K

Ka A Sanskrit word that means ‘who?’, and came to represent a deity, particularly PRAJAPATI. A hymn in the RIG VEDA (10.121) asks which god (Ka) should be adored. It begins:

In the beginning rose HIRANYAGARBHA, born only lord of all created beings. He fixed and holdeth up this earth and heaven. What god shall we adore with our creation?

Giver of vital breath, of power and vigour, he whose commandments all the gods acknowledge: the lord of death, whose shade is life immortal. What god shall we adore with our oblation? (Trans. R.T.H. Griffith)

Each verse ends with this question; the end of the hymn provides the answer: ‘Prajapati! Thou only comprehend all these created things, and none beside thee.’ In the later VEDIC SAMHITAS and BRAHMANAS, Ka is used both as a name of Prajapati and a name of the Supreme Deity.

Kaba The main shrine of all Muslims, located at Mecca. It is a cubical structure enclosing a black stone and is said to have been made by Ibrahim (Abraham), at the spot where he had been prepared to sacrifice his son at the command of God. Ibrahim’s construction supersedes an earlier structure made by Adam. The Kaba building is about 12 m by 10 m and 15 m high. Within it, on the east, is the black stone, at a height of 1.5 m. According to tradition, the black stone, which is an object of veneration and looks like a meteorite, was placed there by Adam and later by the angel Gabriel. The Kaba was destroyed in warfare and rebuilt several times. In 930 a SHIA group, the Qarmatians, invaded the area and took away the stone. It was restored in 951, but had broken into seven pieces; it is now held together by silver rings. The whole building is covered in black cloth with gold embroidery, or partly with white at the time of Haj, and is changed every year. Muslims all over the world pray facing the direction of the Kaba. A large mosque, known as the Grand Mosque, surrounds it, and can accommodate two million pilgrims.

The Kaba has a long history and initially had a number of idols around it, that were worshipped by local tribes. At one time, to differentiate his religion from those of the tribes, MUHAMMAD advocated praying while facing the direction of Jerusalem. In 630 he destroyed the idols in the Kaba and established it as the centre of Islamic pilgrimage.

Kabbalah A Jewish mystical tradition that originated in the middle ages. Its main text is the Zohar, compiled in Spain in the thirteenth century. There are several commentaries and elaborations on this text; Isaac Luria (1534–72) is considered one of the most important Kabbalah mystics who developed its ideas further. The Kabbalah reinterprets Jewish texts and beliefs in an esoteric, symbolic way. It describes ten Sefirot, or emanations of God, which represent the inner reality of the world. The Sefirot are depicted in a symbolic tree and are connected by twenty-two pathways. The mystical rituals of the Kabbalah, aim to reveal the SHEKHINAH, the divine presence within.

Kabir A BHAKTI saint probably of the fifteenth century. His verses, written in simple colloquial Hindi of his times, are non-sectarian and have universal appeal. There are different stories regarding his early life, but a popular version is that he was a Hindu child adopted by Muslim parents. His dates of birth and death are also uncertain, though it is likely he was born around 1398 in KASHI or Varanasi. He was of the Julaha caste, a caste of weavers who can be either Muslim or Hindu, therefore, this too, does not provide any clear information on his religion. This ambiguity about his origin is reflected in his popularity in both communities.

Kabir is said to have been a disciple of the VAISHNAVA saint RAMANANDA, and to have been inspired by SUFI saints and NATHA YOGIS. He was not learned and had not studied sacred texts but was divinely inspired, and spoke about the One Reality, beyond form. He was against distinctions between different religions and castes, worship in temples and mosques, idol worship, rituals and ceremonies, and advocated truth, love and compassion. His songs were written down by his followers, who are known as Kabir Panthis. Bijak, a compilation of his verses, is considered a sacred text today. His verses were also included in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB, the sacred scripture of the Sikhs, and the Kabir Granthavali based on the Panchvani, a text of the followers of DADU, the Dadu Panthis of Rajasthan. There are also several compositions assigned to him that were probably written by others. His compositions were basically of two kinds: dohas, or two-line couplets, and padas or songs. In addition, he composed Ramainis, verses with esoteric meanings.

Though Kabir spoke of RAMA or HARI, he used these as names of the Absolute and not of personalized incarnations. In one of his dohas, he says:

Him whom I went out to seek,

I found just where I was;

He has now become myself,

Whom before I called Another! (Trans. C. Vaudeville)

In another song he talks of the Lord of Kabir, which lies in the heart:

The Jogi cries, ‘Gorakh, Gorakh!’,

The Hindu repeats the name of Rama,

The Muslim says, ‘There is One God’,

But the Lord of Kabir

Is in all.

Kadam/Kadampa A school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM, also spelt Bka-gdams-pa, founded by DROMSTON (1008–64), the disciple of ATISHA. Dromston built a STUPA and monastery housing the relics of Atisha. The main text of the school was the Bodhipatha Pradipa of Atisha, and a strict monastic discipline was followed. SHAKYAMUNI BUDDHA, the Bodhisattva AVALOKITESHVARA, his consort TARA, and the protective deity Achala were revered. The school emphasized the practices of both Sutras (traditional texts) and TANTRAS in a graded path (LAM-RIM), and had a series of instructions on developing the bodhichitta or ‘thought of enlightenment’. The Kadam school died out by the fourteenth century, but some of its teachings were preserved in the GELUG and KAGYU schools.

