANUMAN also lived here and brought a fragment of the mountain to RAMESHVARAM in south India.

Gandhara A state in north-west India (present Pakistan) which existed at the time of the BUDDHA and later. The SARVASTIVADA, which later developed into the SAUTRANTIKA school of HINAYANA Buddhism, was prominent here. Between the second century BCE and the second century CE, Gandhara was known for a particular style of Buddhist art. The BUDDHA was depicted in human form for the first time, in Graeco-Roman style. Related Buddhist deities were also depicted in this style. The images were realistic, graceful and serene. At the same time, an indigenous artistic style was developing at MATHURA.

Gandhari The wife of DHRITARASHTRA, the king of HASTINAPURA, described in the MAHABHARATA. As Dhritarashtra was blind, Gandhari too put a blindfold around her eyes. She had a hundred sons, collectively known as the KAURAVAS, born through divine intervention, and one daughter. After the Mahabharata War, Gandhari was filled with sorrow at the death of all her relatives and cursed the god KRISHNA. The later disasters at DVARAKA were the results of this curse.

gandharvas A class of minor Hindu deities who are divine musicians. In the RIG VEDA, Gandharva is mentioned in the singular, as a deity, like the sun, but as one who generated rain. He knew the secrets of heaven and the divine truths. In the later VEDAS, gandharvas are mentioned as a group, and according to the ATHARVA VEDA, they number 6333. The PURANAS and other texts state that they lived in the sky or atmosphere, and prepared SOMA, the divine drink, for the gods. Their food is the scent of fragrant herbs and the smell of water, and they wear sweet-smelling clothes. They love women and are very handsome. Most commonly, they are known as divine singers, dancers and musicians who live in Indraloka, one of the heavens of the gods. Their king is CHITRARATHA, and they have beautiful cities. They are usually depicted with human bodies and the head of a bird or horse, and a similarity with centaurs has been suggested. Their female counterparts are APSARAS.

Gandhi, Mahatma A leader of the freedom movement in India, who is also considered the soul and conscience of the nation, providing ethical and moral guidelines which are still remembered.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, born on 2 October 1869, was affectionately called ‘Mahatma’ or ‘great soul’. His role in the freedom struggle against the British is well known, but many of his discussions on religion have been forgotten. It was his practice to hold a prayer meeting every evening, when he read out passages from texts of different religions and commented on them. Though he affirmed his identity as a Hindu, he respected all religions. He held that being a Hindu meant serving those of other religions and put his words into practice during the partition riots, being the first to visit areas where Muslims had been attacked. Among his favourite religious texts were the BHAGAVAD GITA and the Sermon on the Mount from the NEW TESTAMENT. The songs that inspired him included Rabindranath Tagore’s Ekla Chalo Re (Walk Alone), and the Christian hymn Abide With Me, still played every year in his memory. He preached the virtues of AHIMSA or non-violence, truth, love, and the forgiveness of all.

Gandhi, who was assassinated on 30 January 1948, is the foremost example of how religion can be integrated into one’s daily life for the benefit of all.

Ganesha A Hindu deity, an elephant-headed god, who is one of the most popular deities today, revered by Hindus of all sects. Ganesha is the patron deity of writers, accountants, traders and businessmen, and is worshipped at the start of any new venture. He grants progress, prosperity, wisdom, and the removal of obstacles.

Historically, he was incorporated into the Hindu pantheon somewhat late, around the fourth century, though he existed in different forms earlier. An elephant-headed deity was depicted on some early coins and at AMRAVATI in about the second century. Vinayaka, one of his names, was a term initially used in texts for several spirits such as Shala, Ushmita and others, who possessed men and women and placed obstacles in their way. In the MAHABHARATA, Ganesha is the scribe who writes the whole epic down. In the Yajnavalkya Smriti, Vinayaka is mentioned as the son of AMBIKA.

In a number of myths and stories in the PURANAS he is described as a son of SHIVA and PARVATI, of Parvati alone, or as a deity with an independent origin. According to one story, at one time Shiva and Parvati took the form of elephants, and thus Ganesha was born. The most popular myth recounts that he was created by Parvati. When he was a young, handsome youth, Parvati asked him to guard her door, and Ganesha did his job so well that he would not even let Shiva in. Shiva, therefore, cut off his head, but seeing Parvati’s grief, replaced his head with that of an elephant. In another myth, the god KRISHNA was born as Ganesha.

Ganesha is generally depicted seated or standing, with four arms. He has an elephant head, is potbellied, and has only one tusk. He normally holds in his hands any four of the following: his own tusk or tooth (svadanta), a wood-apple (kapittha), a sweet (modaka), an elephant-goad (ankusha), a noose (pasha), a snake (naga), a rosary, a lotus, an axe (parashu), or a radish (mulaka). In early images he had only two hands, while in some he has eight or more hands. His VAHANA or vehicle is a mouse (mushaka), and around his waist he ties a snake. Each of these aspects is explained through different stories.

Ganesha is also known as GANAPATI, the leader of the GANAS; Vinayaka or Vighneshvara, the remover of obstacles; Gangeya, because in one story he was nurtured by GANGA; EKADANTA, with one tusk. Other names include Lambodara and Gajanana.

He normally has two wives, called Buddhi (intelligence) and Siddhi (divine powers or success), who represent his attributes. Buddhi is sometimes replaced by Riddhi (prosperity).

Various texts also describe different representations of the deity, including Bija-Ganapati, Bala-Ganapati, Taruna-Ganapati, Lakshmi-Ganesha, Maha-Ganesha, Heramba-Ganapati, Haridra-Ganesha, Nritya-Ganapati, Unmatta-Vinayaka, Shakti-Ganesha, Uchchhishta-Ganapati. Maha-Ganesha refers to Ganesha as the Supreme Lord; Bala-Ganapati depicts Ganesha as a child; Lakshmi and Ganesha are worshipped together for prosperity, particularly at DIVALI; Nritya Ganapati is Ganesha dancing; as Heramba Ganapati he rides a lion. Heramba, Unmatta, Shakti and Uchchhista forms are associated with the TANTRIC worship of Ganesha. There are other forms of Ganesha as well.

The GANAPATYAS are sects specially focused on the worship of Ganesha, and use texts dealing specifically with Ganesha. Ganesha also forms one of the PANCHAYATANA, or five main gods of Hinduism.

While art historians feel his elephant head and potbelly indicate the absorption of a local YAKSHA cult into Hinduism, others explain his aspects as symbols of a greater truth. Symbolically, Ganesha’s elephant head represents the Unmanifest, the ultimate goal, and the decapitation of his human head indicates the removal of the individual ego. He has a huge belly because it contains the whole universe, his single tusk represents illusion, and the mouse is the Self, hidden within.

Ganesha temples are located all over India, but he is specially worshipped in Maharashtra. Notable among these are the Ashtavinayaka temples, of which the MORESHVARA TEMPLE is the most popular, and the Siddhi Vinayaka Temple in MUMBAI. In recent times he has become very popular in Tamil Nadu, though there are ancient Ganesha temples there too. Ganesha is worshipped in all SHIVA temples, often in a separate shrine. His brother and rival is KARTTIKEYA or SKANDA.

Ganesha is venerated by Buddhists and Jains as well, and in the early medieval period his images occur in Indo-China, Java and elsewhere. Similar elephant-headed deities are known in China, Japan and other parts of South-East Asia.

Ganesha Chaturthi A festival in celebration of the Hindu god GANESHA. It is most popular in Maharashtra, but is also celebrated in other states. The festival lasts for ten days and takes place in August/September. On the first day a clay image is brought into the house, and then worshipped every day, and on the last day it is immersed in water, either a river, the sea, or even a lake. Prosperity, wisdom and freedom from obstacles are said to be achieved by celebrating this festival. Ganesha is venerated by Buddhists and Jains as well.

Ganesha Purana A Sanskrit text, a minor PURANA or UPAPURANA, dealing with the worship of GANESHA as the supreme deity.

Ganga, goddess A Hindu goddess who represents the river GANGA. Through the mythology of the river, she is also the second wife of SHIVA, though at one time she was one of the three wives of VISHNU. YAMUNA, her main tributary, is her sister in myths.

Among other stories about Ganga is that she once came to earth as a beautiful woman. King Shantanu of HASTINAPURA married her and she gave birth to eight sons, who were once the eight VASUS. The first seven were returned to the Ganga (river), the eighth grew up as Devavrata, also known as BHISHMA.

Ganga as a goddess is usually depicted as a beautiful woman, holding a vessel filled with water on her hip, and standing on a MAKARA, a mythical creature who dwells in water. Images of the goddess Ganga are placed in front of temple doors, or carved on them. In some sculptures she is depicted with Shiva, along with PARVATI, and in others she is shown in Shiva’s hair.

