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ibadat A term in Islam indicating God’s commands regarding the basic duties of a Muslim. These include prayer, fasting, charity and HAJ or pilgrimage.

Ibadat Khana The name of a hall set up in 1575 by the Mughal emperor AKBAR (ruled 1556–1605) at Fatehpur Sikri for discussing aspects of religion. Initially only Muslims, particularly SUNNIS, were invited for these religious debates. Mulla Abdul Qadir Badauni, a Sunni who had joined Akbar’s court in 1574, was among the first to be invited to the Ibadat Khana, along with ABUL FAZL. Both had been trained by Shaikh Mubarak, Abul Fazl’s father. Early discussions included criticisms of the ULAMA of the court.

In 1577 Akbar had a mystical experience while on a hunting expedition, and on his return showed an interest in all religions. Representatives of Shias, Christians, Hindus, Jains and Zoroastrians all joined in debates and discussions at the Ibadat Khana. Akbar now believed that all religions contained divine truths, and thus founded his own method of worship, the DIN-I ILAHI or Tauhid-i Ilahi.

Iblis A term for a devil in Islam. Iblis was once an angel or a JINN, but refused to obey ALLAH when he was asked to bow down to Adam, though all the other angels did so. According to the QURAN, Allah then said, ‘What prevented thee from prostrating when I commanded thee?’ He replied, ‘I am better than he; Thou didst create me from fire and him from clay.’ (7.12–13). Then Allah cast him out of heaven. Iblis gained the power to lead unbelievers astray.

Some of the SUFI saints see Iblis in a different light, as one who loved God exceedingly and therefore would not bow down before Adam. For instance, Ainul Quzat, the Sufi saint martyred at Baghdad in 1098, wrote in the Tamhidat: ‘That mad lover whom you call Iblis in this world—do you not know by what name he is called in the divine world? If you know his name, by calling him by that name you know yourself an unbeliever… This mad one loved God.’ (Trans. A.J. Arberry)

Ibn al-Arabi Muhyiuddin A SUFI saint who put forward the doctrine of WAHDAT AL-WUJUD. Though he was not the first to describe the unity of God, he clarified this concept, and all future followers of this doctrine based their ideas on his works.

Born in 1165 at Murcia in the south-east of Spain, al-Arabi belonged to the Arab tribe of Tai. After a mystical vision, he became a Sufi and studied under several shaikhs and at the same time claimed that the truth was revealed to him by divine inspiration. He wrote a number of works and composed mystical poetry. Much of his philosophy is summarized in Al-Futuhat al-Makkiya (Meccan Discourses) and Fusus al-Hikam (Gems of Wisdom). To Ibn al-Arabi, the whole world is a manifestation of the divine. Thus all religions, irrespective of how they worship the Absolute, are identical. People who strive for true knowledge cannot reject other religions. Al-Arabi said that idol worship or polytheism is not wrong, as long as there is a recognition that it is a form or aspect of God, and that through it only the Absolute, or the One God, is being worshipped.

His ideas thus marked a turning point in Islamic philosophy. He died in 1240 at Damascus where he had settled, and his grave is still worshipped.

Ibn Sina An Islamic philosopher and physician who lived from 980 to 1037. He is also known as AVICENNA.

Ibrahim The Islamic name of Abraham of the BIBLE. According to the QURAN, he was one of the six prophets to whom ALLAH conveyed his special laws. Islamic tradition holds that he rebuilt the KABA and started the HAJ.

I-Ching/I-Tsing A Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who came to India in the seventh century and visited several Buddhist sites. He studied HINAYANA and MAHAYANA Buddhism at NALANDA. After spending twenty years in India he returned to China in 695, carrying with him more than 400 Mahayana texts. He is said to have translated fifty-six texts into Chinese.

Id A term in Islam which indicates a festival or festivity. It is said to be derived from the Arabic word ood or oud, meaning ‘return’ or ‘coming again’ because it returns every year.

Ida (1) A deity, also known as ILA.

(2) A passage of energy in the human body. The Ida Nadi is to the left of the SUSHUMNA, the central channel through which the KUNDALINI is said to rise.

Id-i-Milad A Muslim festival (also known as Bara Wafat or Milad-ul Nabi) that commemorates the birthday of the Prophet MUHAMMAD. It is the twelfth day of the month of Rabi-ul-awwal, when the Prophet was born. On this day prayers are offered and Milad-Sharif, or accounts of the Prophet’s life, are recited. There are different versions of these in a mix of prose and verse, and the verse sections are usually sung in chorus. Sweets are distributed and the poor are fed.

Id-ul-Azha or Zuha A term for a Muslim festival, more commonly known in India as BAKR-ID, celebrated on the tenth day of the month of Zilhajja. Azha or Zuha comes from the word UZHAIYYA or sacrifice.

Id-ul-Fitr A special festival for Muslims that takes pace on the first day of the month of Shawwal, the tenth month in the ISLAMIC CALENDAR, when the fast of the month of RAMZAN ends. Fitr is a donation that is made on the breaking of the fast. On this day Muslims visit mosques to attend the Id prayers, wear new clothes, eat special food, and greet their neighbours and friends. Before the prayers, a donation of a certain amount of cereal is distributed to the poor. It is a day to recollect the spiritual benefits of abstinence during the fast, as well as a day of celebration and thanksgiving.

Traditionally, on the day of Id or one day before, sugar, milk, dry and fresh fruits, sweets and a gift of money are sent by brothers to their sisters, and by parents to their married daughters. Children receive ‘Idi’ or a small amount of money, which they can spend as they like.

iftar A term in Islam for the breaking of the fast every evening in the month of RAMZAN. Muslims fast from dawn and in the evening after sunset a siren or a gun shot indicates the time to end the fast for the day. The fast is broken with a few dates or other items, followed by the evening prayers and then the main meal.

ijma A term in Islamic law for consensus. Different interpretations of Islamic law are possible and therefore agreement is sought on various issues. Initially a consensus of the whole community was required, but later agreement among certain learned groups was sufficient. Ijma is one of the four main sources of SHARIA or Islamic law.

ijtihad A term in Islamic law that literally means ‘exertion’ but has been explained as ‘the exertion of mental energy for a legal opinion to the extent that the faculties of the jurists become incapable of further effort’. It implies using reasoning by analogy (qiyas) and informed opinion (ra’y) on questions of law not dealt with in the QURAN and SUNNAH. Initially, any individual could attempt this, but later only the mujtahid (experts in law) could do so. Their consensus or IJMA on these issues became law. According to several modern scholars, by the tenth century the four orthodox schools of SUNNI law declared that ijtihad was completed and should not be modified. Instead there was to be taqlid, or emulation, implying following what was already laid down, and therefore Sunni law was unchangeable from this time. Other scholars, including W.B. Hallaq and Muzaffar Alam, believe that in India ijtihad was not closed and that the four schools of Sunni jurisprudence continued to develop even in the Mughal period and later. In the early twentieth century, however, Muhammad IQBAL called for a reopening of ijtihad, indicating that at this time it was generally considered closed. Muzaffar Alam points out that it was colonial rule, not only in India but in other parts of the Islamic world, that led to rigid and stereotyped views of Islam.