Kadimi/Kadmi A Zoroastrian sect that means ‘ancient’ and which arose among the PARSIS in India in the eighteenth century, after a dispute regarding the calendar. As a lunar calendar is followed, it was earlier the practice to add an extra month to the calendar every 120 years. Parsis in India claimed this practice was followed from the twelfth century. As contacts with Zoroastrians in Iran revived, they realized the Iranian calendar was one month behind. In 1745 a group of Parsis therefore corrected their calendar according to this, and called themselves Kadimi, the followers of the ancient practice. Most Parsis opposed this and were known as SHAHENSHAHIS, followers of the ‘royal’ traditional calendar. Conflicts between the two groups took place, and inter-marriage between members of the two sects was rare.

Though the two sects still exist, there are no longer any conflicts. Festival dates fall on different days for each, with a third set of festivals following the Fasli calendar (See Zoroastrian Calendar).

Kadru In Hindu mythology, one of the wives of the rishi KASHYAPA, and a daughter of DAKSHA. She is the mother of a thousand serpents, among whom are Shesha and Vasuki.

Kagyu One of the four main schools of TIBETAN BUDDHISM, also spelt Bka-brgyud-pa, which traces its origin to two Indian Buddhists, TILOPA and NAROPA. Marpa (1012–97), a Tibetan Buddhist, travelled to India to study from them. After returning to Tibet, he laid the foundations of this school, advocating the practice of the Mahamudra or ‘great seal’, and the ‘Six Yogas of Naropa’. His disciple was MILARASPA (Milarepa), whose student Gampopa (1079–1153) organized the teachings into a lineage known as Dakpo Kagyu, or the mother lineage of the Kagyu school. In the twelfth century, four major schools arose from this, founded by disciples of Gampopa. These were the Tsalpa Kagyu, Barom Kagyu, Phagmo Drupa or Phagtru Kagyu and Kamtsang or Karma Kagyu. Eight sub-schools of the Phagtru Kagyu developed, of which three are still active today. They are the DRIGUNG KAGYU (Brigung), the TAGLUNG KAGYU and the DRUGPA KAGYU (Brugpa). These three, as well as the KARMA KAGYU, were re-established in India after 1959. Another major Kagyu school is the Shangpa Kagyu, established by Khyungpo Nyaljor (978–1079). Monks in all sub-sects of the Kagyu tradition study the Perfection of Wisdom (PRAJNAPARAMITA), and MADHYAMIKA philosophy, as well as theories of valid cognition, discipline and phenomenology, with some variations of interpretation in each school. They also focus on interpreting the Mahamudra through the SUTRAS and TANTRAS, and on the practice of the Six Yogas.

Kagyur A term for a collection of the Tibetan Buddhist canon, also spelt Bkagyur or Kanjur. In TIBETAN BUDDHISM the texts are divided into two groups, known as Kagyur and TANGYUR. The Kagyur includes thirteen volumes of Vinaya texts, twenty-one volumes of PRAJNAPARAMITA texts, six volumes of Avatamshaka texts, six volumes of Ratnakuta texts, thirty volumes of Sutras, which include 270 texts, and twenty-two volumes of TANTRAS incorporating more than 300 texts.

Kailasha mountain A mountain located in Tibet, that is considered sacred by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. To its south lies MANASAROVARA, a sacred lake. Kailasha is also called Gana Parvata and Rajatadri (silver mountain). The gods SHIVA and PARVATI are said to reside here and it is sometimes identified with Mt MERU of Hindu myths. In Buddhist texts, it is said that the BUDDHA, along with 500 BODHISATTVAS, still lives here. Legendary accounts state that four footprints of the Buddha can be seen on the four sides of the mountain. According to Jain texts, the mountain is known as Ashtapada, and the first Jain TIRTHANKARA, Adinatha or RISHABHA, attained liberation here.

Pilgrimages to the mountain have taken place since ancient times, and even today pilgrims from India visit the mountain every year.

Kailasha Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located at ELLORA in Maharashtra, constructed in the eighth century at the time of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. This remarkable monument is the largest and finest of the rock-cut temples in India, made like a structural temple, raised on a solid base. Steps lead up to the temple, which opens on the west into a large columned MANDAPA or hall, with three porches. The ante-chamber on the east leads to the inner shrine, and around it there are five small shrines on an open terrace. The pyramidal tower reaches a height of 32.6 m above the level of the court, while the roof is formed by an octagonal dome. Elaborate sculptures decorate all the walls, including scenes from the MAHABHARATA and RAMAYANA, along with depictions of Shiva and other deities. Some murals can still be seen on the porch ceilings. In front of the temple is a NANDI pavilion and on either side of it are monolithic columns, 17 m tall, as well as two elephants. On the outside is a screen wall with a gateway. The temple is built in Dravidian style.

Kailashnatha Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located in KANCHIPURAM in Tamil Nadu, constructed in the eighth century, at the time of the Pallava ruler Rajasimha. The main shrine has a multi-faceted Shiva LINGA and a SOMASKANDA panel on the rear wall. This is surrounded by a narrow passageway. The whole temple is raised on a basement, which is carved with GANAS or Shiva’s attendants, and with foliage. Images of Shiva decorate the outer walls. On the north is an image of BHAIRAVA, and on the south, Shiva emerging from a linga, with VISHNU and BRAHMA on two sides. The shrine has a pyramidal roof and is constructed mainly from sandstone.

kala A Sanskrit term for time. The concept of Kala has been extensively analyzed in philosophy. In the NYAYA and VAISHESHIKA, systems, kala is one of the DRAVYAS or substances. According to the Vaisheshika, it is an eternal substance, the cause for change in non-eternal substances. In Jainism, too, kala is one of the six dravyas or substances of the world. It pervades the whole universe and continues from the past into the present. Kala is eternal time, without beginning or end, and from it proceeds relative time, known as samaya. Samaya can be seen through change and motion, through creation and destruction. In SAMKHYA philosophy, space and time can be both eternal and limited, and eternal time is part of PRAKRITI. According to SHANKARA, time has reality only in the world of experience. In the PURANAS and other texts, there are varying views of time, as either eternal or limited. Time has also been subdivided into minuscule units, or expanded into vast cosmic ages, such as YUGAS and KALPAS. Kala is also time which destroys all things.