Ganga river The Ganga is the most sacred of all Indian rivers. It starts at Gaumukh in the Himalayas at a height of 4600 m, descends into the plains at HARDWAR, and has a total length of 2525 km before it joins the sea in the Bay of Bengal. Several myths and legends are associated with the river. The Ganga, it is said, first flowed in heaven from the god VISHNU’s foot. King Bhagiratha prayed that it descend to earth to revive his ancestors. The god BRAHMA felt the earth could not bear her strong flow, so SHIVA allowed her to flow on his head. She wandered through his matted locks for some time until Bhagiratha prayed again. Then she descended from the hair of Shiva, and finally flowed to GANGA SAGARA, where the ashes of Bhagiratha’s ancestors were.

Bathing in the river is said to cleanse one of all sins. In Hindu rituals, a few sips of water are given to those on their deathbed. In earlier times, Ganga water was given to the sick in the belief that it would cure them. According to the MAHABHARATA, to chant the name of the Ganga brings purity, to see her assures prosperity, and to bathe in her provides salvation.

The purity of the river was recognized even by the Muslim sultans and the Mughals. The sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq and the Mughal emperors AKBAR and Jahangir drank only Ganga water. Special officials carried the water over long distances when they were on campaigns. Even some of the kings of Tibet drank Ganga water.

Along the course of the Ganga are innumerable sacred places or tirthas. Among these are GANGOTRI, near its source. It descends into the plains at Hardwar, earlier known as Gangadvara, an extremely sacred site. Rishikesh nearby, also has great sanctity. BITHUR, ALLAHABAD (Prayaga), VARANASI (Kashi) and Sonpur in Bihar are some of the other sacred places, apart from Ganga Sagara, where it joins the sea. The Ganga’s tributaries include the YAMUNA, Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak and Kosi rivers and there are sacred sites located along all these.

Ganga Sagara A sacred place located in West Bengal where the river GANGA joins the Bay of Bengal. Here there are small islands submerged in water after the rains. Around MAKARA SANKRANTI (13–14 January) every year, a festival is held here. Thousands of pilgrims bathe in the confluence of the river and the sea at the time of the festival, and it is a centre of pilgrimage even at other times.

In Hindu myths, Ganga Sagara is connected with a story of the descent of the Ganga to earth. In ancient times there was a famous king named Sagara who had two wives, Keshini and Sumati, but no children. He prayed for sons to the god SHIVA, who granted his wish, and had one son from Keshini and a lump of flesh from Sumati, which grew into 60,000 sons. In gratitude, Sagara decided to perform the ASHVAMEDHA or horse sacrifice, where a horse is set free to roam and later sacrificed. The god INDRA stole the horse, afraid of the king’s growing might, and tied it underground, where the rishi KAPILA was meditating. The 60,000 sons searched for it, and locating it they began to attack the sage, who opened his eyes and by his power, charred them all to death. Anshuman, Sagara’s grandson through Keshini, found the bones and begged Kapila to revive them. The rishi said they could only be revived when the Ganga flowed over their bones. It was Anshuman’s grandson Bhagiratha who by his penances and prayers to the god BRAHMA, succeeded in bringing Ganga down to earth. Finally she flowed to the required spot and revived Sagara’s sons. The place was then known as Ganga Sagara and a temple of Kapila was built at the spot.

Gangamma A Hindu mother goddess worshipped in villages in parts of south India. Gangamma is a powerful deity, a form of DURGA, usually propitiated with animal sacrifices twice a year.

Gangaur A festival to honour the Hindu goddess GAURI, a form of PARVATI, held in March/April in Rajasthan. It is both a harvest festival and a prayer for marital bliss. Unmarried girls worship Gauri to gain a good husband, while married women do so for the long life of their husbands and a happy married life. The festival begins on the first day of Chaitra, the day after Holi and continues for eighteen days. Images of Gauri and Isar (Shiva) are made and decorated and taken out in procession on the last three days of the festival. On the final day, the images are immersed in a well or tank.

Gangotri A sacred site located in Uttarakhand, at a height of 3048 m. It is worshipped as the source of the river GANGA, though the actual source is at Gaumukh, 18 km further up the Gangotri glacier. At Gangotri the Ganga is known as the BHAGIRATHI, named after King Bhagiratha of Hindu myths, whose prayers brought her down to earth. A temple is located at Gangotri; it is one of the Char Dham or four main Hindu shrines of the region. The present temple was constructed in the eighteenth century. Made of white stone, it has a gilded roof and a central spire. Nearby is a flat stone known as the Bhagiratha Shila, where Bhagiratha is said to have meditated.

Gangsar Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine with a sacred tank, located at JAITU in Punjab. According to the story associated with it, a pilgrim was once on his way to the river GANGA for a purificatory bath when he met Guru GOBIND SINGH. The guru told him he would acquire equal merit by bathing in the tank at Jaitu, because its water was as pure as the Ganga. The pilgrim bathed in the tank, which was then named ‘Gangsar’, or the ‘tank with Ganga water’. Another Gangsar is located at KARTARPUR.

garbha-griha Literally, ‘womb-house’, it refers to the innermost or main shrine in a Hindu temple, where the image is kept.

Garcia, Gonzalo An Indian Christian who lived from 1557 to 97 and is the first Indian to have been canonized as a CHRISTIAN SAINT. Not much is known about his early life, but he was probably born in a local Christian family in Vasai district near MUMBAI. He had a gift for languages and at the age of fifteen was taken by the JESUITS to Japan, where he became fluent in Japanese and acted as their interpreter. He worked in Macao and Manila, and in 1587 he became a Franciscan brother, returning to Japan in 1593 as a missionary. There was persecution against Christians in Japan, and in 1597 he and some other Japanese Christians were tied to crosses and executed. He was made a saint by Pope Pius IX in 1862.

garo demana A term for heaven in Zoroastrianism. According to the GATHAS, it is the house of song or truth, reached by the followers of truth. Later texts also have other terms for heaven, and ARDA VIRAF of the third century, describes seven heavens.

Garuda A divine bird associated with the Hindu god VISHNU. In the RIG VEDA, a celestial deity Garutman is mentioned, who has beautiful wings. In the MAHABHARATA, Garuda is said to be the same as Garutman and is the brother of ARUNA, who is the charioteer of the god SURYA. In the PURANAS, he is the son of the rishi KASHYAPA from his wife Vinata, with Aruna as his brother. Myths and stories narrate that Garuda glowed brilliantly when he was born and frightened the gods, who thought he was AGNI, the brilliant god of fire. They praised him as the highest being, a form of fire and the sun. Garuda is the chief of all the birds, and an enemy of NAGAS or serpents. The god Vishnu rides through the heavens mounted on him.

In early art, he is depicted as a large parrot-like bird, and he occurs on an architrave at SANCHI. On Gupta coins, he is shown as a plump bird, the capital on a column (Garudadhvaja). In later art, he is depicted with the head, wings and talons of an eagle, and the body of a man. He has a white face, red wings and a golden body. He usually has two arms and is also known as TARKSHYA. Some texts describe him with eight arms, the goddesses LAKSHMI and SARASVATI on either side of him. In general, there are two forms of Garuda, one as the capital of a column and the other as the VAHANA of Vishnu. Garuda often holds a snake as he flies through the air.

Garuda Purana A Sanskrit text, one of the eighteen major PURANAS of Hinduism. The introduction states that this Purana was revealed by the god VISHNU to GARUDA, who narrated it to the rishi KASHYAPA. It has some aspects of the five Puranic themes, but is more concerned with the worship of Vishnu, VAISHNAVA festivals and rites, and MAHATMYAS or accounts of sacred places. There are sections on SHAKTI worship and on the worship of the PANCHAYATANA or ‘five gods’, SHIVA, Vishnu, DURGA, SURYA and GANESHA. Like the AGNI PURANA, it is encyclopedic in character, with chapters on cosmography, astrology, astronomy, medicine, grammar and politics, as well as other subjects.

Gathas (1) In Zoroastrianism, a text which consists of verses composed mainly by ZARATHUSHTRA, the founder of the religion, who probably lived around 1500 BCE. Zarathushtra is said to have composed many more verses or songs, but most of them are lost, and only these fragments remain. It forms part of the YASNA, a text with seventy-two chapters or haiti, and includes seventeen hymns, divided into five Gathas, each with a different theme.