Certain modern groups, including both moderates and fundamentalists, favour the reopening of ijtihad—the moderates in order to reinterpret laws in the light of changing times, and the fundamentalists to remove innovations that they consider incorrect.

As for SHIAS, mujtahids were allowed to continue ijtihad.

Ikshvaku A legendary king who ruled at AYODHYA in very ancient days. He was the son of MANU VAIVASVATA and the founder of the Suryavamshi or solar dynasties.

Ila/Ida (1) A goddess, mentioned in the RIG VEDA. The name means nourishment and Ila was the personification of the offering of milk and butter, which represents the nourishment provided by the cow. In the Rig Veda, she is called butter-footed and butter-handed, and AGNI is once said to be her son. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, she is the daughter of MANU or of MITRA-VARUNA. According to the Taittiriya Samhita, Manu sent her to see whether the sacrifice of the DEVAS and ASURAS had been conducted properly. She said their sacrifice was incorrect and described the correct way, as a result of which the devas attained prosperity. Through Ila, Manu gave birth to the human race.

(2) In later texts, Ila is a mythical person, both a woman and a man. She is described as the daughter of Manu Vaivasvata by his wife Shraddha. IKSHVAKU was her brother. According to the BHAGAVATA PURANA, Manu performed a sacrifice in order to get a son, but instead, Ila was born. He complained to the rishi VASISHTHA, who turned Ila into a boy named Sudyumna. By a curse of SHIVA he was again turned into a woman. The woman Ila met BUDHA (Mercury) and the two fell in love, married, and had a son named PURURAVA. However, Ila was not happy as a woman, and by the intervention of Vasishtha, Shiva agreed that she could be a man in alternate months. As Sudyumna, she was later taught by the rishi NARADA and attained salvation by worshipping the Hindu goddess DEVI.

(3) Ila was the daughter of the god VAYU, and married to DHRUVA. She had a son named Utkala.

Ilm-e-Khshnoom The ‘Science of Spiritual Bliss’, an esoteric Zoroastrian school founded by Behramshah Navroz SHROFF (1857–1927). Behramshah claimed that he was taught the hidden truths of Zoroastrianism during his youth in a secret paradise that he visited, though he began to reveal these truths only in 1907–08. Later, Framroze Chiniwalla was authorized by Shroff to present the teachings. The Ilm-e-Khshnoom has an extensive literature that seeks to understand and explain the hidden meaning behind Zoroastrian stories and rituals. It has two main parts, the first presenting the principles and the second dealing with esoteric aspects. For instance, it states that the marriage of ZARATHUSHTRA represents only a mystical union with the divine, and his six children represent the AMESHA SPENTAS or powers of God. It divides the world into Hasti, the divine creation, and Nisti, the sphere of non-physical energies. Every word in the AVESTA is said to be a powerhouse of spiritual energy. The sect also believes in the observation of all ancient rituals. The three standard advanced textbooks of Khshnoom are known as Nikeez volumes and include interpretations of the prayers, YASHTS, GATHAS and other texts. The Khshnoom presents the mystical side of the religion and has a limited following among PARSIS in India.

imam A title for Muslim religious leaders, used in different ways. Imam is a title for those who lead the prayers in mosques. In the QURAN, it refers to IBRAHIM and other religious leaders. Later it referred to the spiritual successors of the Prophet MUHAMMAD, and SUNNIS used it as synonymous with Caliph or Khalif. They acknowledge the first four Sunni Caliphs and the four founders of the orthodox schools of law as imams. Different SHIA sects recognize various imams. The ISNA ASHARI Shias follow twelve imams, of whom the twelfth is the hidden imam who will reappear as the MAHDI. The Zaidis believe that the fifth imam was Zaid ibn Ali (d. 740) and are his followers. The ISMAILIS take Ismail (d. 760) as the true seventh imam.

Imambara, Great A huge vaulted structure located at Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh, constructed in 1784 by Nawab Asaf-ud Daula and dedicated to three early IMAMS: Ali, Hasan and HUSAIN. It is also known as the Bara Imambara or Asafi Imambara. The structure has a length of 50 m and a height of 15 m, the entrance being through a square gateway. To the west is the Asafi mosque, with two minarets, while an outer staircase leads to a series of labyrinths. The central hall is said to be the largest vaulted chamber in the world.

iman An Islamic term for faith. There are SIX PRINCIPLES OF ISLAMIC FAITH, which are considered essential. These are belief in ALLAH, the angels, the prophets, the QURAN, the day of judgment and the Divine Decree.

Inayat Khan, Hazrat A SUFI saint. Inayat Khan was born in Vadodara (Baroda) in 1882 in an atmosphere of spirituality and music. His father was Mashaik Rahmat Khan, while his mother, Begam Khadija, was from a landed family of Mysore. His grandfather, Maula Baksh, was the court musician of the maharaja of Baroda, and had founded a music institution known as Gayana Shala. From his father’s side, Inayat was the descendent of a Muslim saint or PIR known as Jammashah.

Inayat studied music at the Gayana Shala and became a great singer. He also played the Sarasvati vina and performed and sang at the courts of various rulers in India. He became a disciple of the Sufi saint Syed Abu Hashim Madani of Hyderabad and was initiated into the CHISTI and QALANDAR orders by him.