Kala, deity A name of YAMA, the god of death in Hinduism. The gods BRAHMA and SHIVA are sometimes also referred to as Kala.

Kalachakra ‘The wheel of time’, a mystical and occult system in Tantric Buddhism (See TANTRA, BUDDHIST). According to tradition, the mysteries of the Kalachakra were taught by SHAKYAMUNI BUDDHA, to King Suchindra, who was an emanation of the Bodhisattva Vajrapani and came from the hidden land of SHAMBHALA. He then returned there, and the teachings were transmitted through the Kalkis (leaders) of Shambhala and later reintroduced into India and then into Tibet. The teachings are described in the Kalachakra Tantra, a text of about the tenth or eleventh century, thought to have been composed in Central Asia, and later written in Sanskrit. It is classified as an ANUTTARAYOGA TANTRA, or one of the highest Tantras. There are also commentaries and explanations on the text.

Three Kalachakras or wheels are described: the outer, the inner, and the ‘other’ that unites the first two.

The system of the Kalachakra is taught through a series of initiations, before which certain codes of conduct and other practices must be observed. This is considered the highest of all occult initiations and can only be performed by a DALAI LAMA. The present Dalai Lama regularly conducts the Kalachakra initiation ceremony, in which the Kalachakra, symbolizing the BUDDHA and other deities, is visualized. A Kalachakra temple has been constructed at Siliguri.

Kaladi A town in Kerala, the birthplace of Sri SHANKARA, who is also known as Adi Shankaracharya, the ninth-century philosopher of ADVAITA. Located on the river Alwaye, the town has a number of temples, among which are one with an image of Shankara and another of the goddess SHARADA. There is a KRISHNA temple nearby.

Shankara Jayanti, the birthday of Shankara, is an important festival celebrated here on the fifth day after the new moon in April/May.

Kaladungar Temple A Hindu temple on the Kaladungar hill in the Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat. According to tradition, the rishi DATTATREYA lived for twelve years on this hill before attaining SAMADHI. While he lived here, he used to distribute the temple prasada (food offerings) both to his devotees and to the jackals who live in this barren region. At a time of famine, when he had no prasada to distribute, he offered the starving jackals his own hand. According to one version of the story, the jackals refused it, upon which Dattatreya said that the noble jackal was henceforth his symbol, and his devotees must offer them prasada for the fulfilment of their wishes. Thus even today, prasada consisting of sweet rice is offered to the local jackals twice a day.

Kalahastishvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA, in the town of Kalahasti in Andhra Pradesh. It is located at the foot of the Kailasgiri hill, called the ‘southern KAILASHA’. First constructed in the eighth century at the time of the Pallava dynasty, major additions were made by the Cholas, and later, by the Vijayanagara rulers. In 1912 the temple was partly reconstructed and assumed its present form. Kalahastishvara is famous as the main shrine contains the Vayu LINGA, representing the element of air. The linga is shaped like the trunk of an elephant and when viewed from the top, looks like a snake. The base appears like a spider. According to legend, an elephant, a snake and a spider were the first worshippers of the linga, but accidently killed each other. Because of their devotion to him, Shiva granted them all MOKSHA or liberation. Apart from the main shrine, there are other shrines as well. An underground shrine is dedicated to the god GANESHA, here known as Patala Vinayaka.

The temple has images of Shiva, other deities, and of SHAIVITE saints, including Kannappa, a NAYANAR devotee who gave his eyes to the lord, but whose eyesight was later restored. He is said to have attained salvation by worshipping the linga here. There is a large MANDAPA built in Vijayanagara times, and the whole complex is enclosed by high walls, entered by a GOPURAM or gateway on the south. The pyramidal tower has a height of 36.5 m. The nearby hills have a number of small temples and shrines.

The temple is historically important as it has several early inscriptions. It is still a major centre of pilgrimage, where Shaivite festivals take place. Among them, Maha SHIVARATRI is the most important, celebrated here for ten days. In another festival on the third day of Sankranti in January, the deity is taken in a procession round the Kalahasti hills.

Kalakacharya A Jain monk who probably lived in the first century BCE. According to the Kalakacharya Kathanaka, a Prakrit text, he organized local rulers to overthrow King Gardhabilla of Ujjain, who had captured his sister, a Jain nun. The date of this text is not known, but it is thought to have been based on older traditions and to have a historical basis.

kalam An Arabic term literally meaning ‘word’ or ‘speech’. It is also a technical term used for scholastic theology in Islam. Several theological and philosophical discussions and different theological schools existed from the earliest days. Points of divergence were free will, predestination, reason and rationality, wrong actions, and the fate of the sinner.

One controversy revolved around judgment and sin. The Kharija who were initially followers of Ali were among the first divergent groups. However, Ali submitted to arbitration in his dispute with Muawiya, and the Kharija broke away from him, asserting that judgment belonged only to God. An extreme branch, the Azraqiya, stated that Ali was an unbeliever (kafir) who should be destroyed. The Murjiya stated that a believer, even if he sinned, should not be condemned because judgment must be left to God.

Another problem concerned free will. The Qadariya stated that each person could decide between good and evil actions. A modification of this view was held by the MUTAZILA, who were rationalists. The JABRIYA (jabr = compulsion) said that a person had no free will; everything was ordained by God. The ASHARIYA placed revelation over reason, while the MATURIDI felt that predestination and free will could exist together. The ASHARIYA school formed the basis of orthodox doctrines.

