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Habba Khatoon A Kashmiri mystic and ascetic who lived in the sixteenth century. The Mughal emperor AKBAR captured her husband Yusuf Shah, a local ruler, and Habba Khatoon’s grief at his absence led her to asceticism. She composed mystic verses and songs in Kashmiri that can be interpreted at two levels: as her yearning for her husband or as the higher yearning of every soul for God. Some of her verses can be compared to those of the BHAKTI saints, particularly worshippers of KRISHNA. For example:

He glanced at me through my window,

He who is lovely like my earrings;

He has made my heart restless;

I, hapless one, am filled with longing for him.

habs-i nafs A term in Islam used by SUFIS, indicating the method of meditating while controlling the breath. Habs-i nafs, similar to the yogic PRANAYAMA, was practised by a number of Sufi orders, including the CHISTI, KUBRAWIYA, SHATTARI and QADIRI.

Hadis/Hadith The Prophet MUHAMMAD’s sayings and actions, and those of his companions. Second to the QURAN, these are the most important source of Islam. The Hadis or traditions consist of short stories or accounts of different incidents in the life of the Prophet, while the SUNNAH are the laws that are deduced from the Hadis. The Sunnah also refers to the whole collection of Hadis.

There are vast numbers of Hadis, and many of them were considered spurious, therefore scholars attempted to sort through them and put together those that were authentic. The contents of the Hadis of the SUNNI and SHIA sects are different. Muhammad bin Ismail al-Bukhari (810–70) compiled the most accepted version of Sunni Hadis, known as Sahih (Authentic). It has 2762 statements, the origins of which are given, and he is said to have chosen these from 6,00,000 traditions. Another authentic compilation is by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 875). These two are considered the most reliable, though there are four other major Sunni Hadis, namely, those of Ibn Maja al-Qazvini (d. 886), Abu Dawud al-Sijistani (d. 888), Abu Isa al-Tirmizi (d. 892) and Abu Abdul Rahman al-Nasal (d. 915). The earliest biography of the Prophet is the collection of Hadis compiled by Muhammad ibn Ishaq of Medina (d. 768). Malik ibn Anas (d. 795) and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), founders of two schools of law, were among others who compiled Hadis.

To be considered sound, the Hadis must include the name of each person who wrote it down, tracing it back to the Prophet. Each human link in the chain (sanad or isnad) has to be noted. Each compiler of Hadis had to decide on the merits and authenticity of the ‘links’. Some Hadis may not be considered true but can be included when they convey a greater truth with a moral value.

Shia Hadis include stories of the Prophet and of Ali and the Imams. Among the compilations of Shia Hadis, that of Muhammad ibn Yaqub al-Kulayni (d. 940) is the earliest. Others include those of Ibn Babuya or Babawayhi (d. 991) and Muhammad al-Tusi (d. 1067).

hafiz A term in Islam for a person who can recite the whole QURAN. It comes from hafaza, Arabic for ‘memorized’. Hafiz is also used as a name.

Haimavata A school of HINAYANA Buddhism which developed in the Himalayan region, and was a branch of the STHAVIRAVADA. This school denied any divine qualities of the BODHISATTVA.

Hairambas (Herambas) A TANTRIC sect that worships the Hindu god GANESHA, along with DEVI or SHAKTI as his consort. Heramba is one of the names of Ganesha.

Haj The term for pilgrimage to Mecca, which forms one of the FIVE PILLARS, or basic practices of Islam. The Haj is obligatory for all Muslims, at least once in a lifetime. The pilgrimage provides a reaffirmation of faith and belief, and of dedication of one’s life to God. The person proceeding on the pilgrimage should have enough funds for it and enough for the family he leaves behind.

The Haj begins in the month of Zilhajja, the twelfth month of the ISLAMIC CALENDAR, on the eighth day of the month, and is completed on the twelfth day. Absolute purity and celibacy is to be maintained on the pilgrimage, and specific rituals are prescribed for each of the days. Before reaching Mecca, a particular type of clothing has to be worn, known as ihram which for men consists of two unstitched pieces of cloth wrapped around the waist and shoulders, and for women, a white headscarf, apart from full clothing. This symbolizes leaving behind the material world and focusing on spirituality. On the first day of the Haj, the pilgrims go around the nearby hills of Safa and Marwa seven times, and then proceed towards Mina, 6.5 km from Mecca. There they say their five daily prayers. On the second day they go to the plains of Arafat, 9 km away, recite special prayers and ask for God’s mercy for their sins. In the evening they leave there and reach Muzdalfa, where they spend the night in the open, reciting prayers. On the third day they reach the three pillars near Mina, which represent IBLIS or Satan. Here Iblis tempted IBRAHIM not to offer his sacrifice. Ibrahim threw pebbles at Iblis, who then retreated. The pilgrims therefore throw pebbles at one of the pillars. As it is the day of BAKR-ID, they then offer the sacrifice, bathe and wear fresh clothes. Proceeding to Mecca, they circumambulate the holy KABA and later return to Mina. On the fourth and fifth days, they throw pebbles at the three pillars, symbolizing the defeat of evil. The pilgrims also have to stay in Medina, where the Prophet is buried, for eight days, either before or after the Haj, and offer their daily prayers.

In India large numbers go on the Haj pilgrimage every year, and discounted air-fares are offered to enable less affluent Muslims to fulfill the obligations of the religion.

Haji Ali Mosque A mosque along with a DARGAH, located at MUMBAI in Maharashtra. Haji Ali Shah Bukhari, a rich merchant who lived in the fifteenth century, gave up all his wealth after a pilgrimage to Mecca and was revered as a saint. His dargah is built at the edge of the sea and is approached by a causeway that is covered with water at high tide. The tomb is located in a marble courtyard, and a white mosque was added in the 1940s. Worshippers and pilgrims visit the popular mosque and dargah every day.

halal An Arabic term, literally, ‘that which is untied or loose’, or ‘permissible’. In Islam, it refers to that which is lawful, as against that which is forbidden (haram). Halal includes lawful conduct and lawful food, such as meat from animals slaughtered in the prescribed manner.

Halebid A town in Karnataka which has temples of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, built at the time of the Hoysala dynasty. The most important is the HOYSALESHVARA TEMPLE. Halebid was once known as Dvarasamudra and was the capital of the Hoysala dynasty.

Hali, Altaf Hussain An Urdu poet and writer. Born in 1837, he was educated in DELHI and later employed in Hisar. He also worked at the Government Book Depot in Lahore and taught at Chief’s College, Lahore, and at the Anglo-Arabic School in Delhi. Influenced by GHALIB, he began to compose poetry, and wrote a number of works, including Yadgar-i-Ghalib, Diwan-i-Hali, Watan, Munajat-i-Bewa and Majalislal-i-Nisa. His work Musaddas (The Ebb and Flow of Islam) had a wide impact and influenced Syed AHMAD KHAN.

He died in 1914.

Hallaj, Al A SUFI saint who lived in the ninth century and is still revered. Husain Ibn Mansur al-Hallaj was born in 857 in Tus or Bayza in Fars. In a state of ecstasy he realized the true Self within and stated, ‘Ana al Haqq’, or ‘I am the Truth’. He travelled to various places, including northern and eastern India, and had a number of disciples. The ULAMA at the Abbasid court condemned him for heresy and though others defended him, he was tortured and executed in 922.

Hama ust A Persian term meaning ‘All is He’, i.e. all is God. It is a concept accepted by many of the SUFI saints.

Hamadani A branch of the KUBRAWIYA Sufi sect in Kashmir, founded by Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani (d. 1385). Hamadani is said to have performed miracles, leading to the conversion of a priest of a KALI temple, and encouraged his disciples to convert Hindus. He gained support from Irani nobles, migrants to the area, who were struggling to gain administrative and political power. They attempted to achieve this by advocating conversion and thus removing BRAHMANAS from their traditional posts. Sultan Sikandar (1389–1413) of Kashmir, influenced by Hamadani’s son Mir Muhammad, initially supported this. He demolished temples and introduced the JIZYA tax for the first time in Kashmir, but later changed his policy when be realized that it did not lead to political stability.

Another group of Kubrawiyas, known as Baihaqi Sayyids, were patronized by ZAINUL ABIDIN (1420–1506), one of the most enlightened rulers of Kashmir. This group worked to integrate Hindus and Muslims in Kashmir.

Hamiduddin Nagauri, Qazi A SUFI saint of the thirteenth century who belonged to the SUHRAWARDI order. His family had migrated to DELHI from Bukhara, and his father, Ataullah Mahmud, died in Delhi. Hamiduddin became the Qazi of Nagaur, but after a few years he left for Baghdad and became Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi’s disciple. After visiting several places he settled in Delhi. Despite being a Suhrawardi, he was in favour of SAMA, the musical sessions of the CHISTI saints, and thus was opposed by the ULAMA. However, his knowledge of law and influence with Sultan Iltutmish enabled him to challenge the Ulama.

Hamiduddin composed a number of SUFI works, studied by both Chisti and Suhrawardi Sufis. Among them were Lawaih (Flashes of Light), now lost; Ishqiyya, in which he states that the Lover and the Beloved (God) are one; Tawali-ul Shumus, on the names of ALLAH; and Risala Min Kalam.

Hamiduddin, Shaikh, of Nagaur (Chisti) A SUFI saint of the CHISTI order, who lived in the thirteenth century and was a disciple of Shaikh MUINUDDIN CHISTI. He was a vegetarian and lived simply at Siwal, a village near Nagaur in present-day Rajasthan, cultivating a small plot of land hardly larger than what was required to pitch a tent, and subsisting on what he grew there. He refused a grant from the sultan because he did not want his spirituality diverted by the acquisition of material wealth. He was a learned scholar and the answers he gave to questions on religion are quoted in various texts, including the Siyarul-Auliya and Akhbarul-Akhyar. He died in 1274.