The Gathas are written in the AVESTA language, very similar to Rig Vedic Sanskrit. In fact, minor changes enable one to ‘translate’ or transpose much of the text into Sanskrit. Like the VEDAS, the verses were conveyed for hundreds of years through oral tradition. They were written down around 400 CE in a script specially composed for this purpose. By this time, the written language of Iran under the Sasanians was PAHLAVI, while the spoken language was known as Pazand. Because of the obscurity of the language, several Gatha scholars differ on their interpretation of the texts.

The five Gathas are:

(1) Gatha Ahunavati, the Gatha of Free Choice (Yasna 28–34). This includes the legend of GAUSH URVA, Zarathushtra’s prayers for guidance to AHURA MAZDA, the creation of the twin mentalities, ANGRA MAINYU and SPENTA MAINYU, and the need for every individual to use his own discrimination and choose the right path. Finally, Zarathushtra dedicates his life and all his actions to Ahura Mazda.

(2) Gatha Ushtavaiti, the Gatha of Bliss and Enlightenment (Yasna 43–46). It begins by stating that those who bring light to others, gain light (enlightenment) themselves. It praises Ahura Mazda, who has directed Zarathushtra to instruct people in the path of truth (ASHA). Through a series of questions, Zarathushtra reveals how to use Ahura Mazda’s powers to gain the strength to follow the right path. He comments on the twin spirits and the power of MANTHRA, the sacred word.

(3) Gatha Spenta Mainyu, the Gatha of the Holy Spirit (Yasna 47–50). This Gatha indicates how perfection (HAURVATAT) and immortality (AMERETAT) are attained by following the path of Spenta Mainyu, the good spirit, and of the best mind (vahishta manangha).

(4) Gatha Vohu Khshathra, the Gatha of Sovereignty or the Good Kingdom (Yasna 51). Here Zarathushtra comments on the wicked, who will be tormented by their own soul or conscience.

(5) Gatha Vahishtoishti, the Gatha of the Highest Wish or Fulfilment (Yasna 53). This short Gatha deals with the marriage of Zarathushtra’s youngest daughter Pouruchista, probably to Jamaspa, though he is not mentioned in the text. It is not the work of Zarathushtra, but of someone close to him, written soon after his death. It asks the married couple to strive together to attain truth, and thus to lead a blessed existence. This text is still used in Zoroastrian marriage ceremonies today.

The Gathas contains the essence or basic principles of the Zoroastrian religion. Some of the daily prayers used today have passages from the Gathas, while others include Gathic concepts.

The text does not provide much historical information, though it mentions Kava VISHTASPA, the king who patronized Zarathushtra, and his ministers Frashaostra and Jamaspa Hvogva.

(2) Gatha is also a term used for certain texts or verses of other religions, including Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism.

Gaudapada A philosopher of ADVAITA, who lived between the sixth and eighth centuries and commented on the UPANISHADS. Though Advaitic ideas were known earlier, Gaudapada explained its principles in a systematic way.

He was the teacher of Govinda, who in turn was the guru of SHANKARA, who firmly established Advaita in India. Gaudapada’s main work is the Karika, which has four sections. The first is the Agama, a commentary on the MANDUKYA UPANISHAD. The second, Vatathya, explains the phenomenal nature of the world. The third lays down the main principles of Advaita, whereas the fourth, Alatashanti, develops these principles further. This section gets its name from the analogy of a burning stick circled in the air, which creates the illusion of a circle of fire, alatachakra. The world with its various forms is said to be a similar illusion. Gaudapada’s ideas were further elaborated by Shankara.

Gauri A name of the Hindu goddess PARVATI. Gauri means ‘the fair one’. According to one story, SHIVA called Parvati by her name Kali (black). Parvati thought he was mocking her for having dark skin, so she meditated until she became Gauri, or fair, shedding her dark skin. This myth probably indicates the absorption of a dark tribal goddess into the Brahmanical pantheon, and her subsequent transformation into a form of Parvati.

Gaurishankara Temple A temple dedicated to Gaurishankara, the name of the Hindu deities SHIVA and PARVATI, located at Jagatsukh near Manali in Himachal Pradesh. This early temple has an image of four-armed DURGA killing Mahisha, the buffalo demon, with a trident that she holds in one of her hands. Though Durga holds the tail of the buffalo, her eyes are closed in serene contemplation.

This small square temple dates from the eighth or ninth century.

Gaush Urva In Zoroastrianism, a symbol of the suffering earth. Literally it means ‘the soul of the cow’, but the cow represents the whole earth. In the PURANAS too, the goddess of the earth, BHUDEVI, appears to VARAHA in the form of a cow, and pleads for help for the oppressed earth. In the BHAGAVATA PURANA she appears to INDRA, who sends KRISHNA to save the earth.

In the GATHAS, Gaush Urva appeals to AHURA MAZDA or God to send her a saviour because she was oppressed and surrounded by violence and aggression. In response, Ahura Mazda sent ZARATHUSHTRA to protect the earth.

In the later creation stories in PAHLAVI texts such as the BUNDAHISHN and ZADSPRAM, Gaush Urva is described in detail. When GAYODAD, the primeval bull, died because of the attack by the evil spirit, AHRIMAN, Gaush Urva arose as Gayodad’s living soul. She went to Ahura Mazda, the stars, the moon and the sun for help. Ahura Mazda revealed to her the FRAVASHI, the spirit of Zarathushtra, who would soon come to help her. Gaush Urva, collecting the seed of Gayodad and GAYOMARD (man), repopulated the earth with the help of Mino Ram, spirit of peace. But once again it was attacked by Ahriman. Then finally Zarathushtra came down to earth, ‘the man who would teach reverence and care for every living thing’.

Similar myths of the cow representing the earth attacked and oppressed in various ways, and then provided with a saviour, occur in other ancient cultures. One such story is in a Slavonic version of the Book of Enoch.

Gaya A city located in Bihar, 10 km north of BODH GAYA. According to tradition Gaya is one of the seven sacred cities of Hinduism. It has several temples, and is a major centre of pilgrimage. The existing temples were constructed in the eighteenth century or later, but there are numerous sculptures dating back to the ninth and tenth centuries and even earlier. Special rites are conducted here for the souls of ancestors. At Gaya, Hindu and Buddhist legends are intermixed. In ancient texts, Gaya is linked with the story of the king Gaya, and later the asura Gaya. The Vishnupada Temple was constructed here by Ahalyabai of Indore in the eighteenth century, on the site of a Buddhist temple. It is said to mark the spot where VISHNU placed his foot on the asura Gaya.

RAMA and SITA are said to have visited Gaya. There are numerous sacred sites and ghats along the Falgu river.

The Buddha is said to have preached the fire-Sermon (Adittapariyaya Sutta) here, to 1000 fire-worshipping ascetics, who immediately gained enlightenment

Gayatri A verse in the RIG VEDA and also a verse metre. The Gayatri verse or MANTRA is considered specially sacred, and is named after the metre, which has twenty-four syllables. It is a prayer to the sun as SAVITR, and reads ‘Om bhur bhuva svaha, tat savitur varenyam, bhargo devasya dhimahi, dhiyo yo nah prachodayat’. (The first part is an invocation, the syllables being counted from ‘tat’). This verse has been variously translated. One version is, ‘We meditate on that excellent light of the divine sun; may he illumine our minds’ (H.H. Wilson). Other verses too, can be composed in this metre, and are referred to with a qualifying term, such as Vishnu Gayatri, or Surya Gayatri.

Gayatri, goddess A Hindu goddess, a wife of BRAHMA. According to a story in the Puranas, Brahma and his consort SARASVATI went to perform a sacrifice at Pushkar. Sarasvati came late for the sacrifice, and an impatient Brahma made Gayatri, a milkmaid, his consort. Despite Sarasvati’s fury, Gayatri remained his wife. She is considered the mother of the VEDAS and the personification of the Gayatri Mantra.

Gayodad A white bull, a creation of Ohrmazd or AHURA MAZDA, described in later Zoroastrian texts. Gayodad suffered when AHRIMAN brought evil and disease to the earth. After he died his soul emerged as GAUSH URVA. He represents the life of the animal kingdom. The white bull NANDI, companion of the Hindu god SHIVA, also represents life and fertility, though other aspects of their myths are not similar.

Gayomard Primeval man, the creation of Ohrmazd or AHURA MAZDA, described in later Zoroastrian texts. When AHRIMAN attacked the world, Gayomard died, but with his last breath he prophesied that men would arise again from his seed.