Kalamukha (1) A Hindu SHAIVITE sect with TANTRIC practices. They wore a black mark on their foreheads, and hence were called Kalamukha, or ‘black face’. They were once prominent in Karnataka, but later the LINGAYATS or Virashaivas became more popular there. (2) In ancient texts Kalamukhas were those born from human males and RAKSHASA females.

Kalan Mosque A mosque located in DELHI within the area of Turkman Gate. It was constructed in 1387 by Khan-i Jahan, the title of Junan Shah, the prime minister of Sultan Firuz Tughlaq. This fortress-like mosque has rounded bastions at the corners and a projecting entrance, reached by a flight of stairs. The mosque is on the upper storey and is built in orthodox style, with a prayer hall on the west.

Kali A Hindu goddess, a ferocious form of DURGA or PARVATI.

Myths of Kali are contained in the PURANAS, and she is mentioned in texts from around the sixth century. In the DEVI MAHATMYA, a part of the MARKANDEYA PURANA, she appears from Durga’s forehead, when she is attacked by the asuras Chanda and Munda, and is a form of Durga’s anger. She also helps Durga to defeat the asura Raktabija. In the LINGA PURANA, she appears from Parvati, who has been asked by SHIVA to destroy a demon. She is also also one of the MAHAVIDYAS, created by SATI at the time of DAKSHA’S sacrifice. In other texts, she is worshipped by tribals, or away from settled villages. The Thags, a now-extinct band of robbers, used to worship a form of Kali before killing their victims.

Kali is described in most texts as black or dark, with dishevelled long hair. Her skirt is made of severed arms, and severed heads adorn her neck. Sometimes she is adorned with skulls and has blood-smeared lips. She dwells in cremation grounds and battlefields, and holds a severed head in her hand. She is worshipped on her own but is also associated with Shiva. She is his consort, particularly in his form as Mahakala, eternal time, for Kali also represents time that devours all things. According to the TANTRAS, Kali is even the destroyer of time. In one story she was challenged by Shiva to a dance and was defeated by him, yet in most images she is shown in a superior position, standing on a prone Shiva. Thus she is SHAKTI, the active aspect of the passive PURUSHA or male principle, represented by Shiva. Occasionally, Kali is represented as a beautiful woman with a gentle smile.

According to some theories, Kali was a tribal deity who was absorbed into the Brahmanical pantheon. Psychological theories suggest that she represents the ‘bad mother’, who nevertheless has to be propitiated. Kali is also the dark side or the ‘shadow’ of each individual, and by worshipping her, this darkness can be eliminated.

Kali worship became widespread from early medieval days, and she remains a popular deity all over India, particularly in Bengal. Kali is often, though not always, propitiated with animal sacrifices. In TANTRISM, worship of Kali enables a transformation of negative energies and a defeat of demonic forces. According to the Mahanirvana Tantra, she is black and unclothed as she represents the primordial substance, and by worshipping her, all names and forms disappear. In south India, KORRAVAI has similarities with Kali, and so do certain other forms of Durga, such as CHANDI and CHAMUNDA. Among the many worshippers of Kali, RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHANSA is the best known in relatively recent times.

Major Kali temples include the KALIGHAT TEMPLE, Kolkata; THE DAKSHINESHVARA TEMPLE, West Bengal; the Kalika Devi Temple, Kalka, Himachal; and the Kalka Temple, DELHI. There are other Kali temples all over India.

Kali Yuga In Hindu mythology, the fourth and last YUGA or period of time, when one MAHAYUGA comes to an end. The Kali Yuga follows the DVAPARA YUGA and is the yuga that exists today. It marks a general decline, and during this age, there is only one-quarter of the righteousness that existed in the first yuga. Its main scriptures are the TANTRAS, and people focus on the body instead of the mind. It is a time of anger, hatred, discord and strife. Humans live for various periods of time, and some reach one hundred years. The Kali Yuga is said to have begun in 3102 BCE and will last for 1200 divine years, equal to 4,32,000 human years. It is symbolized by the colour black. After this yuga a new cycle of the mahayuga will begin, starting again with the KRITA or Satya Yuga.

Kalidasa A poet and dramatist who wrote in Sanskrit and belonged to the fourth or fifth century. His plays include: Malavikagnimitram; Vikramorvashi, the story of PURURAVAS and URVASHI; and Abhijnanashakuntalam, the story of Dushyanta and Shakuntala, considered the best of his plays. Both the latter texts are based on mythical stories. His long poems are Kumara Sambhava, on the god Kumara or KARTTIKEYA; Raghuvamsha, the story of RAMA; Ritu Samhara, on the seasons; and Meghaduta (Cloud Messenger), the story of a YAKSHA banished for a year from the divine city of KUBERA, chief of the Yakshas. Several other works of his are no longer extant. Kalidasa is considered the greatest Sanskrit poet of all time.

Kalighat Temple A temple dedicated to the Hindu goddess KALI, located near the river Hughli at Kolkata. The temple was constructed in 1809 by the Sabarna Roy Chaudhurys, a BRAHMANA family of the region. Legends suggest the existence of an earlier temple in the same area. The region was known for Kali worship from medieval days, and according to some accounts, the Kali image worshipped here, had been worshipped for centuries before the temple was built. The place is also recognized as a SHAKTA PITHA, a sacred site of SHAKTI, or feminine energy. One story states that long ago, a brahmana named Atma Ram found a piece of stone shaped like a human toe in the BHAGIRATHI (Ganga) river. In a dream he was told this was the toe of SATI and began worshipping it nearby; the site was considered sacred from that day. The image in the inner shrine of the temple is of Kali in her ferocious aspect. Animal sacrifices take place here every day.