In 1910, at the age of twenty-eight, he travelled abroad along with his brothers, who were also singers and musicians and performed Hindustani and Karnatak music at concerts all over Europe and America. Inayat also founded the Sufi Movement, preached on SUFISM and had a large number of followers. He returned to India in 1926 and died the following year in New Delhi. His speeches were later collected and published in twenty-four volumes. His brothers and other disciples continued the Sufi Movement that he had founded. The Hazrat Inayat Khan Memorial Trust was founded to spread his message and take care of his DARGAH.

Hazrat Inayat spoke on a variety of different topics, explaining the inner meaning of myths, symbols and concepts in all religions. His underlying theme is of love, unity and divine knowledge.

Indo-Aryan languages A term for a group of languages spoken in India which have developed from Sanskrit, the language of the RIG VEDA. Regional and colloquial variants began to develop from early times and included PALI and various Prakrit languages, including Ardha Magadhi, Maharashtri and other variants. Languages of this group today include Hindi and its dialects including Hindustani, Rajasthani, Avadhi, Bagheli, Chhattisgarhi and Bihari, as well as Garhwali, Kumaoni and other hill dialects; Punjabi, Sindhi, Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, Oriya, Bengali and Assamese. All these languages have local variants.

Kashmiri is also considered Indo-Aryan. Some believe it is derived from Dardic and not Sanskrit, but Dardic is also usually thought to be a branch of Indo-Aryan. Indo-Aryan is related to INDO-IRANIAN and INDO-EUROPEAN languages.

Indo-European languages A term used for a group of languages which are today spread across Asia and Europe, and which are presumed to have originated from one language, termed Proto-Indo-European. The spread of the language has been related to the migration of people at an uncertain date in the distant past. Various dates have been suggested for the possible spread of Proto Indo-European in parts of Europe and the Middle East, including 6000 BCE, 4000 BCE, or even earlier. The diffusion into Iran and India is thought to have been later. The languages which are derived from Indo-European have been identified as: Germanic languages, including English, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic; Romanic languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian and Greek; Balto-Slavic languages, including Russian, Polish, Ukranian, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian; INDO-IRANIAN languages, including Persian and Sanskrit, and their derivatives. Armenian and Albanian are sometimes included in the latter group. Welsh, Irish and extinct Anatolian, Illyrian and Tocharian language groups are also part of the Indo-European family.

Several Indo-European groups have some common religious practices, such as the worship of sky and earth deities, deities associated with nature, and fire sacrifices. There are also similarities in myths. William JONES was one of the first to point out similarities in the languages, while G. Dumezil (1898–1986) was among those who revealed some of the common aspects of the various Indo-European groups and developed the TRIPARTITE IDEOLOGY.

Indo-Iranian language A term used for a language derived from INDO-EUROPEAN, from which both Iranian and INDO-ARYAN languages are thought to have developed. The close similarities between the languages of the GATHAS and of the RIG VEDA, as well as similarities between RIG VEDIC DEITIES and YAZATAS or Zoroastrian deities, have led scholars to presume that Iranians and Indo-Aryans were once a united people with a common homeland. The inverted use of some words, such as DAEVAS for demons in AVESTA (whereas DEVA is a god in the Rig Veda), and AHURA for god (whereas ASURA is a demon in later Hinduism), have led some scholars to believe there was an early conflict between the two groups, while others point out that there are more similarities than differences. Recent research on the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, extending from Margiana in southern Turkmenistan to Afghanistan and Baluchistan, suggests that this region may have been the early homeland.

Indra A Hindu deity. The most important deity in the RIG VEDA, Indra is described in this text as the god of thunder who conquers the demons of drought and darkness, bringing water and light. He is also the god of wars and battles, and is the dominant deity of the middle region, pervading the air. His weapon is the VAJRA or thunderbolt, which is golden and metallic. He is married to INDRANI, though sometimes other female consorts are mentioned. He is associated with the MARUTS and loves drinking SOMA. He is the slayer of the chief of dragons, VRITRA, who was obstructing the waters, and is also known as Purandara or ‘breaker of forts’. He was the friend and defender of his worshippers. He had a female dog named SARAMA who helped him in one of his battles. In the MAHABHARATA, he is the father of ARJUNA, the third of the PANDAVA brothers.

In later texts, he became secondary to BRAHMA, VISHNU and SHIVA, and is one of the DIKAPALAS, the guardian of the eastern quarter. In the PURANAS, he is the eldest of the thirty-three sons of KASHYAPA and ADITI. There are several other stories about him, including one in which he lost a challenge to KRISHNA. He appears in a secondary position in Buddhist and Jain myths and sculptures.

Indra’s mount is the white elephant AIRAVATA and his horse is UCHCHAISHRAVAS. His consort is also known as Shachi or Pulomaja. His city is AMARAVATI and his mansion is known as Vaijayanta. The trees in his heaven include Mandara, PARIJATA, Santana, Kalpavriksha and Harichandana. In images he is depicted holding a vajra and riding his elephant, or in scenes with other deities.

In the AVESTA, his name occurs twice as that of a demon, but also as the deity VERETHRAGHNA.

Indrani A Hindu deity, the wife of INDRA. She is mentioned in the RIG VEDA and the BRAHMANAS. In the PURANAS, she is the daughter of the DAITYA Puloma. She is worshipped as one of the MATRIKAS or mothers.

Indraprastha An ancient city that has been identified with a portion of modern DELHI. In the MAHABHARATA, it was the capital of the PANDAVAS. Settlements here have been dated from c. 1000 BCE to medieval times.

Indus Civilization, religion of An urban civilization that existed in the region of the river Indus and its tributaries, the river SARASVATI, and areas further south. It is also called the Indus Valley Civilization, Indus–Sarasvati Civilization and the Harappan Civilization, and can be dated between 2500 and 1800 BCE. The largest civilization of the contemporary ancient world, it covered an area of 12,99,600 sq. km, stretching from Baluchistan, Punjab and Sind in present-day Pakistan, and across Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, DELHI and Gujarat in India. The civilization had planned cities, brick-built houses and an elaborate drainage system. Among the major cities were Mohenjodaro and Harappa (now part of Pakistan), Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Dholavira and Lothal in Gujarat.

As its script has not been satisfactorily deciphered, most of the evidence for its religion comes from numerous stone or steatite seals. In addition, there are flat copper tablets, as well as figures depicted in bronze and stone, and a number of terracotta human and animal figurines. There are also certain unique architectural structures. On the basis of these, scholars have formed tentative and varying conclusions about the nature of the religion of the civilization. Some of the key features are given below.