Gelug (Dge-lugs-pa) One of the four main schools of TIBETAN BUDDHISM. The Gelug school was founded by TSONG KHAPA (1357–1419), who studied with masters of all traditions before founding this school. Tsong Khapa set up the Ganden monastery, the first of the major Gelug monasteries, in 1409. The Drepung monastery was founded in 1416 by one of his disciples and the Sera monastery was established in 1419. The first DALAI LAMA, Gyalwa Gendun Drup, founded the Tashi Lhunpo monastery at Shigatse in 1447, later the seat of the PANCHEN LAMA. Two Tantric colleges were also established. The Gelug tradition emphasizes ethics and monastic training, as well as knowledge and scholarship as a basis for meditation. Studies for a Gelug monk include the five major topics, the perfection of wisdom, the Middle Way, valid cognition, phenomenology and monastic discipline. These studies last fifteen or twenty years, after which one of the three levels of the GESHE (doctorate) degree is granted. Geshes can then join the Tantric college if they wish.

After 1959 the major Gelug colleges of Ganden, Drepung, Sera and Tashi Lhunpo were reestablished in Karnataka in India, while the Gyuto Tantric College has been set up at Bomdila in Arunachal Pradesh. The Gelugpa are commonly called the ‘Yellow Hats’ because of the type of hat they wear. They rejected the ‘Red Hat’ representing earlier Buddhist schools.

geshe An academic title for a Tibetan Buddhist monk of the GELUG or SAKYA sects, equivalent to a PhD Several courses of study, exams and debates have to be undertaken before this stage is reached, which can take up to thirty years.

Gesu Daraz, Mir One of the greatest SUFI saints of the CHISTI ORDER. Born in about 1321, his name was Syed Muhammad bin Yusuf al-Husaini, but he was popularly known as Khwaja Banda Nawaz or Mir Gesu Daraz. He was the leading disciple of NASIRUDDIN MAHMUD (Chirag) of DELHI. Though he was originally in Delhi at the time of Timur’s invasion, he moved to Gujarat and later to Gulbarga in the Deccan. He wrote a number of works on Sufism, initially based on the WAHDAT AL-WUJUD doctrine, but later was convinced of WAHDAT AL-SHUHUD beliefs. His conversations are compiled in the Jawami al-Kalim, and short works on Sufism such as the Miraj al-Ashiqin. He died in 1422. His DARGAH at Gulbarga in Karnataka is a popular place of pilgrimage. Built in Indo-Saracenic style, it has paintings in Iranian and Turkish styles on the walls and dome.

getig A term for the physical world in Zoroastrianism. It is not considered separate from MENOG, the mental world, and both, forming one whole, are sacred. Thus neither the world nor the body are denied in Zoroastrianism, and asceticism and fasting are not advised. The physical world, including rocks, rivers, plants and animals, are to be cared for and protected. Food and sex are to be enjoyed, but without indulgence, as even these are sacred. Most Zoroastrians are meat eaters though some hold that the religion implies vegetarianism, an aspect that was later forgotten.

Ghalib, Mirza Asadullah Khan A great poet of Urdu and Persian. Ghalib was descended from a Persian-speaking Turkish tribe. His paternal grandfather Quqan Beg reached Lahore from Samarkand in 1750, and later settled in Agra, where Asadullah Khan was born in 1797. He lost his father in 1802 and his uncle a few years later, and came under the care of his maternal grandfather. He was married to Umrao Begum of Delhi in 1810 and by 1812 had settled in Delhi. Asadullah was writing poems by the age of eleven, first using the pen name Asad, and later Ghalib. Collections of his Urdu and Persian poems were ready in the 1830s and published in the 1840s. In 1854, he became the court poet of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zaffar II. His fortunes suffered after the 1857 revolt against the British, but from 1859 he received an allowance from the nawab of Rampur. Among his compilations are Urdu Diwan, a collection of his Urdu poems; Mekhana-I-Arzoo, Panjabang, Dastambu, an account of the 1857 revolt, in Persian; Durafsh-e-Kaviyani, earlier called Qati-e-Burhan, a criticism of a Persian dictionary; Ud-e-Hindi (Indian Harp) a collection of his Urdu letters; and Urdu-e-Mualla, another collection;. Ghalib’s poems include ghazals (love songs) masnawis (mystical or moralistic verses), and qasidas (panegyrics), but through them all, his spirituality is revealed. For example:

The universe is nothing but

Thyself in peerless glory;

We exist, since Beauty takes

Delight in seeing Itself.

Though a Muslim, he saw the truth in all religions. He wrote:

God is One, That is our faith;

All rituals we abjure.

It is only when the symbols vanish

That belief is pure.

Ghalib died in 1869

ghat A Sanskrit term. Ghats are located at sacred sites near rivers and temples, and consist of stairs which lead down to the water. Devotees can use these to enter the water and perform religious rites, or to bathe. The term ghat also refers to a hill range or cliff.

Ghat Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Nangal in District Rupnagar, Punjab. It is built at a spot visited by Guru GOBIND SINGH, who crossed the river Satluj at the ghat here.

Ghateshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA, dating to the ninth or tenth century, located at Baroli in Rajasthan. In the main shrine, natural LINGA-shaped stones are set in a square pedestal. One stone resembles an inverted ghata or pot, and this gives the temple its name. The shrine has a curvilinear tower and a columned MANDAPA adjoining it.

There are several beautiful sculptures, including images of Shiva, BRAHMA, VISHNU, CHAMUNDA, and guardian deities.

Ghazi Miyan’s Dargah A DARGAH or shrine of a Muslim saint located at Bahraich in Uttar Pradesh. His name was Sayyid SALAR MASUD GHAZI, but he is popularly known as Ghazi Miyan. According to tradition, he was a nephew of the invader Mahmud of Ghazni, though his actual identity is unknown. He is said to have renounced the world, but was forced to fight and died in battle in 1033. His grave was guarded by his devotees and gradually became a shrine where miracles of all kinds were reported. Jasu Ahir, a Hindu blessed with a son while praying there, rebuilt the grave with cow’s milk mixed with lime. Zahra Bibi, a woman blind from birth, regained her sight there, tended the grave till she died, and is buried nearby. The shrine was expanded by some of the DELHI sultans and other structures were built around it later. Saints and SUFIS paid tribute to Ghazi Miyan, and both Hindus and Muslims worship at the shrine, which continues to be popular.

The dargah, popular from the thirteenth century onwards, is now a large complex of three forts. Within the Sangi-Qila (stone fort) is Ghazi Miyan’s tomb as well as that of his horse and dog. Around this is the Qila-i-Kalan, with the graves of his companions, and surrounding this, a huge outer complex entered through the Zanjiri Darwaza.

Pilgrims arrive at the dargah every day, but particularly on Islamic festivals, the URS of the saint in the Islamic month of Rajab, the BASANT fair in the month of Magha, and the Jyaishtha fair in the month of Jyaishtha.

All prayers are said to be answered here, but Ghazi Miyan’s Dargah is specifically known as a place where lepers are cured. The water used in bathing the grave is said to have special powers to cure leprosy and other skin diseases.

The shrine has a large income and contributes to educational institutions in the district. It makes charitable gifts, and gives 6 per cent of its earnings to the UP Waqf Board. In terms of the numbers who come to visit it and its annual income, it is considered no less significant than the dargah of MUINUDDIN CHISTI at Ajmer.

Ghoshitarama An ancient Buddhist monastery in KAUSHAMBI, near Allahabad in present Uttar Pradesh. It was gifted to the BUDDHA by Ghoshita, treasurer of the king of the region. Remains of the monastery have been discovered in excavations.

Ghulam Ahmad, Mirza The founder of the AHMADIYA sect of Islam.

Born in 1836 at Qadian in District Gurdaspur of Punjab, his ancestors were from Khurasan.

Ghulam Ahmad was educated in Persian and Arabic and later joined govenment service at Sialkot in 1860. After his father’s death he began to think about life, and to study various religions, including Islam, Hinduism and Christianity. He wrote the Barhin-i Ahmadiya (Proofs of the Ahmadiya), of which the first two parts were published in 1880, as well as a number of other works. In 1888, he received a divine revelation and founded the Ahmadiya sect the following year. A few years later, in 1891, he said that he was the MAHDI, as well as the Messiah predicted in Islam. He also claimed that he was like JESUS and KRISHNA. He wrote a book on Jesus in India, locating his grave in Kashmir. He provided a new interpretation of the QURAN and a theory of salvation.

Ghulam Ahmad was opposed by orthodox Muslims, Hindus and Christians. He died on 26 May 1908 at Lahore and was buried at Qadian. The Ahmadiya sect continues to exist in Pakistan and elsewhere, but remains controversial.

ginans Devotional verses and songs of the Nizari Ismaili sect of Islam. The term ‘ginan’ is derived from the Sanskrit ‘jnana’. Ginans are composed in Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, and other languages.