Kalika Purana A Sanskrit text, a minor PURANA or UPAPURANA, dealing with the worship of the Hindu goddess PARVATI in different forms, as DURGA, SATI and KALI. It describes the marriage of SHIVA, the sacrifice of DAKSHA, the death of Sati and the emergence of SHAKTA PITHAS where parts of her body fell. The animal and human sacrifices to be offered to KALI are described, as well as sacred places associated with the goddess in Kamarupa (Assam), where Durga is worshipped in the form of KAMAKSHI. The text has TANTRIC aspects.

Kalima/Kalma The Islamic creed recited by all Muslims. The Kalima is ‘La-ilaha illallah Muhammadur rasulallah’, meaning ‘ALLAH is the only god, and MUHAMMAD is his Prophet’. Reciting the Kalima is the first of the FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM.

Kalki An incarnation of the Hindu god VISHNU, which will appear at the end of the KALI YUGA. Kalki will come as a man riding on a white horse, holding a flaming sword. His appearance will lead to the rejuvenation of the world, the beginning of a new yuga, the KRITA or Satya Yuga, which will be a glorious golden age. This is a late myth and paralells have been drawn with the concept of the MESSIAH in Judaism, the descriptions in the book of Revelation in the BIBLE, Zoroastrian concepts of the FRASHOKERETI, and the Bodhisattva MAITREYA in Buddhism.

Kalki Purana A Sanskrit text, a minor PURANA or UPAPURANA that describes the Hindu god VISHNU’s incarnation as KALKI.

kalpa A Sanskrit term with many meanings, including a period of time, and a ritual or prescribed manner of action.

kalpa (time) A period of cosmic time. According to Hindu cosmology, a kalpa is one day of the god BRAHMA’s life, comprising fourteen MANVANTARAS. Each manvantara has 71 mahayugas, hence there are 994 mahayugas in a kalpa. Sometimes, however, a kalpa is said to comprise 1000 MAHAYUGAS, amounting to 4320 million years of human beings. One month of Brahma has thirty kalpas, twelve months equal one year, and one hundred such years form the lifetime of Brahma. We are now said to be in the fifty-first year of Brahma’s life. At the end of each kalpa, the universe is destroyed and recreated.

Jainism also has a concept of kalpas or cycles of time. These cycles are endless, and in each there is a period of evolution and growth or UTSARPINI, followed by a period of decline or AVASARPINI. Each of these periods is subdivided into six parts known as ARAS. Currently, the world is in the fifth sub-period of AVASARPINI, which began on the death of MAHAVIRA. All the twenty-four TIRTHANKARAS lived in the fourth sub-period.

The kalpa is also a concept in Buddhism.

Kalpa Sutra A Jain text of the SHVETAMBARA canon. It is ascribed to BHADRABAHU, but some parts are distinctly later. Section I of this Sutra contains the Jinacharitra, with biographies of the TIRTHANKARAS, particularly MAHAVIRA. Section II consists of the Theravali and has a list of schools (GANAS), with their heads or leaders (GANADHARA) and their branches (shakha). Section III, probably the oldest, has the Samachari or rules for ascetics during the rainy season (Pajjusan, or Paryushan in Sanskrit). The text is still read out on the PARYUSHAN festival celebrated by Jains. For the lay Shvetambara, the Kalpa Sutra is the most important sacred text.

Kalpa Sutras A term for Sanskrit texts of Hinduism which deal with kalpa or ritual. The texts have three categories: the SHRAUTA SUTRAS, which provide instructions for the agnihotra and other sacrifices; the GRIHYA SUTRAS, which describe domestic sacrifices; and the DHARMA SUTRAS, which explain laws and customs.

kalpa-vriksha/kalpa-druma According to Hindu mythology, a divine tree located in DEVALOKA, the heaven of the gods, which can fulfill all desires. There are actually five kalpa-vrikshas, known as Mandana, Parijata, Santana, Kalpa-Vriksha and Harichandana, all of which grant various wishes.

According to Jain mythology, in the first three ARAS of the descending era (AVASARPINI), kalpa-vrikshas provided all that was needed, but towards the end of the third ara, the yield from them diminished. Eight types of these trees are described in some texts, each of which provided different items. Thus from the Madyanga tree delicious and nutritious drinks could be obtained; from the Bhojananga, wonderful food; from the Jyotiranga, light more radiant than the sun and moon; while from Dipanga came indoor light. Other trees provided houses, musical instruments, plates and dishes, fine clothes, garlands and perfumes.

Kalyanaka A term in Jainism for an auspicious event in the life of a TIRTHANKARA. The Kalyanakas are: (1) Chyavana Kalyanaka, when the Tirthankara’s soul departs from its previous existence and is conceived in the mother’s womb; (2) Janma Kalyanaka, when a Tirthankara is born; (3) Diksha Kalyanaka, when the Tirthankara renounces the world and becomes a monk or nun (according to DIGAMBARAS, nuns cannot become Tirthankaras); (4) Kevaljnana Kalyanaka, when the Tirthankara attains kevaljnana or absolute knowledge after destroying the four ghati karmas; he then delivers his first sermon and reinstates the Jain religion; (5) Nirvana Kalyanaka, when the Tirthankara’s soul is liberated from the world, the four aghati karmas are destroyed (see KARMA), and NIRVANA or salvation is attained. Before the final birth as a Tirthankara, the soul has gone through several incarnations, until it reaches the last and final birth. According to Digambaras, only men can become Tirthankaras, and a very pious woman would be reborn as a man in the final birth. According to SHVETAMBARAS, both men and women can be Tirthankaras.