(1) Horned deity: Some seals and copper tablets of the Indus Civilization depict a horned person, usually identified as a deity. The most famous of these depictions is a seal with a figure wearing a horned headdress, seated in a yogic posture. On this seal he appears to be ithyphallic and possibly three-faced. It is not clear if the faces are human or animal. Under his seat are two goats or deer, and around him are a rhinoceros, a buffalo, a tiger and an elephant. Marshall, who first excavated Mohenjodaro, labelled this as a deity, a proto or early form of SHIVA. However, the identification of the deity with Shiva-Pashupati, the lord of animals, has been questioned, as Pashupati was the guardian of domestic animals and was not associated with wild animals. Others identified him with the Vedic AGNI or RUDRA. Shubhangana Atre, using in addition other seals with a similar deity, interpreted this as a form of the goddess Diana. Jains identify this deity with an early Jain TIRTHANKARA.

The deity shows a remarkable similarity to the early Celtic god Cernnunos, particularly to an image found on a cauldron at Gundestrup in Denmark, dated between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE (In New Age revivalism, Cernnunos is worshipped as the god of Wicca or witches, along with Diana as the goddess.)

In later times there were other horned deities in India, including tribal deities, NAIGAMESHA, a Jain deity, and several more. There are horned and forest deities in other parts of the ancient world as well.

(2) Mother goddess: Female figurines in terracotta, found at several sites, are thought to represent worship of a mother goddess, though this has been questioned. More questionable is the identification of ‘ring stones’ of various sizes with the YONI, or feminine emblem.

(3) Male images: Sculptures of men have been found at Mohenjodaro and lately at Dholavira in Gujarat, and a stone bust of an imposing bearded man is well known, though it is not clear if this was a deity or an important person. He has been thought by some to represent a priest-king. There are also phallic objects, sometimes identified as early LINGAS.

(3) Animals: There are numerous animal terracotta figurines, and animals are also depicted on seals. The terracotta figures include domestic animals and are generally thought to have been toys. On seals, the humped bull is the only domestic animal depicted, the rest being wild animals, including elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, buffalo, deer and antelope, a one-horned animal like a unicorn, as well as crocodiles and fish. In some seals, a bull or a unicorn is shown in front of an altar or incense brazier. There are also birds and hybrid half-human and animal figures.

(4) Trees: Trees are depicted, particularly pipal trees and leaves. Some seals have figures in trees, including a horned figure, who may be tree deities; tree worship could have taken place.

(5) Other: A tank-like structure at Mohenjodaro, commonly called the Great Bath, was possibly used for ritual bathing; fire pits found at Kalibangan are thought to suggest fire sacrifices.

Without the help of a written script, analyses of the religion of this civilization are many and varied. Some see in it proto-Hinduism; others identify the culture with that of the RIG VEDA, or with an indigenous Dravidian culture later displaced by the Vedic. Still others see elements of Shamanism, animism, or folk religions. No definite conclusions can be reached at present.

Inquisition The term for a Roman Catholic tribunal, to discover and punish heresy, that was set up in several parts of the world in medieval days. The Portuguese introduced the Inquisition in GOA in western India in 1560. King John III had earlier set it up in Portugal to prevent the REFORMATION and the ideas of Calvin and Luther from taking hold. In Goa the Inquisition aimed to eliminate ‘superstitious’ beliefs and idol worship. It was suspended in 1774 but revived in 1779, though not with the same fervour, and was finally abolished in 1812 on the recommendation of the British who had a garrison in Goa. Between 1561 and 1774, 16,172 cases were tried by the Goan Inquisition, of which 4046 were sentenced to various forms of punishment. About 119 ‘Acts of Faith’ (trials by torture) were held, and 105 men and women were condemned to be burnt to death. Of these, fifty-seven actually were burnt.

The Inquisition building no longer exists. It was located in Old Goa, in what was previously the residence of the Portuguese viceroys. It has been described as a huge building with a large hall, as well as several other halls, rooms, and prison cells.

inshallah A phrase used in Islam, meaning ‘if God wills’. It is often used even by non-Muslims.

International Society of Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) A religious society set up in 1965 in New York by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami PRABHUPADA. The aim of the society, which has branches in many countries, including India, is to lead people towards the realization of Oneness or of unity with God. CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU and the Hindu god KRISHNA form the inspiration for the movement. The texts of the movement include the early VEDAS, later Vedic literature, the MAHABHARATA, RAMAYANA and PURANAS, but above all the BHAGAVAD GITA. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada’s extensive commentaries on some of these texts are also important for the philosophy of the sect. The sect uses the basic mantra ‘Hare Rama Hare Krishna’ and believes that the ultimate goal is union with Krishna. Swami Prabhupada states that realizing BRAHMAN is the first stage, though several philosophies take this as the ultimate goal. The second stage is the realization of Paramatma, the ‘Supersoul’, while the ‘Supreme Personality of Godhead is the ultimate realization of the Absolute Truth’.

In another passage, he sums up his philosophy: ‘In this present day, man is very eager to have one scripture, one God, one religion, and one occupation. So let there be one common scripture for the whole world—Bhagavad Gita. And let there be one God only for the whole world—Sri Krishna, Krishna, Hare Hare/Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare. And let there be one work only—the service of the Supreme personality of the Godhead.’

The organization soon spread throughout the world and includes both lay followers and SANNYASIS. The concepts of discipleship, the guru and an unbroken parampara (spiritual lineage), form an important part of ISKCON. Swami Prabhupada died in 1977 and after his death a governing body was set up to look after the affairs of the organization. ISKCON has a number of branches in India and runs schools and hospitals and disseminates information on Krishna and his worship.

Iqbal, Muhammad An Islamic philosopher and a poet in Urdu and Persian. Born in 1877 in Sialkot, now in Pakistan, he studied at Lahore and Cambridge, and received a doctorate from Munich, Germany. He also became a lawyer and was admitted to the bar in Londan.