His son Shaikh Fariduddin Mahmud carried on his tradition and compiled a collection of his sayings. Later Sufis of his tradition are known for their simplicity. Among them, Khwaja Ziyauddin Nakshabi (d. 1350–51), a disciple of Shaikh Fariduddin Mahmud, was also renowned for his scholarship. He translated the Suka Saptati, a Sanskrit text written by Chintamani Bhatta, into Persian and called it the Tuti Nama (Stories of a Parrot).

hamkar A term in Zoroastrianism, meaning coworker or helper. It implies that the righteous person is the helper and friend of AHURA MAZDA or God. Human beings are meant to work together with Ahura Mazda and his powers to bring about FRASHOKERETI, the renewal of existence. This implies consistently choosing the right path, and working for a better world. The word hamkar is not used in the GATHAS but the concept is clear even there.

Hamsa (1) A name of deities and a sacred bird, a wild goose or swan. It is also a mythical bird. In the RIG VEDA, it is said to be able to separate SOMA from water, and in later texts, milk from water, when the two are mixed together. This indicates its ability to separate the pure from the impure. The hamsa is the VAHANA or vehicle of the Vedic ASHVINS and of the Hindu deities BRAHMA, SARASVATI and VARUNA. It is identified with various deities, including VISHNU, SHIVA and SURYA. In the MAHABHARATA, KRISHNA is referred to as Hamsa.

(2) A PRAJAPATI and incarnation of the Hindu god VISHNU in the KRITA YUGA. He was also known as Yajna (sacrifice), and taught YOGA to Sanaka and other RISHIS. (3) Hamsa is a term for yogis who meditate on ‘Ham-Sah’ (I am He, or I am That), signifying identification with the Supreme. Ham-Sah is mentally chanted with every inhalation and exhalation. The technique is described in the Gheranda Samhita, the Vigyan Bhairava, and by GORAKHNATHA. In more recent times, it was propagated by PARAMAHANSA YOGANANDA. The title Paramahansa is used by the highest grade of DASNAMI sannyasis.

(4) The white Hamsa symbolizes the purity of the soul or spirit. It is the ATMAN within the individual, and is like the flame of a lamp in a windless place. It is located in the ANAHATA CHAKRA and in the SAHASRARA CHAKRA.

(5) Among others known as Hamsa was a GANDHARVA born to the rishi KASHYAPA.

(6) According to the BHAGAVATA PURANA, in the old days there was only one VEDA, one God, and one CASTE known as Hamsa.

(7) In other ancient religions, too, the goose or swan is linked with the sacred. In ancient Egypt, the god Amon-Re is said to have flown over the waters in the form of a goose, and its honk was the first sound ever made.

Hanafi A school of ISLAMIC LAW, the largest of the four orthodox schools of SUNNI jurisprudence. It was founded by Abu Hanifa, who lived from 700 to 767. He was born in Kufa and died in prison in Baghdad. He was possibly imprisoned because he refused to serve as a Qazi (judge) or because he supported the Zaidi revolt that took place at that time.

Abu Hanifa laid the foundations for Islamic law by attempting to deal with various issues, problems and interpretations. Hanifa stated that a Muslim believer should not be condemned for wrong actions as long as he had not given up his faith. Thus faith and works were separated, though he did not go so far as to say that all Muslims are saved, regardless of what they do. He put forward this view in a letter to Usman al-Batti. In addition, the Fiqh Akbar-i (Greater Fiqh) with ten Articles, is attributed to him and provides guidelines for believers. It affirms predestination and disavows the SHIA and Kharija philosophies.

The Hanafi school of law is followed in India by most SUNNIS.

Hanbali A school of ISLAMIC LAW. It was founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who lived from 780 to 855 and was a student of al-Shafi, founder of the SHAFI school of law. This school uses only the QURAN and SUNNAH for decisions of law. Hanbal himself compiled the Musnad, including 28,000 Traditions of the Prophet. The WAHHABIS of Saudi Arabia follow this school.

Hanuman A Hindu deity in the form of a monkey who is worshipped particularly on Tuesdays. Hanuman is described in various versions of the RAMAYANA, the MAHABHARATA, the PURANAS and other texts.

In the Ramayana of VALMIKI, Hanuman was a minister of Sugriva, the leader of the Vanaras, a monkey tribe in KISHKINDHA. When RAMA and LAKSHMANA reached Kishkindha in their search for SITA, who had been kidnapped by RAVANA, Sugriva sent Hanuman to meet them. After he met Rama, Hanuman became his devoted and loyal servant and disciple, and helped Rama to defeat Ravana and rescue Sita. He located Sita in LANKA, the city of Ravana where she was held in captivity, by a prodigious leap across the ocean. There he assured Sita that Rama would soon come to her rescue and managed to set fire to Lanka before escaping. He then helped Rama in his war against Ravana, with several extraordinary feats.

Hanuman could fly through the air, was extremely strong, could carry the heaviest loads, and vanquished several demons. He knew the art of healing and collected herbs from the Himalayas to heal the wounds of those who were injured in the battle against Ravana. In the Uttara Kanda, the last section of the Ramayana, there is a lengthy description of Hanuman. He was the son of VAYU, god of the wind, through ANJANA, the wife of Kesari, who lived on the mountain SUMERU. Unaware of his own strength, soon after he was born, he leapt, swifter than the wind, and tried to catch the glowing sun. He then tried to catch the shadow planet RAHU, but the god INDRA knocked him down with his VAJRA or thunderbolt. In response, Vayu was angry and withdrew himself from the world, so that all began to suffocate, for the wind is in the breath of every being. Then the god BRAHMA restored Hanuman to life and Vayu restored breath to the world. Following this, all the gods granted boons to Hanuman.

In other texts there are different myths about his origin. In one story, he was the son of SHIVA and PARVATI, who had once taken the form of monkeys. In another myth, Shiva sent his seed through the wind god Vayu to be implanted in the womb of Anjana, who was in the form of a monkey because of a curse. After Hanuman was born, Anjana returned to heaven.

The child monkey was intelligent and learnt the four VEDAS in no time. He was originally called Sundara, but because he was injured on his jaw (hanu) by Indra’s vajra, he was known as Hanuman.

In the sixteenth century RAMACHARITAMANASA of TULASIDASA, the story of Hanuman is elaborated upon. The text has several devotional passages to Hanuman, which are recited even today. The forty verses of the Hanuman Chalisa, are particularly revered. In these verses he is said to have a golden body, curly hair, and to hold a vajra-like mace in one hand, and a dhvaja (flag or banner) in the other, with a holy thread made of a long reed on his shoulder.

The god Hanuman represents strength, loyalty and asceticism. He not only knows the Vedas, but is proficient in Sanskrit and other languages. He is celibate, but according to one account, a son known as Makaradhvaja was born through a drop of his sweat. His asceticism and celibacy made him immune to the affects of SHANI (Saturn), the planet believed to bring misfortune, and therefore he is worshipped when Shani is to be propitiated. He is immensely strong and is the patron deity of those engaged in feats of strength, particularly wrestlers. Worshipping him brings success in all ventures. He is also known as Bajrang (originally Vajrang). A popular deity, he is revered in all parts of India. He is depicted in human form, with a monkey-like face and a tail. In images, he has two or more hands and usually holds a club or mace in one hand and the mountain GOVARDHANA in the other, which, according to another myth, he had brought from the Himalayas and placed near MATHURA. Another form of Hanuman is as a bhakta or devotee, with his hands joined in prayer.

Images of Hanuman are found in Rama temples and in temples specially devoted to him. The prasad offered to him is usually besan ladoos (gram-flour sweets), while in the south offerings of butter are made. Worship also includes putting red paste or kumkum on the deity.

Among the most popular Hanuman temples today are: Hanuman Garhi Temple at AYODHYA, of about the sixteenth century; Sankat Mochana Temple at VARANASI, of the same date, where he is worshipped as the deity who solves problems and removes distress; Hanuman Dhara Temple at CHITRAKUTA; Sinhapaur Hanuman Temple at VRINDAVAN; Poonchari ka Launtha Temple at Govardhana; Luteriya Hanuman Mandir at GOKUL, where he is depicted as a child; and Hanuman Hatheelau Temple near Gokul. All the above temples are in Uttar Pradesh, the last four in the Mathura region. Some Hanuman temples elsewhere include the Hanuman Temple on Jakhoo hill, Shimla, and those at Sholingapuram and Suchindram in south India. Every Rama temple has a separate shrine for the god Hanuman. There are usually monkeys at Hanuman temples and shrines; they are also revered and fed.

Hanuman’s other names include Anjaneya, son of Anjana; Mahabala, the strong one; Rameshta, the devotee of Rama; Vayuputra, or Vayunanadan, son of Vayu; Phalgunasakha, a friend of Phalguna (Arjuna); Pingaksha, with sallow-hued eyes; Ativikrama, supremely powerful; Udadhikramana, the leaper across the ocean; Sitashokavinashana, remover of Sita’s grief; Lakshmanaprandhata, reviver of LAKSHMANA; Dashagrivasyadarpaha, attacker of the ten-faced one (Ravana); Rajatadyuti, the brilliant; Yogachara, with knowledge of YOGA; Maruti, son of Maruta, another name of Vayu; Siriya Tiruvedi, the one who carried Rama (in Tamil).

Scholars believe the Vanaras could have been a forest tribe with a monkey totem. Hanuman is also thought to have been a tribal deity, incorporated into the Brahmanical pantheon. The deity provides a bridge between VAISHNAVISM and SHAIVISM, as he is a son of Shiva, but a devotee of Rama, who is an incarnation of VISHNU.