Kama (1) The Hindu god of love, similar to Cupid. There are numerous myths and legends associated with Kama. A verse in the ATHARVA VEDA states that Kama is a supreme deity, unequalled by gods, PITRIS (ancestors) or men. Kama is sometimes identified with AGNI, the god of fire. In the Taittiriya Brahmana, he is said to be the son of DHARMA DEVA by his wife SHRADDHA. According to the HARIVAMSHA, he is the son of the goddess LAKSHMI. There are more accounts of him in the PURANAS. He is said to be born from the heart of BRAHMA, or to be self-existent, and therefore Aja, ‘unborn’. His wife is RATI (passion) or Reva, and he is the lord of the APSARAS. He is depicted as a handsome young man with a parrot as his vehicle. Apsaras surround him, and one of them holds his banner with his emblem, the Jalarupa, a fish or MAKARA on a red background. Kama’s arrows, made of flowers, strike the hearts of people and cause them to fall in love. His bow is made of flowers or of sugarcane, his bow-string consists of a line of bees, and each arrow is tipped with a flower.

In a well-known story, he tried to get the god SHIVA to fall in love with PARVATI, but was burnt to death by a flash of Shiva’s third eye, though later he was revived. According to one account he was reborn as PRADYUMNA, son of KRISHNA.

Kama is also known as Mada or Madana; Rama or Ramana; Smara, remembrance; Abhirupa, the beautiful; Kamana, desirous; Shringarayoni, the source of love; Kusumayudha, armed with flowers; Pushpasara, whose arrows are flowers; Vama, the handsome; as well as by many other names.

(2) Kama means love or desire, and is one of the three components of life, the others being DHARMA and ARTHA, following one’s duty and gaining wealth, respectively.

Finally, all aspects of life are abandoned for moksha or liberation.

Kama Shastras A term used for texts that deal with human love in its various aspects. The earliest extant text is the Kama Sutra, written by Vatsyayana in the third century. Several commentaries were written on it. Some later texts include the eleventh-century Samaya-Matrika (Life of a Courtesan), written by Kshemendra, the Nagar Sarvasa of Padmasri (c.1350), Ratiratna-Pradipika of Devaraja (c.1400), and the Ananga-Ranga of Kalyanamalla (d.1530). Though all these works are on erotic love, there are an implicit underlying assumption that love is a route to god. TANTRIC texts see a symbolic or real sexual union, under certain strict conditions, as a pathway to god. BHAKTI and SUFI saints inculcated love of the divine in their hearts, but often used the imagery of human love in their poems and songs.

Kamadhenu A divine cow said to fulfill all wishes. The MAHABHARATA, RAMAYANA and PURANAS have various stories about Kamadhenu. Though several Kamadhenus are mentioned, all seem aspects of one divine cow.

When the ocean was churned for AMRITA, Kamadhenu emerged from it. Another story relating to Kamadhenu is about her life at the ashram of the rishi VASISHTHA. King VISHVAMITRA was attracted by her powers and tried to capture her, after Vasishtha refused to sell her to him. But Kamadhenu assumed a different form, and warriors emerged from her. Vishvamitra was so impressed by this that he gave up his life as a king and became a RISHI himself.

Kamadhenu is also known as Surabhi and Nandini, though some feel these are different cows. All cows are said to be descended from Surabhi. According to the MAHABHARATA, Surabhi went to Mt KAILASHA and worshipped the god BRAHMA for 10,000 years. Then Brahma said to her, ‘Surabhi, I have made you a goddess. You are above the three worlds, and your world, Goloka, will be famous.’

Kamakhya Temple A temple of the Hindu goddess Kamakshi or Kamakhya (a form of DURGA) located on a hill near Guwahati in Assam. The site is a SHAKTA PITHA, i.e., one of the places where SATI’s dismembered body is said to have fallen. An ancient temple existed at this spot; it was reconstructed in the sixteenth century by Malladeva or Naranarayana, one of the kings of the Koch kingdom of the region, and by his brother Sukladeva or Chilarai. The inner shrine has a YONI or female emblem, and there are three MANDAPAS. Sculptures on the walls, include those of GANESHA and CHAMUNDA, as well as scenes of devotees, dancing figures, and animals. High curved towers rise above the shrine and mandapas.

The temple remains popular today, and animal sacrifices take place here. Among the temple festivals, the most important are DURGA PUJA, the Ambubachi festival, and the Debaddhani festival. At Ambubachi or Ameti, held in June/July, the temple is closed for three days, as the earth, represented by Kamakhya, is said to become impure because of menstruation. On the fourth day lakhs of devotees worship at the temple. The Debaddhani festival is connected with the worship of the goddess MANASA. Dances and songs take place at this time.

Though people of all affiliations worship at the temple, it is of particular importance for TANTRISM.

Kamakshi Amman Temple A temple of the Hindu goddess Kamakshi (a form of DURGA) located at KANCHIPURAM in Tamil Nadu. It was constructed mostly between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The main shrine is of the goddess Kamakshi, with other small shrines around it. To the north of the temple is a large columned MANDAPA or hall. The whole complex is enclosed and can be entered through four GOPURAMS or gateways. A small SHIVA temple of the Chola period is nearby.

Kamakshi/Kamakhya A Hindu goddess, a form of DURGA or DEVI.

Kamala Another name of the goddess LAKSHMI, and also one of the ten MAHAVIDYAS or TANTRIC goddesses. She is described as beautiful and with a golden complexion.

Kamalashila A Buddhist philosopher of the MAHAYANA school who lived between c. 740 and 790. He was a disciple of SHANTIRAKSHITA and continued the latter’s work in Tibet. He wrote three books on meditation and the BODHISATTVA path, each known as BHAVANAKRAMA, which are recognized as being among the best of Buddhist thought. He also wrote commentaries on the work of Shantirakshita and DHARMAKIRTI.