Iqbal was initially inspired by the SUFI thought of IBN AL-ARABI and spoke of Hindu-Muslim unity. In later years he was more influenced by the thought of AHMAD SIRHINDI. After going to Europe, he began to have a different perspective on Islam in India. In 1909 he said, ‘I have myself been of the view that religious differences should disappear from this country… But now I think that the preservation of their separate national entities is desirable for both the Hindus and the Muslims.’

In his poem Asrar-i-Khudi (Secrets of the Self), published in Persian in 1915 and later translated into English, he put forward a concept of the individual self or ego, a self with desire and purpose, which must strive for development. He feels the self should be ‘massive in nature, like mountains’, and should become God’s viceroy on earth. In his next philosophical poem, translated as The Mysteries of Selflessness, he said that the self-affirming individual formed a part of the community and should act on its behalf. He turned away from what he believed were weaknesses, such as Christian meekness or Hindu vegetarianism and non-violence. He also wrote and spoke about reform in Islam. In a series of six lectures entitled ‘The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam’ delivered in Chennai (Madras) in 1929, Iqbal stated that he believed Islam should be reinterpreted in the light of modern developments. He wanted a reopening of IJTIHAD and a new look at scholastic theology or ilm-e-kalam. He believed that the SHARIA was not inviolable and should be reconstructed for modern times. Only religious obligations or IBADAT were beyond change. A reinterpretation of personal law was definitely required.

His collections of poems include Bang-i Dara (Caravan Bells), early poems in Urdu; Bal-i Jibril (Gabriel’s Wing), later Urdu poems; and his poems in Persian.

He is best remembered in India for his song, ‘Sare jahan se accha, Hindustan hamara’ (Of all places, India is the best). Iqbal’s philosophy can be summed up as a call to action, a belief that individuals should not be passive, but should act to create a better world.

He died in 1938.

Iravateshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA constructed in the eighth century, located at KANCHIPURAM, Tamil Nadu. The small inner shrine is square with a pyramidal roof. On the walls, Shiva is depicted in different forms, in a yogic pose in the north, as NATARAJA in the west and DAKSHINAMURTI in the south.

Isa A term for JESUS in India. Jesus is referred to by this name in Islam and in some Indian languages.

Isha Upanishad A Sanskrit text, a verse UPANISHAD that can be dated between about 600 and 300 BCE. This short Upanishad of eighteen verses, contains the essence of Upanishadic philosophy. As one of its verses states:

He moves, and he moves not. He is far and he is near. He is within all and he is outside all.

Who sees all beings in his own Self, and his own Self in all beings, loses all fear. (Trans. Juan Mascaro)

ishtadevata A term in Hinduism for a personal deity. It can refer to any deity the individual has chosen as his/her own special deity. It can also be the chosen deity of a family or group.

Ishvara God, or lord, a name which can be applied to any Hindu deity. Ishvara is considered a form of BRAHMAN, the Absolute.

Islam The religion of Muslims as revealed by the prophet MUHAMMAD, who lived from 570 to 632. Literally, Islam means ‘submission’ in Arabic, and implies a total surrender to the will of ALLAH. Islam accepts a series of Prophets beginning with Adam and ending with Muhammad. All the Prophets transmit the word of Allah, but at the time of Muhammad people had forgotten God’s words and gone astray, therefore a new revelation was required. The word of God as conveyed to Muhammad was compiled in the QURAN, which contains 114 suras or chapters. The Quran states, ‘We believe in Allah and that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto Ibrahim (Abraham), and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Yaqub (Jacob) and the tribes, and that which Musa (Moses) and Isa (Jesus) received, and that which the Prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered’. The Quran defines the nature of God and provides a new version of the earlier Biblical Prophets and some of the stories in the Bible, and is said to supersede all earlier texts. It includes beliefs, religious duties (IBADAT) and right actions.

Another body of literature that grew around the Quran are the HADIS or traditions. They contain various accounts of Muhammad’s life and actions, which are to be emulated. The truths of the Hadis are compiled in the SUNNAH.

The basics of Islam are contained in the SIX PRINCIPLES of the faith, which are belief in Allah, his angels, the holy books (of the Prophets), the Prophets, the last day or day of Judgement, and the decrees of God. In addition there are basic duties to be performed, namely, the FIVE PILLARS OF THE FAITH: the profession of faith, prayer, fasting in the month of RAMZAN, pilgrimage or HAJ, and charity. JIHAD, or striving in the way of God, is sometimes considered the sixth.

Differences in the interpretation of the religion, and on the successors of Muhammad, soon arose, and two main sects of SUNNIS and SHIAS emerged, each with their own schools of law and beliefs. Within them there were further divisions and subdivisions, while there were also several SUFI sects, with their own practices and ideas.

History Islamic sects and practices are linked with the history of Islam. The religion was born in Mecca, a city located to the north-west of the Arabian peninsula. The KABA, a cube-like shrine, was located here and was the centre of pilgrimage for tribals and city dwellers. About 450 km north of Mecca was Yasrib, later known as Medina. In this region there were Jewish clans, as well as various tribes, and Bedouins in the north-west. While the Jews followed their religious traditions, the tribes worshipped various deities. The Kaba had around it a number of idols propitiated by the tribes including that of the deity Hubal. After the new religion was revealed to MUHAMMAD, his wife Khadija and his cousin Ali were among his first followers. Muhammad began to preach this religion, with its emphasis on one God, Allah. He advocated social equality and justice and condemned idol worship. To differentiate his religion from those of the tribes, Muhammad advocated praying while facing the direction of Jerusalem. He accepted many of the Jewish laws, but the Jews could not accept Muhammad as the new Prophet. In Mecca, he and his followers faced persecution. In 622, Muhammad was persuaded to move to Yasrib (Medina). This immigration (HIJRAH) was later taken as the starting point of the Islamic era.

In 624, Jews were further alienated when Allah commanded Muhammad to pray facing the Kaba, instead of Jerusalem.

Muslims soon had to defend themselves against attacks from Bedouins, Meccans and Jews. After a series of successful battles, Muhammad re-entered Mecca in 630. He then destroyed the idols in the Kaba and established it as the centre of Islamic pilgrimage.

After Muhammad’s death in 632, some of his followers elected Abu Bakr as Muhammad’s successor. He was known as the Caliph (meaning ‘successor’ in Arabic). Others felt Muhammad had stated that Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, was to be his successor, and did not accept Abu Bakr. They were known as SHIAS (partisans) of Ali. The first group later came to be known as SUNNIS.