Hanuman Nataka A Sanskrit play on the adventures of the monkey-god HANUMAN, compiled by Damodara Mishra in the eleventh century. Fragments of it are said to have existed earlier and even to have been seen by VALMIKI. They were collected and put together, the missing incidents being added by Damodara.

Har Krishan, Guru The eighth Sikh guru, Har Krishan was born on 7 July 1656 to Guru HAR RAI and his wife Krishan Kaur. Before his death in October 1661, Har Rai appointed the young child, then five years old, as the guru. His elder son, RAM RAI, who was friendly with the Mughal emperor. Aurangzeb, resented this and complained to the emperor. AURANGZEB asked that Har Krishan be brought to Delhi and sent Raja Jai Singh to escort him and assure him of his safety. In 1664, Har Krishan, his mother and disciples came to DELHI and stayed in Jai Singh’s palatial house. At this time small pox and cholera epidemics were raging in the city, and hundreds of people, including Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims, came to the young guru, hoping to be cured by his touch. The guru distributed medicines, food and clothes to the poor, and ordered all the money from the daily offerings to be used for the people. Miracles of healing were reported, but Har Krishan himself fell ill. He went to the banks of the YAMUNA, where he died on 30 March 1664, and was cremated there. Before dying, he murmured ‘Baba Bakala’ and this was taken as an indication that the next guru would be found in Bakala. Two GURDWARAS commemorate Har Krishan’s life and work in Delhi, the BANGLA SAHIB GURDWARA, which was Jai Singh’s residence, and BALA SAHIB GURDWARA, which marks the spot where he died.

Har Mandir Sahib, Sri The most sacred GURDWARA of the Sikhs. Literally, the name means ‘temple of God.’ It is also popularly known as the Golden Temple, because of its gilded upper two storeys and dome. The Har Mandir is located at AMRITSAR. Guru AMAR DAS (1479–1574), the third guru, asked his successor, Guru RAM DAS, to set up a sacred tirtha or tank here. According to some sources, part of the land was granted by the Mughal emperor AKBAR. It was already a holy site, as Guru NANAK is said to have meditated here. Ram Das constructed the tank and the place was then known as Ramdaspur or Guru ka Chak. Guru ARJAN DEV (1563–1606) began the construction of the temple in the middle of the sacred tank. He asked the SUFI saint Hazrat Mian Mir of Lahore to lay the foundation stone of the Har Mandir, thus indicating the unity of all faiths.

The temple has four entrances to welcome all who wish to enter. The main gateway, Darshani deorhi, opens on to a marble causeway which leads to the temple across the water. The causeway has latticed balustrades and lamp posts with copper-gilded lanterns, while the walls of the temple are inlaid with semi-precious stones in floral patterns. There are frescoes depicting scenes from Sikh history and the ceilings are decorated with concave and convex glass. The doors are made of silver, replaced with golden doors on special occasions. The structure is covered with a gold-plated dome. At each corner are fluted cupolas, and several small domes decorate the parapet.

The GURU GRANTH SAHIB, first installed in the Har Mandir in 1604, is located on the ground floor, facing the entrance from the causeway.

Above the Darshani deorhi, is the Tosha-khana or treasure-trove, where the valuable gold doors are stored along with other precious items dating back to the time of Maharaja RANJIT SINGH.

The temple was damaged by the Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1762 but was later restored. Maharaja Ranjit Singh added to the temple, and there is now a whole complex of buildings around it. Adjacent to it is the AKAL TAKHT, the supreme seat of Sikh religious authority.

More recently, in 1984, the Golden Temple was damaged in a battle between armed militants, who had made it their residence, and the Indian Army. It was rebuilt through voluntary labour (kar seva).

The Har Mandir is a place of pilgrimage not only for Sikhs, but for people of all religions.

Har Rai, Guru The seventh Sikh guru. Born in 1630 at KIRATPUR in Punjab, he was the son of Baba Gurditta, the eldest son of Guru HARGOBIND. He became the guru in 1644 when Guru Hargobind died. He continued to consolidate the position of the Sikhs, but no major battles were fought while he was the guru. As long as the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan was alive, he had good relations with the Mughals and even cured Shah Jahan’s eldest son, DARA SHIKOH, of an illness with some herbal medicine. During the struggle for succession when Shah Jahan was ill, Dara Shikoh fled from AURANGZEB and came to the guru for his blessings. However, Aurangzeb ascended the throne after killing all his brothers. Some time later, he asked the guru to come to his court, but the guru sent his eldest son RAM RAI, who impressed Aurangzeb favourably. Har Rai was not happy with Ram Rai’s actions at the Mughal court and disowned him, appointing his infant son, HAR KRISHAN, as the guru.

Har Rai was known for his extreme sensitivity and care for plants and animals. He would not allow animals to be killed on a hunt, but kept those that were captured as pets.

Hara A name of the Hindu god SHIVA. Hara was also the name of a DANAVA born to KASHYAPA, and, according to some PURANAS, of one of the eleven RUDRAS.

Harbhajan Singh, Yogi A renowned Sikh spiritual leader, popularly known as Yogi Bhajan who founded the Sikh Dharma Movement in the West. Born in 1929 at village Kot Harkan in present Pakistan, he migrated to India at the time of Partition. He completed an MA in economics from Punjab University and joined the Customs Service, married and had three children. At the same time he studied Sikhism, received spiritual training and became proficient in HATHA YOGA and KUNDALINI techniques. In 1969 he began to teach in Los Angeles and also obtained a PhD in communications psychology from San Francisco. He set up the 3HO, the ‘Happy, Healthy, Holy Organization’, with the belief that every person had the right to be happy, healthy and holy, and that his organization could reveal how this could be achieved. He taught the principles of Sikhism, along with Kundalini Yoga, Hatha Yoga, MANTRA and meditation, and had thousands of followers, setting up 3HO centres worldwide. The SHIROMANI GURDWARA PRABANDHAK COMMITTEE gave him the title Siri Singh Sahib and entrusted him with disseminating knowledge about the Sikh religion in the West. From Los Angeles, Harbhajan moved to New Mexico and established Sikh Dharma in the Western Hemisphere, a non-profit organization. Members of the organization wear white clothes and turbans, and follow the principles of Sikhism, in addition to practising special meditation and other techniques. Yogi Bhajan wrote over thirty books on consciousness, spirituality and related topics.

Yogi Bhajan was not merely a guru, but a businessman and entrepreneur. His Sikh Dharma organization produces natural foods, health and beauty products. His food products alone had an annual revenue of over $60 million. He was the head of fourteen US corporations, including Akal Security, whose 12,000 employees provided security to military installations, airports and other sensitive sites in the US. He also conducted business seminars, helped entrepreneurs and fostered economic development of the area in which he lived. Yogi Bhajan died in New Mexico on 7 October 2004 after an illness. His followers include hundreds of thousands of Americans and Europeans.

He had interfaith dialogues with other world religious leaders and believed that: ‘If you can’t see God in all, you can’t see God at all.’

Hardwar/Haridwar A city in Uttarakhand that marks the point where the river GANGA enters the plains. It is one of the seven sacred cities of Hinduism, and there are numerous temples here, some dating back to the eighth century. Its early names were Gangadvara, or the gateway of the Ganga, Kapila, and Kankhal. Hardwar comes from Hara, a name of SHIVA, but because it is also sacred to VISHNU, it is sometimes called Haridwar (Hari = VISHNU).

Pilgrims come here from all over India to bathe in the Ganga, as the sacred waters are said to cleanse one of all sins. Hindus immerse the ashes of the dead in the river, and rites for ancestors are conducted here. Every evening at sunset, ARTI or worship with lights, chants and the ringing of the temple bells, is performed.

Numerous legends, stories and myths are narrated about Hardwar. The king DAKSHA performed a sacrifice here and did not invite his son-in-law, Shiva. The Daksha Mahadeva Temple at Kankhal nearby is said to mark the spot of Daksha’s sacrifice. SATI, daughter of Daksha and wife of Shiva, killed herself because of the insult to her husband, giving rise to other myths. Parts of her body fell at different places, which are revered as SHAKTA PITHAS, charged with sacred feminine power.

Hardwar is also a centre of the KUMBH MELA, which takes place once in twelve years, with the ardh or half kumbh held every six years. According to the story related with this event, a drop of the sacred AMRITA, nectar of immortality, fell here after the ocean of milk was churned.

Hare Krishna Movement The popular name of the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON).

Hargobind, Guru The sixth Sikh guru. Born in 1595 at village Wadali in Punjab, he was the only child of Guru ARJAN DEV. He became the guru on 25 May 1606, a few days before the martyrdom of his father. The ceremony for his initiation as guru was performed by Baba BUDHA, and instead of the traditional seli, or woollen cord worn around the head, the guru asked for a sword, and from this time onwards every guru wore two swords. This symbolized the Sikhs’ transformation into a martial group and the concept that the guru had both spiritual and temporal power. Hargobind believed the Sikhs must fight against tyranny and gave instructions to the MASANDS and other Sikhs to make offerings of horses and weapons instead of money. Sikhs were trained in martial arts and soon an army of 1000 horses was raised. The spiritual side was not neglected, as the guru stated that one of his swords represented Shakti (strength) and the other Bhakti (devotion). The guru meditated every morning, and prayed along with his followers. Soon after his accession as guru, he laid the foundation of the AKAL TAKHT at AMRITSAR.

Hearing of the army of the Sikhs, the Mughal emperor Jahangir asked Hargobind to come to DELHI. He was charmed by the personality of the young guru and indebted to him when the guru saved him from a tiger on a hunt. However, later intrigues led to the guru being imprisoned in Gwalior fort, though he was released after a few months.