Girija A name of the Hindu goddess PARVATI, referring to her origin in the mountains. Giri and Parvat both mean hill or mountain, and Parvati was the daughter of the mountain, her father being Himavat or HIMAVAN, a name of the Himalayas.

Girnar A sacred Jain site in Saurashtra, Gujarat. The Girnar Hill rises to a height of 900 m. More than halfway up, on a rocky outcrop at about 650 m, are sixteen Jain shrines of the ninth to thirteenth centuries. The largest of these is dedicated to ARISHTANEMINATHA, the twenty-second Jain TIRTHANKARA. At the top of the Gorakhnath Peak is a shrine of the goddess AMBIKA. Along the path leading to the peak are gateways, shrines and tanks. Girnar is described in the VIVIDHA TIRTHA KALPA, a Jain text, and was also known as Ujjayanta or Revantaka. It was an ancient site and at the foot of the hill inscriptions of ASHOKA, the Mauryan emperor who ruled in the third century BCE, have been found.

Gita Govinda A Sanskrit text in verse, written in the twelfth century by JAYADEVA. It describes the divine love between the god KRISHNA and RADHA, his beloved. Radha, as she yearns for Krishna, represents every soul’s yearning for god, and her union with him is the union of the soul with the divine. Composed in Bengal, the Gita Govinda has twelve chapters containing ashtapadis (songs) and shlokas (verses). The text can be seen at two levels, with erotic descriptions revealing the sacred. Beginning with a prelude, the poem then describes the ten well-known avataras of Vishnu, and identifies Krishna with Vishnu, and Radha with Shri. The rest of the poem deals with the pain of separation, longing, and reunion, of Radha and Krishna. Radha, as she yearns for Krishna, represents every soul’s yearning for God, and her union with him is the union of the soul with the divine. In one verse, Krishna is described:

Sandal and garment of yellow and lotus garlands upon his body of blue,

In his dance the jewels of his ears in movement dangling over his smiling cheeks.

Hari here disports himself with charming women given to love!

In another verse, after uniting with him in love, Radha commands Krishna:

Make a pattern upon my breasts and a picture on my cheeks and fasten over my loins a girdle,

Bind my masses of hair with a beautiful garland and place many bracelets upon my hands and jewelled anklets upon my feet!

And so he who wore the yellow garments did as she told him. (Trans. George Kyt)

The text forms the basis for Radha-Krishna worship, and has inspired music, dance forms, and paintings.

Gitanjali A collection of spiritual verses written by Rabindranath TAGORE that won him the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913. Originally written in Bengali, the verses were translated into English by the author. The songs or verses are in the BHAKTI tradition, addressed directly to god. For Tagore, god is the Universal Self, the divine musician, singer and poet, the companion of the poor, the friend and lover, the mother and compassionate one. He longs to experience god, yet at times finds himself far away. Thus he says:

My heart longs to join in thy song, but vainly struggles for a voice. (Song III)

In another verse he writes of a moment of quietness:

I ask for a moment’s indulgence to sit by thy side. The works that I have in hand I will finish afterwards.

Away from the sight of thy face my heart knows no rest nor respite, and my work becomes an endless toil in a shoreless sea of toil.

Today the summer has come at my window with its sighs and murmurs; and the bees are plying their minstrelsy at the court of the flowering grove.

Now it is time to sit quiet, face to face with thee, and to sing a dedication of life in this silent and overflowing leisure. (Song V)

Gnosticism A form of religious thought considered an offshoot of Christianity, or one that has its roots in pre-Christian traditions. The term comes from gnosis or ‘secret knowledge’ in Greek, and Gnostics believe in attaining God or salvation through esoteric knowledge. A number of different Gnostic groups developed from around the second century CE. In general they affirmed that individual souls emerged from divine sparks and had to disentangle themselves from matter through knowledge of their true selves, and thus return to their source. Some schools put forward the idea of two separate entities of good and evil, matter being a creation of evil.

Gnostic philosophy was once known mainly from the writings of their opponents, but the finds of the scrolls at NAG HAMMADI have revealed the writings of Gnostics themselves. Medieval Gnostic schools include the Cathars and others. In the Christian Gnostic sects, JESUS is seen as the redeemer or teacher who provides true knowledge and who temporarily took on a material body, which had no true reality. Thus only the body was crucified, and not the essential spirit of Christ.

Gnostic ideas have been compared with ADVAITA, with its focus on self-knowledge and the concept of the world as MAYA or illusion, and also with SAMKHYA philosophy and the two principles of soul and matter, PURUSHA and PRAKRITI. A suggestion has been made that Gnosticism developed through Indian influence and was a result of Greek contacts with India. The ideas have also been compared with writings of the early Greek philosophers and with Zoroastrianism, particularly in its later dualistic form. Mani, a philosopher who founded a religion known as Manichaeism, based on Gnostic concepts, includes both Christian and Zoroastrian ideas. Parallels can also be seen in Buddhist theories, including that of the three bodies (TRIKAYA) of the BUDDHA, and in Jain concepts of the accumulation of KARMA on a pure soul or JIVA, as well as with other Indian philosophies emphasizing the purity of the soul as distinct from matter. A Gnostic group of the second century known as Naassenes, from the Hebrew nahash for serpent, believed snakes were symbolic of knowledge, similar to ideas in India and the concept of the KUNDALINI.

Some medieval Gnostic schools in Europe, particularly branches of the Cathars, incorporated the concept of spiritualizing matter instead of rejecting it, an idea later developed to its fullest extent by Sri AUROBINDO.

There are also Neo-Gnostic groups in the present age which have a variety of beliefs. The influence of Gnostic ideas is thus seen in a number of philosophies and sects.

Goa, Christians in The state of Goa on the western coast of India has a Christian population of 26.7 per cent (2001), mainly Catholic, as well as a number of old churches. Christianity came to Goa with its conquest by the Portuguese in 1510. Before this, Goa had been under the sultan of Bijapur, Adil Shah. Though at first, freedom of religion was promised by the Portuguese, it was not followed for long. Initially Muslims in Goa were persecuted because the Portuguese saw them as a challenge to state power. Intermarriage with Indian women created the first Indian Christians in the region, and conversion of their extended families was encouraged. In 1517 a group of Franciscan friars came to Goa and by 1539, had established churches and converted a number of Hindus to Christianity. Members of other Catholic orders—Carmelites, Augustinians, Dominicans and JESUITS—also arrived in Goa, each group setting up churches and monasteries constructed in styles prevalent in Europe. Around 1540, the policy of conversion by persuasion was changed to one of conversion by force. The king of Portugal ordered that idols be destroyed and ‘pagan worship’ be stopped. A large number of forcible conversions took place and Goa became a Christian state. This policy was strangely known as the ‘rigour of mercy’. Another Christian group, known as the ‘Confraternity of the Holy Faith’ worked to spread education and understanding of the religion, opening the famous college of St. Paul, the first Jesuit school in the world.

In 1560 an INQUISITION was established. It existed for more than 200 years before it was finally abolished.

Goa remained under the Portuguese till 1961, when it was taken over by India. Goan Christianity had also spread to MUMBAI and other parts of the western coast, and Christians in these areas were more Westernized than in other areas, using Western names and forms of dress. After 1961, several Goans took on Indian names, while some reverted to earlier religious practices.

Churches of Goa are still popular places of pilgrimage, notable among them being the BOM JESUS BASILICA, associated with ST. FRANCIS XAVIER.

Gobind Singh, Guru The tenth and last Sikh guru. Born on 22 December 1666 at Patna (Bihar), Gobind Rai was the son of the ninth guru, TEGH BAHADUR, who at that time was touring Bengal and Assam. They returned to ANANDPUR, Punjab, in 1672, where Gobind began his education, studying Punjabi, Braj Bhasha (early Hindi), Sanskrit and Persian, and developing physical skills. On 11 November 1675, his father was killed by the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB and Gobind Rai was installed as guru in March 1676. He continued his education and from 1685 to 1688 stayed at Paonta on the banks of the Yamuna, before returning to Anandpur. To defend the Sikh position in Punjab, he fought battles against some of the Rajput hill rulers and the Mughal forces.

In 1698 he decided to enthuse the Sikhs and inspire them to further acts of bravery. To start with, he asked them not to acknowledge the MASANDS, or Sikh leaders, who by now had grown corrupt. He asked all Sikhs to come to him personally, calling them his ‘Khalsa’, a Persian term for crown lands, as opposed to feudal landholdings.

On BAISAKHI in 1699, which in that year occurred on 30 March, he created the Sikh KHALSA and laid down rules to give Sikhs a common identity and focus. The Khalsa added the word ‘Singh’ (lion) to their names, and the guru took the name Gobind Singh.