Umar al Khattab succeeded Abu Bakr and was Caliph from 634–44. Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Iran and Iraq were conquered at this time. Umar was assassinated in 644 and Usman was elected Caliph. However, there was dissension among various groups and he was killed in 656. Ali was then persuaded to become the Caliph to save the community from disintegrating. Ali also had to face opposition and fight a number of battles, and was finally assassinated in 661. His son Hasan was chosen as his successor but was opposed by Muawiya, governor of Syria. Hasan abdicated and Muawiya ruled, founding the dynasty of Ummayads and making Damascus his capital. Muawiya nominated his son Yazid as his successor, but this was opposed by HUSAIN, brother of Hasan, and other prominent Muslims. A historic battle was fought at Karbala in Iraq, and Husain and his followers were killed. The tragic circumstances of Husain’s death led to widespread unrest, and in 750 the Umayyads were overthrown. The Abbasids, who claimed descent from the Prophet’s uncle Abbas, ruled from 750 to 1258. Both Ummayads and Abbasids were known as Caliphs but were in fact hereditary monarchs.

By this time the religion was well established and had spread to a number of other countries, including India.

Islam in India India has a population of 13,81,88,240 Muslims, comprising 13.4 per cent of the total population (2001 census). According to statistics, this is the third largest number of Muslims in any country in the world, the largest being in Indonesia. The influence of Islam in India was initially through Arab traders on the southern and western coasts. In 712, the Arabs invaded Sind and conquered the region, bringing Islam to the area. A further extension of Islam began in the eleventh century, with the invasion of India by Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan), who retained control over the Punjab. Muhammad of Ghur followed in the twelfth century, and his successors established the rule of sultans at DELHI. The first sultan was a Turk, Qutbuddin Aibak (ruled 1206–10), who was followed by Iltutmish (1211–36), his daughter Razia, the noble Balban, and other weak rulers. Successive dynasties of sultans included the Khaljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis, who were all either Afghans or Turks. With the decline of centralized power, independent kingdoms were established. Those under Islamic rulers included kingdoms in Kashmir, Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa and Jaunpur. In the Deccan, the Bahmani kingdom emerged, later breaking up into the five kingdoms of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda, Bidar and Berar.

The Lodis had already declined when Babar, a Chagatai Turk, invaded India and founded the Mughal empire in 1526. Babar was followed by Humayun, AKBAR, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and AURANGZEB. Humayun lost the throne for a while, during which time the Afghan Sur dynasty ruled.

The Mughals prospered till the time of Aurangzeb, after which the empire declined, but small independent or semi-independent states emerged, several under Muslim rulers. These included Avadh, Rohilkhand and Farrukhabad in the north, Bengal in the east, and Hyderabad in the Deccan. Further south, Haidar Ali established a kingdom in 1761, and was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan.

By this time the British and other Europeans had made inroads into India and defeated a number of local rulers. The revolt of 1857 against the British was led by Bahadur Shah Zaffar, the last Mughal emperor, who was then sent into exile in Yangon (Rangoon). The British now ruled much of India, but Indian states, with some British control, continued to exist. Those under nawabs or other Muslim rulers included Bahawalpur, Tonk, Junagadh, Bhopal and Hyderabad.

Muslims lived in these states and in other provinces and states across India. Initially those in India consisted of Turks, Afghans and Iranians, as well as many indigenous converts. At the courts there were conflicts among the foreign and non-foreign nobles, and in some areas between Sunnis and Shias. Most Mughals were SUNNIS, while there were SHIAS in the Deccan.

With this political background, several levels and types of Islam existed in India. The ULAMA and orthodox theologians attempted to influence the kings but were usually overruled. Kings themselves largely believed in the principles of a just rule rather than conversion to Islam. Many married Hindu princesses and most celebrated Hindu festivals. With some exceptions, Hindus and other communities were protected by Islamic rulers and where conflicts did take place, there was often a political and territorial element involved. Muslim rulers who remained in power after the arrival of the British had peaceful states with less instances of communal riots than British India.

At a popular level, the SUFIS bridged the gap between Hindus and Muslims, and so did some of the BHAKTI saints. Sufi saints and PIRS were worshipped by Muslims, Hindus and other communities. In urban areas, Islamic principles were followed more strictly, while in rural areas converts continued with their original Hindu practices. Thus there were several sects with a mix of Hindu and Muslim beliefs.

Sikhism initially had both Hindu and Muslim adherents but gradually grew closer to Hinduism.

Within Islam in India there were indigenous developments. New sects emerged and a number of Islamic texts were composed. Urdu, a mix of Persian and Hindi, provided a bridge language and Islamic influence could be seen in the spheres of music, dress and customs.

Islam had a certain flexibility that adapted to local conditions and circumstances, but it became less flexible with the coming of the British, who put forward a rigid view of Islam that was gradually adopted by Muslims themselves. Islamic revivalism began in the nineteenth century with the establishment of MADRASAS, such as the DAR-UL ULOOM at Deoband, and a move towards purity and religious study. In the twentieth century, Syed AHMAD KHAN and Muhammad IQBAL were among those who advocated reform in the religion, but on the whole the orthodox prevailed.

After the Partition of India in 1947, the level of mutual interaction between Islam and other religions diminished, though in several areas syncretic cults and the celebration of each other’s festivals continues. The shrines of Sufi saints remain popular centres of worship for people of all communities. Certain Hindu shrines, such as that of AYYAPPA in SABARIMALA, also incorporate shrines for Muslim saints. Islam in India today has several different facets, represented by different sects and political groups, but for the Sunni majority orthodoxy seems to prevail. There are Islamic political parties that are both extreme and moderate. In the personal sphere, ISLAMIC LAW has a significant influence on Muslims. Some of the issues of concern to Muslims in India today are:

• Deciding whether and to what extent, modernization and reform are required in their educational institutions, and in social norms;
• Examining the role of Islamic law and whether Muslims should accept a common civil code;
• Preventing misunderstanding by clarifying that the majority of Muslims are neither responsible for, nor associated with terrorist acts;
• Building bridges with other communities.