Guru Hargobind travelled to a number of places and preached the Sikh religion. After 1624, relations with the Mughals deteriorated and a major battle took place that year. Hargobind left Amritsar, settled at KARTARPUR near the river Beas, and built the city of HARGOBINDPUR. Later he moved to KIRATPUR, where he lived with a group of followers until his death in 1644.

The guru had several sons; Gurditta, b. 1613; Suraj Mal, b. 1617; Ani Rai, b. 1618; ATAL RAI, b. 1620; TEGH BAHADUR, b. 1622. He chose his grandson, HAR RAI, the son of Baba Gurditta, as his successor.

Hargobindpur A town in district Gurdaspur, Punjab, constructed by the sixth Sikh guru, HARGOBIND. It was built with the help of the local people, in an open space near village Ruhela, on the right bank of the river Beas. The Mughals tried to prevent the construction of a fort here, and in 1630 a battle took place, in which the Mughal forces and some local rulers were defeated. A GURDWARA known as Damdama Sahib was built at this spot. A mosque was constructed in the village as well, indicating the open-mindedness of the guru. The house where the guru lived, known as Manji Sahib, is also preserved in this town. It is an important place of pilgrimage for Sikhs.

Hari A name of the Hindu god VISHNU or of his incarnations. It is at times used as the name of other gods as well.

Haribhadra Suri A Jain philosopher of the eighth century who belonged to the SHVETAMBARA sect and contributed to Shvetambara doctrines. He probably lived from 705 to 775. According to tradition he wrote 1444 works; eighty-eight texts with his name have been discovered, of which twenty-six are thought to have definitely been written by him. Haribhadra states in his own works that he was a pupil of Jinabhadra (or Jinabhatta) and Jinadatta of the Vidyadhara kula, and was born at CHITRAKUTA in a BRAHMANA family. According to stories in texts he was extremely learned and boasted of his erudition, stating he would become the disciple of any one who could say something that he did not understand. One day, a Jain nun, Yakini, recited a verse that fulfilled that criterion. For its explanation, she sent him to her teacher, Jinabhatta. Haribhadra then became a Jain monk and excelled in his knowledge of the Jain texts, and therefore was given the title Suri. He wrote in Sanskrit and Prakrit, in verse and in prose, and was the first to write commentaries on Shvetambara texts in Sanskrit. His commentaries include those on the AVASSAYA SUTTA and DASAVEYALIYA SUTTA.

Haribhadra is also famous for his dharmakatha or religious novel, the SAMARAICHCHA KAHA, written in Prakrit verse, in which, after a series of many lives, the main characters enter the Jain religious order.

Haridasa A name used by devotees of the Hindu god VISHNU and of his various forms, particularly KRISHNA. Several saints of different times adopted this name.

Haridasa, Swami A BHAKTI saint, poet and singer who lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and was a devotee of the Hindu god KRISHNA. According to some accounts, he was born in a village near VRINDAVAN, a place sacred to Krishna, in MATHURA district of present west Uttar Pradesh. He became a SANNYASI and lived in his ashram Nidhuvan, composing devotional songs on the love between Krishna and RADHA. He sang Vishnupadas, a form of the Dhrupad style of classical music, mainly about the life of Krishna. Approximately 128 of his compositions are available today. He was a brilliant singer. According to later sources, he was the guru of the renowned singer TANSEN, who lived at the court of the Mughal emperor AKBAR. Contemporary sources of Akbar’s reign, however, do not mention Haridasa. According to the Nijmat Sidhanta, an eighteenth-century text, Swami Haridasa was associated with the NIMBARKA sect.

Haridasa started the Haridasa Sampradaya, for the worship of Krishna. Members sang devotional songs together, a type of congregational singing known as Samaj in the Mathura region. Swami Haridasa lived a simple, reclusive life with some close disciples who included Vitthal Dasa, Vipul Dasa, Viharin Dev and Krishna Dasa.

Haridasas A sect or group founded in the thirteenth century dedicated to the Hindu god HARI or VISHNU and his various forms. Some trace the origin of the sect to the ninth century, but the main founder was NARAHARI TIRTHA, a BHAKTI saint and a follower of MADHVA, who lived in the present region of Karnataka. Members of the group were against animal sacrifices, superstitions, caste and the worship of many gods. They also disapproved of astrology, the use of horoscopes and rituals. They tried to reform existing practices and preached to others in the local language, Kannada, and composed devotional songs. Among prominent Haridasas was the famous singer, PURANDARADASA. Other saints of this group included Vyasaraya, KANAKADASA, Vadiraja, Vijayadasa, Jagannathadasa, Vasudevadasa and Gopaladasa.

There was some opposition to the use of Kannada, and VAISHNAVAS in Karnataka came to be divided into the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta, the former being those who continued to use Sanskrit.

Haridasas still exist, and the songs of the earlier Haridasas remain popular.

Harihara A Hindu deity that combines the aspects of VISHNU and SHIVA, HARI being a name of VISHNU, and HARA of SHIVA. There were often conflicts between the two sects of VAISHNAVITES and SHAIVITES, and this deity represents an attempt to unite the two groups. This syncretic god seems to have been represented on a coin of the Kushana dynasty in the early centuries CE. In a later stone image from BADAMI, the god holds a battle-axe entwined with a snake in his right hand (representing Shiva), and a conch shell in his left (representing Vishnu). Attendants and consorts of the two gods are also placed to the right and left, and each half of the crown and head is differently carved. Several other images of the deity have been found in Bihar, Bengal and elsewhere. In some composite images, other deities and even BODHISATTVAS have been added, probably in an attempt to bring diverse groups together.

Harijan The name chosen by Mahatma GANDHI for the lower or ‘untouchable’ castes in Hinduism, today known as DALITS. Mahatma Gandhi worked to abolish untouchability and to get these castes accepted by Hindu society. He gave them this name, which literally means ‘Children of God’ to show that he held them in high regard. Today’s dalits, however, consider it a patronizing term, and it is no longer used.

Hariti A Buddhist mother goddess. According to Buddhist texts, she was a ferocious goddess who used to devour children, but the BUDDHA transformed her and she became a protector of children. The NISHPANNAYOGAVALI, a VAJRAYANA text, describes her as yellow in colour. Hariti is also known as a YAKSHI, the consort of KUBERA or Panchika. She is depicted with Panchika or Jambhala in GANDHARA images, and with Kubera in MATHURA art of the first and second centuries CE. She appears on her own as well, along with one or more children. She was one of the most popular Buddhist deities in India.

Harivamsha A Sanskrit text which describes episodes from the life of the Hindu god KRISHNA. Consisting of 16,374, verses, it is an appendix to the MAHABHARATA, but is a later addition and is used as a separate text. It is similar to a PURANA, and has three parts or parvas. The first part, the Harivamsha Parva, contains creation myths as well as an account of the YADAVA dynasty, while the second, the Vishnu Parva, deals with the life of KRISHNA. The third part, the Bhavishya Parva, has prophecies of the future, as well as accounts of VISHNU and SHIVA.

Harivamsha Purana (1) A Jain text based on the HARIVAMSHA, the appendix to the MAHABHARATA. It was completed by Jinasena in 783. It tells the story of KRISHNA and BALARAMA in a Jain setting. Gautama (Goyama) the chief disciple of MAHAVIRA, is made the narrator of the Purana, and ARISHTANEMINATHA, the twenty-second TIRTHANKARA, is described as a cousin of Krishna. In this Purana, the KAURAVAS and Karna become Jains, and later the PANDAVAS too, become Jain ascetics. The descendants of the PANDAVAS and KAURAVAS, and of Krishna and Balarama, are described.

(2) Another Jain text of the same name, was composed by Salakirti and his pupil Jinadasa in the fifteenth century.

Harsha A king who patronized Buddhism. Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti dynasty ruled over much of northern India from 606 to 647. His ancestors were devotees of the Hindu god SHIVA, while his immediate ancestors were worshippers of Aditya or SURYA, and he himself is described as Parama-Maheshvara, a devotee of Shiva. In later life he was deeply influenced by Buddhism. He held a meeting at his capital of Kannauj to discuss MAHAYANA Buddhism, and thousands of monks as well as the kings of twenty countries gathered there. A huge golden image of the BUDDHA was placed in a tower and worshipped by the people, and the Chinese pilgrim XUANZANG explained Mahayana Buddhism to the audience. Harsha organized another meeting at PRAYAGA (Allahabad) that lasted for seventy-five days. On the first day a statue of the Buddha was set up and worshipped, on the second, of Adityadeva or Surya, and on the third of Ishvaradeva or Shiva. Large amounts of money were distributed in charity to Buddhist monks, BRAHMANAS, Jains, members of other sects, and wandering mendicants, after which alms were given to the poor, the orphans and the destitute, by which time Harsha’s entire treasury was exhausted.

Haryashvas The name of 5000 mind-born sons of DAKSHA and ASIKNI described in Hindu texts.

Hashim Pir A SUFI saint who lived in Bijapur in the seventeenth century. According to legend, Muhammad Adil Shah III (1627–56), ruler of the kingdom of Bijapur, fell ill while supervising the construction of his tomb, later known as the Gol Gumbaz. He prayed to a Sufi saint, Sayyed Shah Hashiro Husaini of Bijapur, popularly known as Hashim Pir. The saint predicted that Muhammad Adil Shah would die in three days, but then offered his own life in place of the king’s. Hashim Pir died and the king lived and completed the Gol Gumbaz.