Battles with the Rajputs continued, and with the help of Mughal forces, Anandpur was besieged in May 1705. The siege lasted till December, when the Mughals promised the Sikhs safe conduct if they left the fort. However, as they came out they were attacked, and only five Sikhs survived, among them Guru Gobind.

Helped by some Muslim disciples, he made his way to Malwa in the Deccan. He composed an epistle to the emperor AURANGZEB, known as the ZAFAR NAMAH, on the need to observe moral principles even in battle.

After he had regrouped his forces, he returned to TALWANDI SABO in Punjab, in 1706. Here he spent nine months preparing a new recension of the Granth Sahib.

The emperor seemed touched by the Zafar Namah and asked to meet the guru, but Aurangzeb died in 1707, before a meeting could take place. His successor, Bahadur Shah I, was helped by the guru to win the war of succession. The guru accompanied Bahadur Shah to the Deccan, and while he was in Nanded in Maharashtra, was attacked and stabbed, probably by people sent by the nawab of Sirhind, who was jealous of his growing power. Though Gobind Singh fought off his attackers, he died a few days later from the wounds received, on 7 October 1708.

Before he died he stated that there would be no more gurus, and that only the Granth Sahib would be the guru, which was known as the GURU GRANTH SAHIB thereafter.

Gobind Singh is primarily remembered for his creation of the Khalsa and for building the Sikhs into a fighting force. Apart from the Zafar Namah he wrote the Var Sri Bhagauti Ji Ki, popularly known as Chandi di Var, a poem in Punjabi based on the battle between the gods and demons in the MARKANDEYA PURANA, and the autobiographical Bachitra Natak. The DASAM GRANTH, compiled by his disciple Bhai MANI SINGH, is a collection of his writings, thoughts and ideas.

Gobindpura Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Ambala in Haryana. Guru GOBIND SINGH passed this way on his return journey from KURUKSHETRA, where he had gone at the time of a solar eclipse to preach the message of Guru NANAK.

godan The gift of a cow to BRAHMANAS on marriage, death, eclipses or other special occasions. It is said to bring merit and benefit to the giver.

Goindwal A sacred centre for Sikhs, located in the Punjab on the right bank of the river Beas, not far from Khadur Sahib. Guru Amar Das established, and helped in the construction of the gurdwara and baoli (stepwell) here. See Chaubara Sahib Gurdwara.

Gokul A place located near MATHURA in Uttar Pradesh, which is a centre of pilgrimage of the Hindu god Krishna. KRISHNA grew up here and there are several sites in Gokul, associated with his childhood and youth. Gokul is also a centre of the VALLABHA sect, established in the fifteenth century.

Gokulnatha A leader of the Hindu VALLABHA sect. He lived in the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries and is known for two works on VAISHNAVISM, Chaurasin Vaishnavan ki Varta and Do Sau Bavan Vaishnavan ki Varta. He was the son of Vitthalanatha and grandson of Vallabha.

Golden Temple The popular name of the most sacred GURDWARA or shrine of the Sikhs, also known as Sri HAR MANDIR SAHIB (Golden Temple of the Lord), located at AMRITSAR in Punjab. Sikh authorities stated in 2005 that they did not approve of the popular name, and would prefer the term Har Mandir Sahib or Golden Gurdwara.

Goloka The name of a real and mythical place. It is the paradise of the Hindu god KRISHNA, said to be located on the mythical Mt MERU, where the divine cow SURABHI dwells. It is also another name for VRINDAVAN, a place in the region of MATHURA associated with Krishna.

Gommateshvara image, Shravana Belagola An image of BAHUBALI, the son of the first Jain TIRTHANKARA, also known as Gommata or Gommateshvara. Though there are several images of Bahubali, the one at SHRAVANA BELAGOLA in Karnataka, probably constructed around 983, is exceptional. Inscriptions on the statue and elsewhere state that it was erected by Chamunda Raya, a minister of the Western Ganga king Rachamalla or Rajamalla, who ruled the area from 974 to 984. Chamuda Raya was inspired by reading the Adi Purana of the Kannada poet PAMPA, and in a divine dream he received the message to erect this image. At 17.7 m tall, this free-standing stone sculpture carved out of a single rock on the Chandragiri hill can be seen from a distance of 10 km, and is reached by a climb of over 600 stairs. The nude image is a representation of the Kevalin or realized soul, conceived in DIGAMBARA style. The statue stands in the open and has withstood rain, heat and wind for over a thousand years. The standing saint gazes ahead with half-closed eyes, a peaceful expression on his face, while creepers grow around his feet. The figure has all the signs of a superior human being (mahapurusha lakshana) as described in texts, such as long arms, long-lobed ears and broad shoulders. On either side are chauri-bearers. The image is surrounded by a wall built in the twelfth century, enclosing small shrines with fifty-three images of TIRTHANKARAS and other deities, constructed at different dates. In front of the image is a pillared hall with intricately carved ceiling panels.

The mahabhisheka, or sacred bath of the image is a grand event which takes place once in twelve years. Hundreds of pots of curd, milk, honey, vermilion (kumkum) coconut water, turmeric paste, and even some gold and jewels are poured over the head of the deity at this time. This special festival attracts thousands of pilgrims.

gompa The term for a Tibetan Buddhist complex, including a monastery and shrines for worship. Large complexes have the tsomchen (great assembly hall), the dukhang (assembly hall), tratsang (colleges), lhakhang (temples/shrines), and clusters of lodgings. See TIBETAN BUDDHISM.

Good Friday A sacred day for Christians that commemorates the crucifixion of JESUS CHRIST. On this day Christians offer prayers, remembering that Jesus died to save the world. It is also a day of fasting and penance. Good Friday takes place some time in the month of April, and is followed by EASTER Sunday two days later.

Gopala Literally, ‘cowherd’. A name of the Hindu god KRISHNA, who was a cowherd in his youth. In early Greek myths, Apollo was a goatherd, indicating some paralells between the two deities.

gopi A term for the female devotees of the Hindu god KRISHNA, particularly in the region of Vraja or MATHURA. Gopis were the female cowherds of the region who flocked around Krishna. RADHA, who was one of the gopis, was Krishna’s favourite. The gopis represent BHAKTI, a selfless and pure love of god, beyond consideration of social norms, and beyond any thoughts of worldly gain, such as marriage, status or protection. The relationship of the gopis with Krishna is described in several texts, particularly the HARIVAMSHA, BHAGAVATA PURANA and GITA GOVINDA, and has been the subject of art, literature and music through the ages. Several VAISHNAVA groups emphasize that the devotee of Krishna should emulate the love of the gopis.

Gopi Krishna, Pandit A mystic and teacher. Born in 1903 in Srinagar, Kashmir, he moved to Lahore in 1914 with his family, and completed his school and college there. Later he returned to Kashmir and was employed in the public works department of the maharaja. He began meditating every day, and in 1937, he inadvertently aroused a powerful force in himself, which he recognized later as the KUNDALINI. He had several physical problems until the force finally reached the correct channel within the body. Some years later he resigned his job and began to write and express his experiences. He gave speeches, toured the West and wrote a number of books, including his autobiography.

Gopi Krishna believed that the kundalini was a force that every person could arouse which revolutionized the entire being. He said: ‘The awakening of kundalini does not only mean the activation of a dormant force in the body, but also an altered activity of the entire nervous system and the opening of a normally silent centre in the brain.’ He appealed for a scientific investigation of the phenomenon and wrote: ‘Why science should ignore some of the most important issues of human existence, no one has dared to answer. And why religion should be satisfied with explanations for these riddles offered thousands of years ago… is equally unintelligible.’

He died at Srinagar in 1984.

gopuram A term for the gateway of south Indian temples. The temples could have one or more gateways, which are several storeys high, and are adorned with elaborate carvings.

Gorakhnatha/Gorakshanatha A yogi who lived in about 1120 at Gorakhpur in present Uttar Pradesh and is said to have been one of the founders of the NATHA or KANPHATA Yogis, a Hindu SHAIVITE sect. A disciple of the legendary MATSYENDRANATHA, he composed verses which were written down in a book called Goraksha-Shataka, which described the rituals and practices of the sect. These included YOGA asanas or physical postures, pranayama or breathing techniques, and explanations on how to energize the CHAKRAS or mystical energy centres and raise the KUNDALINI. These practices were said to give the disciples spiritual and other powers. Gorakhnatha himself is believed to have been a SIDDHA or perfected one. His description of different asanas has led him to be called the founder of HATHA YOGA, or the physical aspect of Yoga, though the basic system was also described earlier by PATANJALI.

Gosala Maskariputra The founder of the AJIVIKA sect. He lived in the sixth century BCE and was initially a disciple of MAHAVIRA.