Sects: There are several Islamic sects in India. The two main groups are the SUNNI and SHIA. The majority of Muslims in India are SUNNIS. Various sub-sects or sub-communities include the AHL-E-HADIS, AHMADIYAS, BARELVIS, WAHHABIS, BOHRAS, KHOJAS, MEMONS and MOPLAHS. Many SUFI sects were once active in India, among which were the CHISTI, SUHRAWARDI, QADIRI, SHATTARI and NAQSHBANDI. Some Sufi sects still exist but are not so prominent, though Sufi music is popular. Intermarriage between sects may take place. Apart from these there are a number of Muslims who do not follow traditional practices or identify with any sect.

Islamic calendar The Islamic calendar begins with the HIJRAH year, the year of the Prophet MUHAMMAD’s flight from Mecca to Medina which took place in 622. All events in Islam are dated from that event, following a lunar calendar.

The lunar year has twelve months, beginning with the month of MUHARRAM, followed by Safar, Rabi-ul-awwal, Rabi-us-sani, or Rabi-ul-akhir, Jamadi-ul-awwal, Jamadi-us-sani or Jamadi-ul-akhir, Rajab, Shaban, RAMZAN (the holiest month), Shawwal, Zilqada and Zilhajja. The last two months are also known as Zul-qada and Zul-hijja, depending on the region and the pronunciation used. In addition, months are popularly known by the names of the main festivals that occur in them.

The Islamic day begins at sunset. In Arabic, Yaum indicates a day of twenty-four hours, and Nahar the day in contrast to the night. Friday is known as Yaum-ul-jumah (or jama), the day of assembly, when special prayers are held.

Islamic ceremonies In India, Muslims have a number of ceremonies or rituals, mainly related to birth, marriage and death, similar in concept to the Hindu SAMSKARAS. Recitations from the QURAN form an important part of most rituals. When a child is born, the AZAN or call to prayer is recited in its right ear, and Iqawat, a similar prayer, in its left ear. On the seventh day after birth, a ceremony known as aqiqa takes place, when the child is given a name and the hair on its head is removed. This can be observed later too. Circumcision of the male child is another essential ceremony which can take place soon after birth or at a later age. There are also traditional school-going ceremonies, but in modern times these are not necessarily observed.

Marriage or nikah is conducted in the presence of a Qazi and may include regional customs and rituals. Customs similar to those of Hindus, such as applying mehndi (henna) to the hands and feet of the girl before the marriage, the Baraat or marriage procession, and the Vidai or farewell to the girl are commonly observed. On the deathbed, the Islamic creed or KALIMA is recited, as well as Yasin, a sura of the Quran. Honey mixed with water or Ab-i-Zamzam, holy water from the well in Mecca, is dropped between the lips. After death the face is turned in the direction of the KABA. The body is buried after being bathed, accompanied by prayers. Several rituals follow death, including recitations from the Quran and gifts in charity.

Islamic festivals The Islamic year (see ISLAMIC CALENDAR) has several festivals and religious observances. The first month of MUHARRAM is a period of mourning for the Prophet’s grandson HUSAIN and his followers, martyred at Karbala. In the third month of Rabi-ul-awwal, the Prophet’s birthday is celebrated as ID-I-MILAD. In the sixth month of Jamadi-us-sani, is the feast of Ghausal Azam Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani, an eleventh-century SUFI saint of Baghdad. In the seventh month of Rajab, the birthday of Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet, the feast of the Imam, Jafar Sadiq, and the Urs of Shaikh MUINUDDIN CHISTI are important festivals. Another major festival is Shab-i-Miraj, commemorating Muhammad’s visit to heaven. In the eighth month of Shaban, is SHAB-I-BARAT, when the souls of the departed come down to earth. RAMZAN, the ninth month, consists of an entire month of fasting and religious observances, ending in the festival of ID-UL-FITR. In the twelfth month of Zilhajja, all who can are supposed to go to Mecca for the HAJ pilgrimage. In the same month the festival of BAKR-ID takes place.

Apart from these festivals, the URS or death anniversaries of various saints are celebrated locally.

Islamic law Islamic law refers to the SHARIA, or the entire way of life for a Muslim, which includes FIQH or jurisprudence. Law is based on the QURAN and HADIS or SUNNAH, and there are four main schools of SUNNI law or Fiqh. Even in medieval days, Islamic law in India was never rigorously applied and was modified to suit local conditions. Except in Islamic countries, today Islamic law operates only in the personal sphere. Muslims in India have their own civil code and the All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLD), founded in 1972, decides on religious, social, educational, political and cultural issues. Certain groups feel they are inadequately represented in the AIMPLD and have formed new boards. In December 2004 the BARELVIS set up a separate All India Personal Law Board. In January 2005 the All India Shia Personal Law Board was formed, claiming that issues pertaining to SHIAS were being neglected. Shias, however, also remain part of the AIMPLD. An All India Muslim Women’s Personal Law Board was formed in February 2005. These boards provide guidelines for personal law, but the laws are applied by the regular court system of civil courts, family courts, district courts, high courts and the Supreme Court. Some of the specific acts pertaining to Muslim law are the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Act 1937, Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939, and Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986. In India, mainly HANAFI fiqh is applied, along with some aspects of other schools, earlier legislation, precedent, custom, and the authority of certain texts, both classical and modern. Some Muslims feel new laws need to be enacted for modern times and proposals have been made for these, though no consensus has been reached.

Islamic saints Islam has a number of different types of saints, though they are not accepted by all Islamic sects or groups. Saints include secret or mystical saints, SUFI saints or others close to God, as well as legendary saints. PIR and wali are terms commonly used for Sufi saints, while qutb and ghaus denote saints of a high order. Faqir and shaikh are among the other terms used.

The concept of a hierarchy of secret saints was put forward by Islamic mystics. HUJWIRI summarized the prevailing beliefs about them. He wrote: ‘God has made the saints the governors of the universe; they have become entirely devoted to his business, and have ceased to follow their sensual affections. Through the blessing of their advent the rain falls from heaven, and through the purity of their lives, the plants spring up from the earth, and through their spiritual influence the Muslims gain victories over the unbelievers. Among them there are four thousand who are concealed… But of those who have power to loose and to bind and are the officers of the divine court, there are three hundred called akhyar, and forty called ABDAL, and seven called abrar, and four called autad, and three called nuqaba, and one called qutb or ghaus.’ There is a similar concept of secret saints in Theosophy and other mystic cults.