Kamban/Kampan A Tamil poet who wrote the RAMAYANA in Tamil. Some scholars place him in the ninth century, while others believe he lived at the court of the Chola kings in the twelfth century. His Ramayana is based on VALMIKI’s work, with some differences. It raises RAMA to the level of a divinity, but simultaneously explores the psychology of the characters. A dialogue between Rama and VALI suggests that without SITA, Rama has lost his soul, his conscience, and thus cannot act in a fair and balanced way. RAVANA is depicted as a man with a helpless passion. He says of Sita, ‘I dread to give up thoughts of you… Every name is Yours, every face is You… Who can see I die a daily death?’ Known as Iramavataram or the Kamban Ramayana and written in Sanskritized Tamil, it is a popular sacred text.

Kamsa ka Mela A Hindu festival held at MATHURA and AGRA in October/November every year. It celebrates the ancient story of the victory of the god KRISHNA over King Kamsa. This event is re-enacted by actors dressed as Krishna and BALARAMA who shoot arrows at an effigy of Kamsa, which then goes up in flames.

Kanada, Uluka The founder of the VAISHESHIKA school of philosophy, who probably lived between the third century BCE and the early centuries CE. He wrote the Vaisheshika Sutra.

Kanakadasa A BHAKTI saint of the sixteenth century, who belonged to the HARIDASA sect in the Karnataka region and was a contemporary of PURANDARADASA. Kanakadasa, a shepherd by birth, was a disciple of Vyasaraya, who may also have been Purandaradasa’s teacher. Kanakadasa sang philosophical songs of devotion in Kannada, seeing HARI or god everywhere. In one of his songs, still popular today, he says:

This body is yours, so is the life within it;

Yours too are the sorrows and joys of our daily life.

Whatever sweet word or Veda or story that we hear,

The power to hear them is yours.

The eye that gazes on the beauty of form,

That vision too is yours.

When a dog entered his house and stole some bread, Kanakadasa, who saw all beings as forms of the Lord, ran after it with ghi and jaggery, calling ‘Lord, have this on your bread too’.

Kanaka is associated with the KRISHNA temple in UDUPI. Despite his devotion, he was not allowed within the temple because of his low caste. He is said to have stood outside its western wall and sung to the deity that he was unable to see. And one day the wall cracked, a chunk fell out of it, and the deity turned his face to the west, so that Kanaka could see him. Even today, the image remains in that position, and is viewed through a grilled window on the western wall.

Kanchipuram A city in Tamil Nadu, one of the seven sacred Hindu cities. Located along the Palar river, it has Hindu temples dating back to the eighth century, as well as Buddhist and Jain monuments. Most of the SHIVA temples are located in a suburb to the north of the city, while VAISHNAVA temples are at another end of the town. Across the river to the south is a group of Jain temples. Among the Shiva temples is the KAILASHNATHA TEMPLE of the eighth century. The Vaikuntha Perumal is a VISHNU temple of the same period. Chola temples include the KAMAKSHI, EKAMBARESHVARA and Varadaraja, though these were reconstructed under the Vijayanagara rulers and the Nayakas.

Stories about Kanchi are narrated in ancient texts, and it was a centre of pilgrimage from the earliest days. At different periods, Jains, Buddhists and Vedic scholars lived here. RAMANUJA (1017–1137) was one of the noted scholars who studied here.

Kanchi is the seat af a SHANKARACHARYA who claims to belong to the direct lineage of Adi Shankaracharya. According to this tradition, SHANKARA himself settled here and attained SAMADHI at Kanchi. Before this he established a MATHA, of which he became the first Shankaracharya. In 1743 this matha, the Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, shifted to KUMBAKONAM, at a time when there was warfare in the region, though Kanchi remained the nominal centre. In the nineteenth century, the temple of the matha was reconsecrated at Kanchi. However, the SRINGERI Shankaracharyas put forward a different tradition and do not count Kanchi among the original Mathas established by Adi Shankaracharya.

At the Kanchi Matha, the deity Chandramoulishvara, a form of Shiva, is particularly worshipped.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA, located at KHAJURAHO in Madhya Pradesh, constructed in the eleventh century. This is the largest and most intricately carved of the many temples here, constructed on a platform with a height of 8.4 m. Two MANDAPAS open into the GARBA-GRIHA, or inner shrine, which houses a LINGA. Towers rise above the mandapas, the highest reaching 30 m from the base. There are Shiva images on the walls of the garba-griha and on the mandapa walls. Sculptures also include DIKAPALAS, other deities and goddesses. Panels on the outer walls depict couples in sexual postures.

Kandh Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Batala in Gurdaspur district, Punjab. Within it is a wall enshrined in glass, on which Guru NANAK is said to have once leaned while listening to discussions on his forthcoming marriage to Bibi Sulakhni. He was warned that the crumbling wall was about to fall, but stated that by the will of God it would not fall for hundreds of years. This gurdwara is a celebration of the fact that his words came true, and also commemorates his marriage. Every year a procession takes place on his marriage anniversary.

Kanheri A place where over a hundred Buddhist rock-cut CHAITYAS and VIHARAS are located, along the Western Ghats in Maharashtra. The site was occupied from around the first century BCE to the eleventh century CE. Some of the caves have BUDDHA and BODHISATTVA images, as well as attendant figures and other deities. Cave 41 has an unusual image of AVALOKITESHVARA with four arms and eleven heads.