Hastinapura An ancient city, identified with a village of the same name in District Meerut, Uttar Pradesh. In the MAHABHARATA, Hastinapura is the capital of the Kuru kingdom. The king DHRITARASHTRA ruled here, and the battle between the PANDAVA and KAURAVA cousins was over the territory of Kuru. After the Kauravas were defeated, YUDHISHTHIRA ruled here. According to the Mahabharata, a later king, Nichakshu, grandson of Janamejaya, moved his capital to KAUSHAMBI after Hastinapura was destroyed by a flood. Excavations reveal that Hastinapura was occupied from around 1500 BCE to CE 300, though not continuously. It was reoccupied between 1100 and CE 1500. There is evidence of desertion after a flood, tentatively dated to 800 BCE.

Hastinapura is also the birthplace of three Jain TIRTHANKARAS, and two Jain temples still exist here.

Hatha Yoga A system of YOGA or union with the divine, described in various texts. The essentials of Hatha Yoga form part of Patanjali’s YOGA SUTRA, but more elaborate descriptions occur in later texts, including the Hatha Yoga Pradipika of Svatmarama, the Goraksha Shataka of GORAKHNATHA, and the Gheranda Samhita. Hatha Yoga is merely a different approach to Yoga and consists of first purifying the physical and subtle body through ASANAS or physical postures and PRANAYAMA or breathing techniques, before going on to higher techniques of concentration and meditation. Apart from ethical principles basic to all forms of Yoga, Hatha Yoga deals specifically with: (1) cleansing of the body (shodhana) by six processes; (2) attaining strength and firmness by asanas or bodily postures, as well as fortitude by specific positions (mudras); (3) steadying the mind by restraining the senses (pratyahara); (4) gaining lightness of the body by pranayama; (5) attaining realization (pratyaksha) through DHYANA or meditation; (6) achieving detachment (nirliptatva) in SAMADHI.

Hatim, Shah A SUFI poet of the eighteenth century. Shaikh Zahiruddin Hatim was born in DELHI in 1699 and was initially employed in the army but became a Sufi of the SUHRAWARDI sect and an ascetic. He was one of the most noted Urdu poets of his time. Hatim was a disciple of Shah Badal Ali, and after the latter’s death, of Shah Taslim, both of Delhi. His poems do not reflect any particular school of SUFISM. It was a time of turmoil and conflict in Delhi, and in one of his verses Hatim wrote:

How can one be happy even for a moment in this age,

That is devoid of all that brings happiness.

In another verse he revealed the Sufi’s detachment:

A darvesh does not seek favours from anyone;

Continued deep affliction is his sustenance.

Haurvatat A deity and a power of AHURA MAZDA, the name of God in Zoroastrianism. She is personified as an AMESHA SPENTA representing perfection. Her name can be compared to the Sanskrit sarva-tat (all is that). Haurvatat presides over the waters and her emblem is a lily. In later texts she is known as Khordad.

Hauz-i Shamsi A sacred tank constructed in DELHI in 1230, at the time of Sultan Iltutmish. According to the story associated with its construction, Delhi, even in those days, faced a shortage of water, and therefore the sultan wanted to construct a storage tank, but could not decide on a suitable location. The Prophet MUHAMMAD is then said to have appeared to the SUFI saint QUTBUDDIN BAKHTIYAR and to the sultan, and indicated in which area to build the tank. After the Hauz-i Shamsi was constructed, the area near it became a meeting place, a spiritual and cultural centre. In the monsoon, the water flowed from here into a garden. The tank, located in the Mehrauli area, still exists.

Hayagriva (1) An AVATARA or incarnation of the Hindu god VISHNU. Literally, the word means ‘horse-necked’. There are different accounts of Hayagriva in various texts and legends. In the VEDAS, Hayagriva is a form of YAJNA (sacrifice), which in some texts is a term used for Vishnu. According to one story in the PURANAS, BRAHMA is said to have cursed Vishnu out of jealousy, because in a test he proved to be the greatest of the gods. As a result of the curse, Vishnu lost his head and attended a yajna of the DEVAS wearing a horse’s head. After that he meditated, and with the blessings of SHIVA regained his original head.

(2) In another story, Vishnu took the form of Hayagriva to restore the Vedas, which had been stolen by two asuras, to Brahma. Alternatively, Hayagriva is the name of a DAITYA who stole the Vedas.

(3) Hayagriva was also the name of others, including a DANAVA who was the son of KASHYAPA, and of an ASURA killed by KRISHNA.

(4) In VAJRAYANA Buddhism, Hayagriva is the name of a deity, a form of the Buddha Vajrasattva.

Hayashiras/Hayashirsha A name of the Hindu god VISHNU, meaning horse-headed. According to the BHAGAVATA PURANA, Hayashirsha was the same as BHAGAVATA (a name of Vishnu). He was the colour of gold; the VEDAS and the sacrifice were his substance, while the god was his soul. The name probably relates to his incarnation as HAYAGRIVA.

Hazrat Bal Mosque A mosque in Srinagar, Kashmir. It is one of the most sacred places for Muslims as a hair of the Prophet MUHAMMAD is a holy relic in the mosque. The original mosque, which was destroyed by terrorists in the 1990s, was a white marble structure with a large dome and a minaret. The hair of the Prophet was brought to Srinagar in the seventeenth century by Nuruddin Ashwar, a Kashmiri trader, who obtained it from an Arab during his travels. It was originally housed in the Shah Hamadan mosque but that became too small to contain the crowds who came to pay reverence to it. The relic is displayed to the public on certain special days, including ID-I-MILAD. The mosque has been partially rebuilt.

Hazur Sahib Gurdwara A Sikh shrine or GURDWARA, known as Sachkand Sri Hazur Achbal Nagar Sahib, which houses one of the TAKHTS or centres of Sikh spiritual authority. It is located on the banks of the river Godavari at Nanded in Maharashtra and marks the spot where Guru GOBIND SINGH died in 1708. The two-storeyed building is in a style similar to the HAR MANDIR and was constructed at the time of Maharaja RANJIT SINGH, between 1832 and 1837. The inner room, known as the Angitha Sahib, has gold-plated walls, and the pinnacle on the polished dome is also gold-plated. In the gurdwara, the GURU GRANTH SAHIB is recited continuously, day and night. Some of the weapons of Guru Gobind Singh, including five golden swords, are preserved here. It was here that BANDA BAHADUR converted to Sikhism.

There are other gurdwaras in Nanded, including the Sangat Sahib Gurdwara, Shikhar Ghat Gurdwara, Nagina Ghat Gurdwara and Hira Ghat Gurdwara. They were all constructed to commemorate the visit of Guru Gobind Singh to these places.

Heart Sutra The popular name of a MAHAYANA Buddhist text, known in Sanskrit as the PRAJNAPARAMITA-HRIDAYA-SUTRA, one of the many PRAJNAPARAMITA or ‘perfection of wisdom’ texts.

Hemachandra Suri A renowned Jain scholar who wrote a number of texts. According to several accounts, Hemachandra was born in 1089 in Dhanduka, about 100 km south-west of Ahmadabad in present-day Gujarat, and was originally named Changadeva. His father was probably a SHAIVITE and his mother a Jain. A Jain acharya who came to Dhanduka was impressed with the boy, and with the consent of his parents, took the child with him. The boy was made a Jain monk in 1097 and given the name Somachandra. He soon became extremely learned and was therefore given the title Suri at the age of twenty-one, and later the name Hemachandra, for his face shone like gold (hema).

Hemachandra, who was a SHVETAMBARA, composed the TRISHASHTISHALAKAPURUSHA CHARITRA, the counterpart of the DIGAMBARA Purana of a similar name. He also composed the Sidha-hema-shabdanushasana, a grammar of Sanskrit and Prakrit; the Kumarapala Charitra on king Kumarapala of Gujarat, who was his patron; and four lexicons: the Abhidhana Chintamani, similar in style to the AMARAKOSHA; the Anekarthasangraha, a dictionary of homonyms; the Nighantu, on medicinal plants; and Deshinamamala, on commonly used words that are not derived from Sanskrit or Prakrit.

Hemis Gompa A Buddhist monastery in the region of LADAKH in Kashmir. It was probably constructed in the fifteenth century, during the reign of the legendary Sengge Namgyal, and is under the DRUGPA sect. It has a large dukhang or assembly hall, apart from the main temple. Among its treasures is one of the largest THANGKAS or scroll paintings in Ladakh, which is unfurled once every twelve years. A Buddhist festival takes place here every year in June to celebrate the birthday of PADMASAMBHAVA.

Hemkunt Sahib Gurdwara A Sikh shrine or GURDWARA located at Hemkunt in Uttara khand, at a height of 4636 m. An interesting story is connected with this gurdwara, narrated in the Bachitra Natak, the autobiographical account written by Guru GOBIND SINGH. In this the guru said that in his previous life he had meditated on the Hemkunt hill, also known as Sapta Shringa, a place where seven peaks are visible, and where once PANDU had meditated on the god YAMA. There God came to the guru-to-be and asked him to be born in the world to establish the path of truth.

The exact site was not known until Pandit Tara Singh, exploring the region in the 1930s, discovered the spot near a small, clear lake. A hut was built there in 1936 and a copy of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB was placed in it in 1937. Later a gurdwara was constructed in place of the hut. Near the Hemkunt Gurdwara, are natural forests of silver birch, fir and pine, and the water in the lake looks blue. The snow-covered Himalayas form the backdrop to this sacred site.

Heruka A Buddhist deity of VAJRAYANA Buddhism, described in the NISHPANNAYOGAVALI and other texts. He belongs to the Buddha family of AKSHOBHYA and is blue in colour. In some texts he is identical with the ADI BUDDHA.

Heruka is also a term for ‘means of attainment’ and in this sense there are eight Heruka sadhanas or methods of practice.