Another view of Islamic saints was explained by IBN AL-ARABI. He said saints (walis) were perfect men who no longer identified with the ego, and thus reflected the Absolute. According to him, after MUHAMMAD there was a cycle of saints, of which he was the last.

Apart from these, there are innumerable Sufi saints as well as legendary saints, whose shrines or DARGAHS are worshipped.

Islamic thought A number of questions arose on different aspects of Islam, giving rise to different schools of thought. Islamic ideas were also influenced by an interaction with other philosophies. Between the seventh and tenth centuries, the main schools of KALAM or scholastic theology developed.

Other philosophers emerged from the BAITUL HIKMAH, or House of Wisdom, set up by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mamun (813–33), where Greek works were translated into Arabic. Greek philosophical concepts were introduced and equated with those of Islam. Among these philosophers were al-Kindi (c. 800–870), Ar-Razi (d. 932), Al-Farabi (875–950), Ibn Miskawayh (d. 1030) and AVICENNA or Ibn Sina (980–1037). Al Ghazali (1058–11) further commented on their work and attempted to reconcile theology with mysticism. Fakhruddin Razi (1149–1209) defended ASHARI theories.

In India there were further developments in philosophy and theology. Orthodox SUNNIS were against philosophers and believed they should be suppressed by the state. However, the work of philosophers was popular in India, particularly that of Avicenna. Intellectuals in India included Abul Fazl Gaziruni of Gujarat, who lived in the fifteenth century, Shaikh Mubarak, the father of ABUL FAZL Allami, who studied Avicenna’s philosophy with Gaziruni, and several others. Philosophy became popular in DELHI and AGRA, particularly at AKBAR’s court, leading to movements such as that of AHMAD SIRHINDI, which sought a return to orthodoxy. The Mughal emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued to patronize philosophers. SHIAS had their own schools of thought, while various developments took place in SUFI ideology. In the eighteenth century, Shah WALIULLAH introduced new trends from which other Islamic movements emerged. Today different schools of thought exist in the AHL-E-HADIS, BARELVIS, Deobandis, and various Shia groups, as well as some Sufi sects.

Ismailis A SHIA sect of Islam, which follows Ismail (d. 760), believing that he is the seventh and last IMAM. Ismail was the son of the sixth imam, Jafar al-Sadiq, and was initially chosen by his father to follow him. According to some accounts, however, he died before him, and according to others he was rejected because of his behaviour. Jafar al-Sadiq then appointed his other son Musa al-Kazim as imam, but one group of Shias did not accept him and believe Ismail is the true imam and will return as the MAHDI. They came to be known as Ismailis or Sabiya (Seveners).

Ismailis interpret the QURAN in two ways: exoteric (zahir) and esoteric (batin). The latter has several mystical aspects. The hidden meanings of the world are linked with the number seven; thus there are seven main Prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad and Ismail, while between each there are silent prophets. Certain secret doctrines are also taught to initiates through their DAIS or leaders. Ismailis themselves have a number of sects, the main sects in India being the BOHRAS and KHOJAS. The NIZARI ISMAILIS, of whom most Khojas form a part, differ from the others in that they accept the AGA KHANS, who trace their descent from Ismail, as spiritual leaders.

Isna Ashari Shias A SHIA sect of Islam also known as the Imamis, Jafaris or ‘Twelver Shias’. The Isna Ashari are numerically the largest of the Shia sects. Theologically, they believe that God is essentially good and that he has created human beings with free will in order that they might know Him. For their guidance God sent the Prophets and the divinely appointed IMAMS.

Isma Asharis believe in twelve imams, who are: Ali, son-in law of the Prophet (d. 661); Hasan, son of the Prophet (d. 669); HUSAIN, son of the Prophet (d. 680); Ali Zayn ul Abidin (d. 712); Muhammad ul-Baqir (d. 731); Jafar ul-Sadiq (d. 765); Musa ul Kazim (d. 799); Ali ul Razi or Riza (d. 818); Muhammad ul-Jawad (d. 835); Ali ul Hadi (d. 868); al Hasan ul Askari (d. 874); and Muhammad ul-Muntazar (d. 878).

According to the Isna Ashari, the twelfth imam, Muhammad ul-Muntazar did not die but remains concealed and continues to guide the world. He will appear ultimately as the MAHDI, restoring justice to the world. For sixty-two years (878–940) after his disappearance, four intermediaries acted as his representatives. After this period, the Shia ULAMA took over responsibility for guiding the community until his reappearance.

The sect was probably introduced in India in the fourteenth century.

Israel, Lost Tribes of According to the Hebrew BIBLE and the history of Judaism, Jacob, grandson of Abraham, later known as Israel, had twelve sons, from whom the twelve tribes of Israel were descended. The names of Jacob’s sons were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dan, Gad, Napthali, Asher, Joseph and Benjamin. The descendants of Levi did not form a tribe, as they were scattered in various places in service of the Lord. Joseph himself did not head a tribe, but tribes were formed by his two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh. In 922 BCE, after the death of Solomon, his assistant Jeroboam rejected the rule of Solomon’s son Rehoboam and founded the kingdom of Israel with its capital at Samaria, supported by ten tribes (Zebulun, Issachar, Asher, Napthali, Dan, Manasseh, Ephraim, Reuben, Gad and some of Simeon). The tribes of Benjamin and Judah lived in the kingdom of Judah. When the Assyrians conquered Israel in 721 BCE, the tribes of Israel were scattered, and believed to be lost, though some had probably migrated into the southern kingdom of Judah. Modern historians feel that there were a number of nomadic tribes that combined together to form states, and that when Israel was defeated, they were assimilated in other areas. They believe that the descent from Jacob, and the theory of lost tribes wandering to different areas is a myth. Nevertheless, it remains an important part of Jewish history and tradition.

The story of the lost tribes has significance in India, as the BNEI MENASHE claim to be the lost tribe of Manasseh and the BENE ISRAEL also claim to be a lost tribe. Others place the lost tribes in England, Europe or America, and believe that they will one day be rediscovered, and will return to Israel.

Itivuttaka A Buddhist text that forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON. It consists of 112 short pieces, which include prose and verse sayings ascribed to the BUDDHA. The Buddhist ideals of friendliness, charity, serenity, and the merits of following the Buddhist path are described.