Gospel An Old English term meaning ‘good news’, which in Christianity refers to the message of JESUS CHRIST. The four texts on his life that are considered most authentic are known as the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. They were written some time in the first century and form part of the NEW TESTAMENT. Other texts known as Gospels are usually referred to as ‘apocryphal Gospels’, because though they are attributed to the APOSTLES and other contemporaries of Jesus, they are not acknowledged as canonical texts. Many of them were written from the second century onwards.

gotra A term used for a group or clan in Hinduism, technically an exogamous sept. It was first used to denote a clan in the ATHARVA VEDA. Initially, the BRAHMANA CASTE was divided into gotras and each gotra claimed descent from early RISHIS such as KASHYAPA and Bharadvaja. Later KSHATRIYAS and VAISHYAS also adopted gotras, usually from the brahmana priests who performed the rituals for their families. There were, in addition, non-brahmana or Laukika gotras. Marriage within the same gotra is not allowed.

Govardhan/Govardhana A town near MATHURA in Uttar Pradesh, where the Hindu god KRISHNA is said to have lived. It is also the name of a hill in the area. According to myth, Krishna raised the mountain Govardhan on his finger to shelter his fellow cowherds when INDRA sent a deluge of rain to challenge his power. Another story narrates how the god HANUMAN, transporting material to build a bridge across the ocean to LANKA, brought Govardhan from the Himalayas. Meanwhile RAMA sent him a message not to bring any more rocks and hills, and therefore Hanuman placed the mountain Govardhan near Mathura.

Govardhan is a sacred place and a centre of pilgrimage.

Govinda A name of the Hindu god KRISHNA.

Goyama Indabhuti (Sanskrit: Gautama Indrabhuti) The name of the chief disciple of MAHAVIRA, the twenty-fourth Jain TIRTHANKARA. Several Jain texts include dialogues between Goyama and Mahavira.

graha A term which indicates a planet. In Hinduism, the NAVAGRAHA are the nine planets traditionally known and depicted in art. Graha comes from the word grah, meaning to seize or overpower, and earlier, grahas were known as demons who possessed humans and caused illness.

grama devata A male or female deity who is the guardian of the village (grama). The deity is more often female and is prayed to for the protection of the village from disease and disaster. Sometimes animal sacrifices are conducted to appease her. A village may have its own unique deity, or there may may be a common deity for many villages. GANGAMMA and MARIAMMA are some examples of female village deities, while DHARMA THAKUR is one of the male deities.

Granth Sahib A colloquial term used for the Adi Granth or GURU GRANTH SAHIB, the sacred book of the Sikhs.

granthi A term in Sikhism for a priest who reads the GURU GRANTH SAHIB or takes care of a GURDWARA.

Gridhrakuta An ancient Buddhist site located near RAJAGRIHA (modern Rajgir) in the Rajgir hills of Bihar. The BUDDHA used to meditate here. Several MAHAYANA texts give this place a mystical sanctity. For instance, the SADDHARMA PUNDARIKA states that the Buddha preached here surrounded by monks, nuns, BUDDHAS, BODHISATTVAS and various deities. As he began to speak, a ray of light from between his brows illuminated 18,000 Buddha lands, the regions where Buddhas live.

Griffiths, Bede A Christian monk who came to India and lived as an Indian SANNYASI. Bede Griffiths was earlier a monk of Prinknash Abbey and the Prior of Farnborough Abbey in England. He came to India in 1955 and remained here till his death in 1993. He became part of a group of Christians who live and dress in Indian style, like the much earlier Roberto de NOBILI. Initially Griffiths helped to establish the Syrian Christian Kurisumala Ashram in Kerala. In 1968 he went to Sachchidananda Ashram, another Christian ashram located at Shantivana in Tamil Nadu, where he lived in simple style, wearing the orange robes of a sannyasi. Here he created a centre where people of different religions could meet and hold discussions to understand the underlying unity and truth of all religions.

Bede Griffiths was a profound thinker who wrote a number of books, including The Golden String, The Marriage of East and West, A New Vision of Reality, Universal Wisdom, and Return to the Centre.

Grihadevi A village deity, also known as Jara. She was worshipped until medieval times, and was a rakshasi, a demonic being who could assume any form.

Grihya Sutras Sanskrit texts that form part of the KALPA SUTRAS and describe household or domestic ceremonies, that are to be performed by Hindus at every stage in life, beginning from the time a child is in the womb. These ceremonies are known as SAMSKARAS. The main Grihya Sutras are the Ashvalayana, Baudhayana, Paraskara, Vaikhanasa and Varaha. They were composed between about 400 BCE and CE 400.

Gudi Padva A New Year’s day celebrated in March/April in Maharashtra. It marks the first day of the Hindu month of Chaitra, according to the Marathi calendar. On this day a pole or ‘gudi’ is erected, with an upturned decorated pot tied to the top. The gudi is worshipped after which the coconut within the pot is broken, symbolizing a good harvest and prosperity in the new year. New clothes are worn, and special food is prepared on this day.

Guga Pir A local deity worshipped by all castes and communities at a number of temples in Himachal, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. Guga Pir or Guga Devata is worshipped particularly to guard against snakes. There are several legends and stories associated with him, and his SAMADHI is revered at Nagar in Himachal and in Rajasthan. According to one story, Guga was born after his mother, who had no children, received a boon from Guru GORAKHNATHA. At the same time, a wonderful blue horse was born who became his constant companion. Guga and his horse could not be defeated. They had many powers and were immune to snakebite. Guga performed miracles and healed the blind, deaf and lame. Many were jealous of him and tried to kill him, even invoking the help of Vasuki Naga, the king of snakes, but Guga defeated them all. He vowed to exterminate all snakes, but Vasuki promised that no snakes would trouble him again.

Guga seems to have been a real person, deified after his death. According to some legends, he was a Rajput from the Bikaner region of Rajasthan and fought against Mahmud of Ghazni, the invader of the early eleventh century. Guga is also said to have killed his cousins who were against him, and as his mother was unhappy with this, he vowed to take samadhi, and to live beneath the earth. Gorakhnatha sent him to a Muslim PIR, Hajji Rattan, to learn the technique for this. He was given the name Zahir and taught Islamic prayers. Guga is thus one of the many syncretic deities or heroes, combining elements of Hinduism and Islam.

His small shrines are found in several villages, in which he is depicted as a figure on a horse. Special celebrations and fairs take place at his shrines in August.

Guha A name of the Hindu god KARTTIKEYA. Guha is also the name of other people, including the king of the Nishadas in the RAMAYANA.

guhyakas Minor Hindu deities who are attendants of the god KUBERA. They live on Mt KAILASHA and are said to be either half horse or half bird. All brave warriors who die in battle go to their abode.

Guhyasamaja Tantra A Buddhist text belonging to the Anuttara-Yoga class of TANTRAS, attributed to ASANGA, but probably composed slightly later. It includes meditational and practical sections and is considered one of the oldest of the Buddhist Tantric texts. The text has eighteen chapters, and the first describes the main meditational mandala, with AKSHOBHYA at the centre, surrounded by other Buddhist deities. Other practices include a meditation on the Buddha VAIROCHANA, with four female deities Lochana, Mamaki, Pandara and TARA. Methods leading to enlightenment, along with Buddhist terms are explained. Bodhichitta, normally interpreted as the thought of enlightenment, is explained here as a combination of SHUNYATA (emptiness) and KARUNA or compassion. The text also deals with sexual union, which according to some interpreters, is only symbolic.

Gujjars, Van A pastoral nomadic community, who though Muslims, are vegetarians and have several Hindu customs. Some of them now live a settled life, while others continue to be nomadic, building their temporary huts on the outskirts of forests. Gujjars live mainly in Jammu, parts of the Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Their origin is uncertain and similarities have been traced between them and the gypsies of Europe.

Van Gujjars are one of the many groups in India who follow a mix of Hindu and Muslim customs. There are also other Gujjar groups in north India, who are Hindus.

Gumanapantha A minor sub-sect of the DIGAMBARA Jain sect. It was probably started in the eighteenth century by Pandit Gumani Rama or Gumani Rai, a son of Pandit Todarmal, who lived in Jaipur, Rajasthan. It was known as shuddha amnaya, that is, the pure and sacred tradition, and stressed purity, self-discipline and adherence to all the Jain precepts. Gumani was against the lighting of diyas or lamps in Jain temples, as he felt this violated the principles of AHIMSA or non-violence. This sect was once popular in Rajasthan but now has only a small following.