Hevajra Tantra A Buddhist text of the ANUTTARAYOGA class of TANTRAS. It begins with a dialogue between the Buddha Vajrasattva and the Bodhisattva Vajragarbha. The text, which includes philosophy, ritual and practice, was probably composed some time around CE700. This Tantra is also important for its explanation of SANDHA-BHASHA, the secret or hidden language of Tantra.

Hidimba (Hidimbaa) A rakshasi who married BHIMA, one of the PANDAVA brothers of the MAHABHARATA, after Bhima had killed her brother Hidimba in battle. Their son was Ghatotkacha. A small temple of Hidimba known as the Dungri Temple exists above Manali in Himachal Pradesh. Here Hidimba is considered a form of the Hindu goddess DURGA, and is the first of the deities to be brought to Kulu for the annual DASHAHARA festival. Hidimba was the goddess of the former royal family of Kulu.

Hieun Tsang A Chinese pilgrim who visited India in the seventh century, during the reign of King HARSHA, and provided an account of Buddhism at this time. His name is also spelt XUANZANG.

hijrah An Arabic term referring to the departure of the Prophet MUHAMMAD from Mecca for Medina in 622. The Islamic calendar begins on this date.

Himalaya The mountain range across the north of India, also known in texts as HIMAVAN.

Himavan A name for the HIMALAYA in ancient texts. These mountains were considered sacred and were associated with the gods. According to Hindu mythology, Himavan or Himavat, the DEVA or god representing the mountain, was married to MENA or Menaka, and was the father of Uma or PARVATI and of GANGA. Several of the gods or devas live on Himavan as well as a number of RISHIS. Parvati and SHIVA live forever on the northern heights of the mountains, and GARUDA, the divine bird of VISHNU, as well as the DIKAPALAS, are among the other residents of these mountains. The sacred MANASAROVARA lake and the KAILASHA mountain were located north of Himavan.

Hinayana Buddhism One of the three main divisions of Buddhism. Hinayana Buddhism is the earliest form of Buddhism, based on the basic teachings of the BUDDHA. The term means ‘Lesser Vehicle’, while MAHAYANA means ‘Greater Vehicle’. It is still used in academic works to describe early Buddhist sects, but is not used by Buddhists of this school, who consider it a pejorative term. The Hinayana school that exists today in Sri Lanka and other countries is the THERAVADA.

Hinayana accepts the basic principles of Buddhism: the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS on suffering and its cause and the EIGHTFOLD PATH, which is the way to liberation. It also accepts the concepts of impermanence (anichcha, ANITYA), the non-existence of a permanent individual self, anatta (ANATMAN), the five aggregates (SKANDHAS) which create human existence, and the doctrine of patichcha samutpada (PRATITYA SAMUTPADA), or the law of dependent origination, in which one state of being arises out of the previous state.

After the death of the Buddha, differences of opinion began to appear, and a number of schools of Hinayana Buddhism developed. The two main schools were the STHAVIRAVADA and the MAHASANGHIKA, which had several offshoots themselves. By the first century BCE, there were about thirty different sects and schools. Some of these, such as the SARVASTIVADA, had their own ABHIDHARMA and VINAYA texts. The various schools differed in their understanding of the concept of the ARHAT and whether an arhat could regress; the nature of a BODHISATTVA; whether a Bodhisattva could be born in hell to lighten the sufferings of those there; the concept of an intermediate existence (antarabhava); and whether DEVAS were capable of practising BRAHMACHARYA, as well as other minor aspects. Most of these sects no longer exist.

The MAHAYANA form of Buddhism emerged by the first century CE. Though they also accepted the early Buddhist canon and its basic teachings, they developed their own texts and disagreed with the Hinayana view of the stages on the Buddhist path. They believed that enlightenment could not be sought only for oneself; a person following the Buddhist path must seek it for all living beings.

Hinayana texts include the PALI CANON, comprising the SUTTA PITAKA, ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA and VINAYA PITAKA. In addition, there are five different Vinaya Pitakas, of the Mahasanghika, MAHISHASAKAS, DHARMAGUPTAKAS, Sarvastivada and Mula Sarvastivada sects, mostly in Chinese translation, though some Sanskrit fragments are available. Of these, the Mula Sarvastivada Vinaya is the most extensive version, also available in Tibetan. The ABHIDHARMA PITAKA of the Sarvastivada, and the Shariputra Abhidharma, are preserved in Chinese translation; the second is probably of the Dharmaguptaka sect, with some Mahasanghika influence.

There are numerous commentaries on these texts, including the early works of BUDDHADATTA and BUDDHAGHOSHA. The Theravada that still survives today, developed additional texts.

Hindu calendar Several different calendars are used in Hinduism, both for astrological purposes and for calculating the dates of festivals. There is thus no single uniform calendar. The solar calendar is based on the Surya Siddhanta, a text from around CE 400. The rashi, which has its equivalent in the Western zodiac, is the basis of this calendar. The twelve rashis with their Western equivalents are: Mesha (Aries); Vrisha (Taurus); Mithuna (Gemini); Karkata (Cancer); Simha (Leo); Kanya (Virgo); Tula (Libra); Vrischika (Scorpio); Dhanus (Sagittarius); Makara (Capricorn); Kumbha (Aquarius); Mina (Pisces). However, these are not exactly the same as in the west. The solar year fluctuates slightly, by approximately six hours every year, which can affect the date on which the rashi begins. The twelve solar months correspond with the rashi divisions.

A lunar calendar is also used. The twelve lunar months are: Chaitra, Vaishakha, Jyaishtha, Ashadha, Shravana, Bhadrapada, Ashvina, Karttika, Margashirsha or Agrahayana, Pausha or Taisa, Magha, and Phalguna. The standardized lunar year begins in the third week of March, though there are other systems as well. Some lunar calendars are associated with the festival of HOLI, whereas several others begin in April. Another traditional calendar celebrates the day after DIVALI as the new year. Each lunar month consists of approximately 29½ solar days and is divided into thirty tithis or lunar days. The month has two halves of fifteen tithis each, related to the waxing and waning of the moon. The months have different names in various regions. There are also regional variations of the time that each month begins.

The year is divided into six seasons of two months each. These are Vasanta (spring), Grishma (summer), Varsha (monsoon), Sharad (autumn), Hemanta (winter) and Shishira (cool weather).

A seven-day week is used, adopted from the Greeks in the third century. The names of the days of the week in north India from Monday to Sunday are Somavara, Mangalavara, Budhavara, Brihaspativara, Shukravara, Shanivara and Ravivara. Each day is named after the sun, moon and planets, as in the West.

These calendars and their regional variants are used to calculate festival days, auspicious days for celebrating marriages and other events, as well as inauspicious times.

Hindu deities Hinduism has a number of deities, though all are considered aspects of the one God, or as emanations of BRAHMAN, the Absolute. The deities that are popular today have evolved over time. Terracotta female figurines have been found at settlements dating back to 4000 BCE or earlier. Some scholars believe that this suggests the prevalence of a mother goddess or fertility cult, though their actual significance is not clear. The INDUS CIVILIZATION, c. 2500 to 1800 BCE, has evidence of female figurines, a deity with a horned headdress seated in a Yogic position that has been variously identified, as well as possible evidence of the worship of certain animals and trees. The RIG VEDA, usually dated between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE, describes a number of deities of which the most important are INDRA and AGNI. In the later VEDAS these deities change and evolve. By the first century BCE, new deities emerged, which included aspects of the earlier Vedic gods. These gradually crystallized into three main groups of deities which remain popular today: those connected with the god SHIVA; with the god VISHNU; and with SHAKTI or MAHADEVI, the great goddess. BRAHMA, though the creator deity, has a position inferior to these. SMARTAS worship a group of five or six deities, cutting across different sects, and certain groups worship SURYA. All these deities are described at length in the PURANAS and in several other texts. There are also references to Vedic deities in the Puranas, though here they have an inferior position. In addition, there are regional deities, as well as regional variations of the main deities, apart from local and village deities and various minor deities, such as YAKSHAS, YAKSHIS, NAGAS and spirits. Deities are connected with caste groups, and each caste or sub-caste worships its own particular deity.

Hindu life, four stages of Traditionally, there are four stages to be followed in Hindu life, also known as the ASHRAMA DHARMAS.

Hinduism Hinduism, also referred to as Sanatana Dharma, is the religion of over 80 per cent of the population of India, and has a variety of beliefs and practices, with a certain underlying unity. Broadly, it exists at two levels, the philosophical and that of popular belief.

Hindu philosophy is highly complex and continues to draw inspiration from the six classic systems of SAMKHYA, VAISHESHIKA, VEDANTA, MIMAMSA, NYAYA and YOGA. Of these the most widespread today is Vedanta, particularly the ADVAITA Vedanta of SHANKARA, though other forms are also well known. Aspects of Samkhya philosophy underlie various philosophical systems. Yoga is popular, though more so in its practical form than in its philosophy.

Hinduism at the popular level has different aspects. Most commonly, a variety of deities are worshipped and propitiated. Along with this is an acceptance of certain basic concepts. These include a realization that though different gods might be worshipped, there is one reality, which can manifest itself in an infinite number of ways. The whole of creation, including the gods, emanates from this One. Other basic beliefs include reincarnation or transmigration of souls (punarjanama or avagamana); the concept of KARMA, or of the results of one’s actions; DHARMA, or right conduct and the way of life, and related to this the CASTE SYSTEM, which earlier provided everyone with a fixed role in life. ARTHA, or a ‘rational pursuit of economic and political goals’, as well as KAMA, a sexual life within prescribed limits, are considered part of the life of a householder, the second of the traditional four stages of life.

Finally, there is the ultimate goal of MOKSHA or liberation from the cycle of lives. Another aspect of popular Hinduism is reverence for a GURU or spiritual teacher, who may belong to the past or the present. The beliefs and practices of individuals are then based on those of the guru. Most gurus are those who have taken SANNYASA and many belong to one or the other of the various SADHU sects. As long as actual conversion is not demanded, the guru may even be non-Hindu in origin, such as NIRMALA DEVI or MEHR BABA, or may incorporate non-Hindu ideas. Hindus sometimes worship saints of other religions, including Muslim PIRS.

History: Hinduism has to be understood in the context of its history. It was not initially a well-defined religion, and the term itself was commonly used only from medieval times. Hindu, the Persianized form of Sindhu, the name of the river Indus, was used from about the eighth century to refer to the people who lived to the east of the river, i.e., in India. Later it was used to describe all those in India who did not consciously identify with any other religion.

Some of the aspects of Hinduism can be traced to Vedic or even pre-Vedic times. The history of the religion can be seen both through texts and through visual representations, in sculptures, coins, seals and temples.

Terracotta female images, dating to before 4000 BCE, are thought to be the first representations of a mother goddess or fertility deity, though some scholars question this. The INDUS CIVILIZATION, despite its undeciphered script, has representations on seals interpreted as male and female deities, considered by some scholars as proto-Hindu. The RIG VEDA, dated between 1500 and 1000 BCE, describes a number of deities, mainly personifications of nature, while the later VEDAS, dated between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, describe sacrifices to gain power and control. The CASTE SYSTEM also began to develop at this time. The UPANISHADS which form the last part of Vedic literature, contain philosophical ideas, while the epics, particularly the MAHABHARATA, include stories and legends of the gods.

In the sixth century BCE, new philosophies emerged, two of which, Buddhism and Jainism, later grew into important religions. The six classic systems of philosophy, referred to above, also developed. By the second century BCE, images in stone began to be made, and deities were represented on coins. Deities included representations of Buddhist, Jain, and Brahmanical (Hindu) images. Coins from around the second century BCE show that local kings in north India used the names of deities mentioned in the Vedas, such as INDRA, SURYA, BRAHMA, PRAJAPATI, BRIHASPATI, in their own names, indicating that Vedic deities were still worshipped. Between the second century BCE and the third century CE, images depict YAKSHAS, YAKSHIS, NAGAS and various Brahmanical deities, apart from Jain and Buddhist deities. Some Greek and Zoroastrian deities were also depicted on coins of the Indo-Greeks and other dynasties, non-Indian in origin. From the first century CE, deities such as SHIVA, VISHNU, VARAHA, VAMANA, KARTTIKEYA, GANESHA, GARUDA, KRISHNA, BALARAMA, LAKSHMI, PARVATI and DURGA become more common. The PURANAS, which incorporate extensive myths about these deities, were written down slightly later, but their worship was already widespread, as indicated from sculptural and other finds at excavated sites. The transition had thus been made from the Vedic deities, who now had an inferior position, to the deities still worshipped today.

The major Puranas, written in Sanskrit by BRAHMANAS, redefined Hinduism, incorporating popular myths and legends, and bringing local cults into the mainstream. Puranic writers attempted to build links between the new deities and the Vedic gods, though some of the connections were tenuous. The new gods and their images were described, along with rules for erecting them and setting up temples. Simultaneously the DHARMA SHASTRAS were written, laying down rules of conduct. While these developments were taking place in north India, there were certain differences in the south and east. By this time north Indian deities were prominent in the south, though local gods remained popular. Northern myths were modified to suit southern traditions, and northern gods were given southern names. The MANIMEKHALAI, a Tamil text dated between the second and sixth centuries CE, describes the philosophies and sects present in the Tamil country at that time. These included Buddhism, Jainism, Mimamsa, Vaisheshika, Vedism, VAISHNAVISM, SHAIVISM, the AJIVIKAS and materialists. Slightly later, XUANZANG, the Chinese pilgrim who visited India in the seventh century, states that in Harsha’s kingdom in northern India, apart from Buddhism, the three main Brahmanical deities worshipped were Aditya or Surya, Shiva and Vishnu. He also mentions the KAPALIKAS, Bhutas, Jutikas and followers of the Samkhya and Vaisheshika sects. Bana, writing around the same period, adds that the followers of KAPILA, KANADA and of the Upanishads (Vedanta) were present in the region.

By the seventh century, the two main sects of Vaishnavism and Shaivism in the south propagated BHAKTI, or loving devotion to god, through the ALVARA and NAYANAR saints. In the ninth century SHANKARA, later known as Adi Shankaracharya, established Hindu MATHAS or religious centres, and spread the message of Advaita, providing unifying institutions and a unifying philosophy that forms the basis of Hinduism today. RAMANUJA, MADHVA and others responded with different interpretations of Vedanta. Meanwhile the bhakti movement spread to Maharashtra, focusing on the worship of Vishnu, and from the fourteenth century prominent bhakti saints appeared in the north, many worshipping Krishna or Rama, while others worshipped the formless lord (nirguna bhakti). SUFI saints and the emergence of SIKHISM in the fifteenth century also influenced Hinduism.

A parallel development from around the eighth century was of TANTRISM, particularly in east India, and the corresponding importance given to SHAKTI, or female power.

Till the nineteenth century the term ‘Hindu’ was used mainly by those belonging to other religions. Hindus referred to themselves in terms of their caste or as adherents of Vaishnavism, Shaivism or other sects and deities. The attempt at self-identification was largely a response to Western stimuli. Reform movements such as the BRAHMO SAMAJ and ARYA SAMAJ emerged, while VIVEKANANDA, a follower of RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHANSA and founder of the RAMAKRISHNA MISSION, gave speeches on Hinduism in the West. Leaders of the THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, particularly Annie BESANT, saw everything good in Eastern religions, and promoted Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism. These movements provided Hindus with a consciousness of their own identity, and there was an attempt to emphasize the common aspects of different sects and deities. Sri AUROBINDO, another great philosopher, commented on Hindu texts and ideas, but in later years, clearly stated that his philosophy was beyond all sectarian beliefs.

The politics of the first half of the twentieth century and the partition of India in 1947, led to a heightened consciousness of being ‘Hindu’. Mahatma GANDHI, leader of the freedom movement, emphasized his identity as a Hindu but put forward his own broad concept of what being a Hindu meant. Among other things, he believed that a Hindu must serve and help those of other religions. After Independence, Hindu organizations made an attempt to give all groups a Hindu identity and to include DALITS and tribals in the Hindu fold. The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), founded in 1925, and the Hindu Mahasabha (founded 1915), were among the early organizations promoting Hindu unity. The Vishwa Hindu Parishad (1964) and Bajrang Dal (1984) carried this process further. The earlier Arya Samaj also continued its attempts to provide a Hindu identity. Political parties with a Hindu ideology included the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951) and later the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP, founded 1980), which used Rama as both a cultural hero and a divine figure, and a symbol of the new India.

Today, though there are new Vedantic movements and innumerable gurus, the average Hindu has a limited knowledge of the intricacies of Hindu philosophy. There is instead a revival of rituals and worship fuelled by popular media. The caste system still exists, though dharma or right conduct based on caste is beginning to change, leading to conflicts between the old and the new.

Despite the politically motivated rhetoric of some Hindu groups, most Hindus are in favour of a pluralistic and tolerant society, worshipping whichever deity appeals to them and following various gurus and sects. Hinduism remains a vast, complex and diverse religion that is not easy to define.

Key features: Some of the key features of the religion, apart from the underlying concepts of worship, dharma, karma, reincarnation and the caste system, are that the religion has no founder, no single canon and no supreme authority. It includes both high philosophy and simple worship of a deity.

Hindutva A popular term that is used in different ways. Though the term was used earlier, the concept was clearly explained by V.D. Savarkar in his book Hindutva: Who is a Hindu?, first published in 1923. To him Hindutva was the culture of Hindus, of those who lived in India or Hindustan and whose first allegiance was to the country of India. He connected Hindutva with Hindu customs and festivals, the ARYANS and their descendents, and the Sanskrit language. He believed that Muslims and Christians in India were originally Hindus, and thus could return to the fold.

In general Hindutva has been used as a synonym for the Hindu way of life, presupposing an underlying cultural unity in Hinduism despite divergent beliefs and sects.

Recently, attempts have been made to give the term a wider meaning, and to see it as a synonym for Indianness or Bharatiyata. A Supreme Court judgment of 1996, now usually quoted as a definition, states that Hindutva indicates ‘a way of life of the Indian people’. The Bharatiya Janata Party, a political party that promotes Hinduism, states: ‘Hindutva is not a religious or exclusivist concept. It is inclusive, integrative, and abhors any kind of discrimination against any section of the people of India on the basis of their faith.’ However, since the term is derived from the word ‘Hindu’ and is related to the Hindu cultural ethos, its use continues to have Hindu, rather than Indian, connotations.

Hira Vijaya Suri A prominent Jain of the sixteenth century who was invited by the Mughal emperor AKBAR to Fatehpur Sikri to hold discussions on Jainism. Hira Vijaya Suri, who reached the court of the emperor in 1582, was the head of the Tapa GACHCHHA. According to a Jain inscription at Palitana, dating from 1582–83, Akbar was persuaded to issue an edict forbidding the slaughter of animals for six months, abolishing certain taxes, releasing many captives, snared birds and animals, and presenting the sacred place SHATRUNJAYA to the Jains. A farman or edict of 1584 ordered officials not to allow the killing of animals for the twelve days of the PARYUSHAN festival wherever Jains were settled. Jain sources state that Hira Vijaya was given the title ‘Jagad Guru’ or ‘world preceptor’ by Akbar. He left Akbar’s court in 1585, but other Jains of the Tapa Gachchha, including Shanti Chandra and later Bhanu Chandra, remained at Akbar’s court. Vijayasen Suri, successor of Hira Vijaya Suri, was later invited to the court. Jains of the Kharatara Gachchha, particularly JINACHANDRA SURI, also influenced Akbar. Akbar was personally against killing animals, and therefore acceded to Jain requests concerning the slaughter of animals.