Gunabhadra A Jain scholar of the ninth century who wrote the last part of the ADI PURANA and the whole of the UTTARA PURANA. Both these form part of the Jain TRISHASHTILAKSHANA MAHAPURANA. Gunabhadra, a pupil of JINASENA, was also the author of the Atmanushasana, a poem describing Jain ethics in 270 verses.

Gunadhara A Jain scholar who wrote the KASHAYAPRABHRITA, a sacred text of the DIGAMBARA sect. He lived in the second century CE.

gunas A Sanskrit term that is used in different ways, but means ‘quality’. In Samkhya philosophy it refers to the basic qualities or characteristics according to which people can be classified. The three gunas are sattva or serenity and purity, rajas or energetic activity, and tamas or dullness. Most people have all these qualities, but one predominates in each individual. Ideally, a person should cultivate sattva. Certain foods are associated with these qualities. This theory of the gunas is also described in the BHAGAVAD GITA, and in other texts.

Gurdas, Bhai A Sikh scholar, who helped the fifth guru, ARJAN DEV, in compiling the Granth Sahib. Bhai Gurdas was born around 1560 at Goindwal and was the son of Datar Chand, the younger brother of Guru AMAR DAS. He learnt the principles of Sikhism from Amar Das, and after his death was sent to AGRA by the next guru, RAM DAS, to spread the religion. Later he joined Guru Arjan Dev at AMRITSAR and helped the guru by transcribing the first version of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB. He also served the next guru, HARGOBIND, and while the guru was imprisoned, he and Baba BUDHA took care of the affairs of the Sikh community. He died in 1629 at Goindwal. Bhai Gurdas composed forty vars (poems) and 556 kabits (couplets), which while not part of the GRANTH SAHIB are considered sacred and recited by Sikhs.

gurdwara A Sikh temple or shrine. Each gurdwara, literally meaning ‘the gateway of the guru’ is linked with Sikh history and constructed at a place connected with the SIKH GURUS, other revered Sikhs, or a historic site. Though prayers can be offered anywhere at any time, gurdwaras bring the community together. As they are associated with Sikh history and often with legends of miraculous occurences, praying in a gurdwara has a special sanctity. In every gurdwara it is essential to have a room in which the GURU GRANTH SAHIB can be placed. The holy book is the main object of worship or reverence. Entrances are made on all four sides to indicate that people of all religions are welcome. The GRANTH SAHIB is on a pedestal under a canopy, cordoned off by a railing. The room is large enough to allow for congregational worship. Some such rooms have a deorhi, an entrance gateway, in the walls enclosing the gurdwara compound.

Architecturally, the ground-plan of a gurdwara is of one of four basic types: square, rectangular, octagonal or cruciform. Some are simple, single-storeyed structures, while others have two, three, five, or even nine storeys. Most of them are crowned with domes, which are often fluted or ribbed, while a few have a flat roof. In special gurdwaras, domes may be gold-plated or can be covered with bronze or copper gilt. Apart from the central dome, there are four or more smaller domes or cupolas. Parapets around the gurdwara are decorated and often have turrets and the entrance has floral, geometric and other designs. Building materials include marble, red stone, brick, brick-tile, lime mortar, and other materials available locally. Some gurdwaras also have galleries with works of art depicting scenes from Sikh history, and store artefacts connected with the gurus. A free community kitchen (LANGAR) is attached to gurdwaras. Many have libraries and schools, and run charitable dispensaries.

Gurdwara Reform Movement Another name for the AKALI MOVEMENT, which took place in 1920 to free the GURDWARAS or Sikh shrines from corrupt priests.

gurmukh A term in Sikhism for those who are pious and follow the path of the guru. The opposite is manmukh, those who follow their own path, enmeshed in delusion.

Gurmukhi A script in which the sacred texts of the Sikhs are written. It was said to have been first used by Guru ANGAD, the second Sikh guru, and was based on the Sharada script, a derivative of DEVANAGARI. The script is also used for the Punjabi language.

guru A Sanskrit term that literally means ‘one who points the way’. Traditionally it is used as a respectful term for a spiritual teacher or preceptor. Though still used in this sense today, it also has a wider usage and can refer to a teacher of any kind.

Guru Ghantal Gompa A Buddhist monastery located on a hill above Tupchiling village in the LAHAUL region of Himachal Pradesh, at the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers. According to tradition, it was founded by the famous monk PADMASAMBHAVA in the eighth century. The temple is a wooden structure with pyramidal roofs and has wooden idols, including those of Padmasambhava, the BUDDHA, and various lamas. It is thought to have once been a Hindu temple, as there is also a black stone goddess image within, locally known as KALI. The Ghantal festival used to be held here in mid-June. Today the monastery is in disuse, most of its valuable items being kept in a gompa in the village.

Guru Granth Sahib The sacred text of the Sikhs. The Adi Granth or Guru Granth Sahib was compiled in 1603–34 by ARJAN DEV, the fifth Sikh guru. It was then known as the Pothi Sahib (Holy Book). Additions were made to it by the tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH. The text consists of the compositions and teachings of Guru NANAK, the founder of the Sikh religion, of the next four gurus and of the ninth guru, TEGH BAHADUR. (The sixth, seventh and eighth gurus did not write anything). Apart from this, it has the verses of some of the companions of the gurus and of sixteen other saints including KABIR, SURDAS, RAVIDAS, NAMADEVA and the Sufi saint Baba FARID. Altogether there are 5894 compositions by thirty-six holy people. The largest number of hymns are by Guru Arjan Dev (2218), followed by Guru NANAK (974).

Guru Gobind Singh gave the book the status it has today. He affirmed that there would be no successor to him. Instead, the sacred words contained in the Granth would be the guru. In GURDWARAS or Sikh shrines, the Guru Granth Sahib is the main object of worship and is kept on a throne under a canopy, wrapped in an embroidered cloth. Prayers and ceremonies are conducted every morning when it is opened and in the evening when it is closed. Devotees worship the book as the representative of god and the gurus, and pay obeisance to it.

The Granth opens with the Mul Mantra, the basic prayer composed by Guru Nanak, which states that God is truth. This forms the preamble to the JAPJI, the first prayer, also by Nanak. Other parts of the text include the Banis or songs of the gurus, followed by those of the saints, bhatts (bards), and other Sikhs. There are also verses in praise of the True Name and of thanks to the guru. The whole is arranged in thirty-one different RAGAS, in which it can be sung.

Several languages are used in the text. Those of the Sikh gurus are in Punjabi of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, while those of other saints are in old Hindi dialects, as well as in Marathi, Persian and Sanskrit. The tenth guru’s hymns and writings are in a separate book, the DASAM GRANTH.

Guru Ka Bagh Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Varanasi, at a spot where Guru NANAK had discussions with a BRAHMANA named Pandit Chattar Das. Later, Guru TEGH BAHADUR also visited the place, and the brown Rajput-syle clothes he wore are preserved here.

Guruparb/Gurupurab (1) A Sikh festival that commemorates the birthday of Guru NANAK (1469–1538), the founder of Sikhism. Though his birthday is celebrated in the month of Karttika (October–November), he is said to have been born in the month of Vaishakha (Baisakh) (March/April), and until 1815 his birthday was celebrated at this time. However, later celebrations began to be held in the month of Karttika, perhaps because he attained enlightenment at this time. The AKHAND PATH, a ceremonial reading of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB, begins two days before the festival. On the day of the festival processions are taken out and free food is served to all.

(2) The festival for the birthday celebrations of Guru GOBIND SINGH (1666–1708), the tenth Sikh guru, which takes place in the month of Pausha (December-January).

(3) Other Sikh festivals associated with the gurus, are also known as Guruparb.

Guruvayur Temple A temple of the Hindu god KRISHNA located at Guruvayur in Thrissur district of Kerala. Constructed in the sixteenth century, this temple is particularly sacred. The image in the inner shrine is of Narayana or VISHNU, dressed in yellow silk with a crown on his head, holding a disc, conch, mace and lotus in his four hands. On either side of the main deity are the goddesses SHRI and Dhara. According to the story connected with this image, it was one that Krishna himself worshipped at Dvaraka, and even earlier was worshipped by Vishnu in VAIKUNTHA. The image is thus considered very ancient. It was preserved by BRIHASPATI, guru of the DEVAS, and finally installed in the temple by VAYU, the wind god, and hence was known as Guruvayur. The temple has subsidiary shrines of GANESHA, SASTHA and BHAGAVATI.

Hundreds get married in this temple, as it is believed that it ensures a happy married life. Children are brought here for their first food-tasting ceremony. The temple has over forty elephants, as it is considered meritorious to present an elephant to the deity. Some of the elephants take part in processions and in a traditional elephant race.

There is a special annual utsavam or festival in February/March that lasts ten days.