Hiranyagarbha A Hindu deity first mentioned in the RIG VEDA, identified with PRAJAJPATI, and in later texts with BRAHMA. Hiranyagarbha means the golden womb, and is the cosmic womb from which all life originates. Hiranyagarbha is also identified with BRAHMAN, the ultimate reality.

Hiranyakashipu A DAITYA, the son of DITI and KASHYAPA. He had received a boon from the god SHIVA, of sovereignty of the three worlds. He hated the Hindu god VISHNU, who had defeated and killed his brother, HIRANYAKSHA. However, Hiranyakashipu’s son PRAHLADA was devoted to Vishnu. Finally Hiranyakashipu was killed by Vishnu in his form of NARASIMHA.

Hiranyaksha A DAITYA, the son of DITI and KASHYAPA. He was the elder brother of HIRANYAKASHIPU, and attained great power. The residents of the three worlds feared him because he oppressed them all. He besieged heaven, and all the DEVAS ran away from him. He then dragged the earth under the ocean. Finally he was defeated and killed by VISHNU in the form of VARAHA.

Hitopadesha A Sanskrit text consisting of ethical and moral stories, based on the earlier PANCHATANTRA. The Hitopadesha dates to between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.

Hoi A Hindu festival known as Hoi Ashtami, celebrated on the eighth day of the fortnight before DIVALI. On this day the goddess Hoi Mata is worshipped, particularly by women who desire children, or have received them through her blessing.

Hola Mohalla A Sikh festival that commemorates the martial glory of the KHALSA, which was founded by Guru GOBIND SINGH. The festival is celebrated one day after HOLI, and at this time Sikhs dressed in martial clothes re-enact historic battles. Celebrations take place at several places associated with Sikh history, particularly at ANANDPUR SAHIB, where the KHALSA was first created.

Holi A Hindu festival celebrated on the full moon day of the month of Phalguna (February–March). It is a spring and harvest festival especially popular in north India and is celebrated on two days, the first by lighting bonfires and the second by throwing coloured water and dry powdered colour on one another. According to some astrological calculations, the Hindu new year starts two days after the Holi fire is lit.

Several legends are associated with the festival, the most popular being that of Holika. Holika was the sister of HIRANYAKASHIPU, whose son PRAHLADA was devoted to VISHNU. She joined her brother in trying to kill Prahlada because of this devotion. She took Prahlada on her lap and entered a fire, believing she was beyond harm, but she was consumed by the fire, whereas Prahlada emerged unharmed. Thus, the night before Holi, fires are lit, symbolizing the burning of Holika and the triumph of good over evil.

Another legend links Holi with the defeat of KAMA, the god of love, by SHIVA, while according to one story it is a celebration of the marriage of Shiva and PARVATI.

The festival has a special significance in MATHURA, where Holi is celebrated for several days and is associated with the god KRISHNA. According to local tradition, Krishna used to throw spring flowers of different colours on the GOPIS, and thus the practice of throwing coloured water on one another began. In this area, ‘Lath Mar’ Holi is also celebrated, where women attempt to hit men with sticks, thus establishing their dominance for at least one day in the year. In Barmer in Rajasthan, groups throw stones at one another, and in Meera Ghat in Varanasi they attack one another with sticks. Wrestling and boxing matches also take place.

In rural areas Holi remains linked with the harvest. The harvested sheaves are roasted and offered to deities. In some regions, Holi dances are performed.

Special delicacies are made on Holi. Malpua, a sweet of bread and sugar syrup, gujiya, another sweet, and papri, made of corn flour, are popular in north India. In Maharashtra, puranpori, a kind of flat bread stuffed with sweet lentils, is common, and in Gujarat, flat millet bread. Traditionally bhang, an intoxicant, is also used, leading at times to wild behaviour. Holi is thus not only a spring festival, heralding spring with colour and song, but a time when conventions are broken in a spirit of freedom.

homa/haoma A term in the AVESTA, the Zoroastrian texts, for a sacred juice used in rituals, known in Sanskrit as SOMA. The use of homa pre-dates ZARATHUSHTRA, who seems to have been against it. Vivanghvant, the father of YIMA, is said to have worshipped homa, and in later texts, four types of homa are described. They are: Homa Duraoshi, which keeps death afar; Homa Zairi, or golden homa; Homa Frashmi, the renewer; Homa Khvarenangha, or homa with kingly glory. Several scholars have identified homa or soma with the juice of the ephedra plant.

Home Church/House Church A PROTESTANT Christian movement that has taken root in India and consists of spreading Christianity through small, local, unobtrusive ‘home churches’. Any Christian can open their home for discussions and prayers among friends and family, thus forming a ‘home church’. The movement has gained considerable popularity, particularly in Kerala, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. The Home Church programme also exists in other countries. It is thought that early Christians in India had a similar method of worship.

Hormazd A later term for AHURA MAZDA, the name of God in Zoroastrianism.

horses, sacred Horses were associated with deities in India since early times.

The VEDAS have several references to horses, both associated with the gods and with rituals, probably because the Vedic people used the horse extensively. Horses usually draw the chariots of the gods and the horse seems to represent the sun’s rays, fire and knowledge. Among the Vedic deities, the ASHVINS are closely associated with horses, while the KINNARAS have human heads with horse’s bodies. Mythical or semi-mythical horses mentioned in the RIG VEDA include DADHIKRA, TARKSHYA and Paidva, a white horse. Etasha, meaning swift, is the name of a horse who draws the chariot of SURYA, the sun god. The horse is also symbolic of AGNI, the sacrificial fire. The rishi DADHYANCH’s head was replaced by that of a horse, and in later texts HAYAGRIVA, an incarnation of VISHNU, had his head replaced by that of a horse. UCHCHHAISHRAVAS, the king of horses, appeared at the churning of the ocean for AMRITA.

The ASHVAMEDHA, or horse sacrifice, was conducted as a mark of kingly power. Horses were associated with warriors and revered, possibly for their role in battle. Guardian deities such as AYYANAR ride on horses and are usually depicted on a horse. In some areas, terracotta horses are offered annually at ancestor shrines.

Horses have a role in several other ancient and medieval cultures. In Europe, wooden horse heads were carved on house-gables for protection. Horses also occur in Greek, Roman and other myths.

hotr One of the four main priests who officiate at Vedic sacrifices and ceremonies, described in the SHRAUTA SUTRAS and other texts.

Hoysaleshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA constructed in the twelfth century, located at HALEBID in Karnataka. It was built at the time of the Hoysala rulers Vishnuvardhana and Narasimha, and is in the typical style of Hoysala temples. There are two identical structures, each with an inner shrine and a columned MANDAPA. The two mandapas are linked, forming a large space. The temple is raised on a high plinth, carved with rows of elephants, horses, lions, geese and makaras, as well as MAHABHARATA and RAMAYANA scenes. The sculptures on the outer walls include BRAHMA seated on a goose, a dancing SHIVA, and KRISHNA raising the mountain GOVARDHANA. In front of each mandapa is a NANDI image in a detached pavilion. Guardian deities flank the doorways.

Hujwiri A SUFI saint. See Abul Hasan al-Hujwiri.

hukam-nama A term for a Sikh edict, a command or request to the community or to a particular person. Hukam-namas were issued by the Sikh gurus, and those of the later gurus have been preserved. These provide information on spiritual questions, apart from being useful historical sources. Hukam-namas are still issued by Sikh religious authorities.

humata A term in the AVESTA language of Zoroastrianism that means ‘good thoughts’. The basic motto of the religion is: ‘Humata, huvakta, huvarashta’, or ‘Good thoughts, good words, good deeds’. In the later Pahlavi, the words are ‘Manashni, gavashni, kunashni’.

Hume, Allan Octavian A Theosophist who was one of the founders of the Indian National Congress.

Born in 1829, Hume was an Englishman who joined the Indian Civil Service in 1849 and retired in 1882.

As a Theosophist, he claimed that he was in touch with a secret sect of mahatmas, or spiritual masters, and SANNYASIS, who told him that a revolt on a large scale was imminent in India unless the Indians were given an outlet to express their problems and demands. He said he had met Master KUTHUMI of the Theosophical hierarchy, and urged Lord Dufferin, the then viceroy, to meet him as well. Though Dufferin might not have met Kuthumi, he was persuaded by Hume to allow the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885, to provide a forum of expression for educated Indians. Hume’s role in founding the Congress is recognized, but his reasons for it and the alleged role of the secret masters have largely been forgotten.

Hume died in 1912.

Husain ibn Ali The grandson of the Prophet MUHAMMAD. Born in 626, he was the second son of Ali ibn Abi Talim and Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad. The SHIAS considered him and his elder brother Hasan as the successors of Ali in the leadership of the community. Ali’s son Hasan was chosen as his successor but abdicated when opposed by Muawiya, the governor of Syria. Husain fought against Muawiya, and at a great battle at Karbala in Iraq, was defeated and killed. This took place on the tenth day (ASHURA) of the month of MUHARRAM in 680, since then observed as a day of mourning.

hvare kshaeta A term for the sun in the Zoroastrian GATHAS. The Gathas state that the light of the sun is precious in the eyes of the good mind (Yasna 50.10) and that the sun symbolizes truth and wisdom. The implication here is similar to statements made in the UPANISHADS. The later term for the sun, personified as a YAZATA, was Khorshed or Khursheed.