Kanishka A king of the Kushana dynasty who ruled much of northern India and Afghanistan from c. CE 78 to 103, with his capitals at Purushapura (modern Peshawar in Pakistan) and MATHURA. The fourth BUDDHIST COUNCIL was held during his reign, in around CE 100. According to XUANZANG, the seventh century Chinese pilgrim, it was held at Kundalavana in Kashmir, whereas other accounts state that it was held in GANDHARA or Jalandhara. Five hundred monks of the SARVASTIVADA school debated at this council. According to Buddhist tradition, ASHVAGHOSHA, the Buddhist scholar, converted Kanishka to Buddhism, who then became a great patron of the religion and a builder of STUPAS. Kanishka’s coins, however, depict a variety of deities, including Greek, Zoroastrian, Hindu and Buddhist gods. Two schools of art flourished at this time, in Gandhara and MATHURA, in which Buddhist images were made.

Kanjipantha A sub-sect of the DIGAMBARA Jain sect, started by Kanji Swami (1889–1980), originally a Shvetambara-STHANAKAVASI. He was an extremely learned monk who studied all the SHVETAMBARA texts, but felt that something was lacking in these. It was only when he read the works of the Jain scholar Kundakunda, held in high regard by the Digambaras, that he believed he had discovered the true source of knowledge. In 1934 he left the Sthanakavasi sect, proclaimed that he was now a Digambara, and began to teach and comment on the texts of KUNDAKUNDA, particularly the Samayasara. He also appreciated the writings of the Jain scholars Todarmal and Rajachandra (founder of the KAVIPANTH) and did not bother about rituals, but emphasized the importance of understanding the Truth and the nature of the soul.

He has a number of followers particularly in Sonagarh in Gujarat and Jaipur in Rajasthan.

Kanjur A collection of Buddhist manuscripts. See Kagyur.

Kannagi/Kannaki A Hindu goddess worshipped in Tamil Nadu. Kannagi is a heroine in the SHILAPPADIGARAM, a Tamil epic dated between the second and sixth centuries. She was married to Kovalan, who was also involved with the dancer Madhavi. However, she remained chaste and faithful to him, and when he was unjustly executed by the king of MADURAI, she burnt down the city in her anger and grief. Her elevation to the status of a goddess is based on her chastity and devotion to her husband, which bestowed divine strength on her. She is considered a form of DURGA.

Kanniyakumari A Hindu goddess who is worshipped alone, without a male consort. A town at the southermost tip of India is named after her, and a temple is dedicated to her there. She is a ‘virgin goddess’ but is also considered a form of PARVATI or of DURGA. Several stories are narrated about her. According to one, she was named Pushpakashi. She loved the god SHIVA and wished to marry him, and like Parvati, meditated on Mt KAILASHA for hundreds of years. She was then granted her wish, entered heaven and became Shiva’s companion. But soon Shiva asked her to go down to earth again, to the southernmost point, to vanquish the Asura Bana, and then to wait for him. She did so, as she had great powers, yet Shiva has not appeared to her again, and she still awaits him.

According to another story, Kanniyakumari and KALI were created by Shiva to defeat the two demons, Bana and Muka. Kanniyakumari was sent down to the southern tip of India and successfully defeated Bana. She was so beautiful that the god Suchindra Perumal, at a nearby temple, fell in love with her and wanted to marry her. But the other gods were against this, as the goddess’, powers would diminish if she married. At their request, the rishi NARADA put obstacles in the way, so that Kanniyakumari gave up and cursed the food items that had been brought to feed the marriage guests, which turned into sea-shells and sand. These are worshipped at eleven holy ghats or tirthas around her temple. Another story states that PARASHURAMA established her image here for the protection of the land.

The processional deity in the temple is known as Tyagasundari, while the deity ready for marriage is Syamasundari.

The stories connected with Kanniyakumari indicate the power assigned to virginity. Most Hindu goddesses are powerful on their own, but passive when with their consorts.

Swami VIVEKANANDA used to meditate on a hill near the Kanniyakumari temple, now known as Vivekananda hill. A Vivekananda Memorial is constructed on a rock in the sea.

Kanphata Yogis A SHAIVITE sect founded by MATSYENDRANATHA and GORAKHNATHA in the twelfth century. It was an esoteric TANTRIC sect, and its adherents wore huge earrings which split their ears, giving the sect its name (kanphata = torn or split ear). Their practices include HATHA YOGA.

They were also known as Nathpanthis, or NATHA YOGIS.

Kanvariyas A term for those who participate in a ritual that consists of carrying water from a sacred river to offer to a Hindu temple. Often the water is carried from the GANGA and offered in a temple of the god SHIVA. Traditionally, the water is in two covered pots, tied to a pole, and carried on the shoulders. Devotees walk from a point on a sacred river to a temple of their choice. They should not enter any vehicle or place the pots on the ground at any time. The journey may take several days or even weeks; participants walk all day, resting at night. The ritual is undertaken for the fulfilment of a vow, or merely as an offering to the deity. In the old days it was an individual ritual, but now it has grown in popularity, with lakhs of devotees participating in it during the month of Shravana (July–August), while some undertake it before SHIVARATRI in January–February. At this time special facilities are arranged for the pilgrims, free food and water is offered along the way, wooden stands are set up to place their pots on while they rest, and temporary shelters are made for them to rest at night. For a few crucial days, even the national highways are closed to traffic to allow the Kanwariyas to walk freely. On the last day processions are taken out, in which people dressed like Shiva’s GANAS or attendants, dance and sing devotional songs.

Kapal Mochan A site sacred to Hindus and Sikhs, located near Jagadhri in Haryana on the river Ghagghar, which is identified with the ancient SARASVATI river. Kapal Mochan is mentioned as a tirtha in the MAHABHARATA and PURANAS. The god SHIVA is said to have dropped a skull (kapala) at this place, leading to its sanctity. A GURDWARA was built here after a visit by Guru GOBIND SINGH in 1579.

Kapaleshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located at Chennai in Tamil Nadu, constructed in the seventeenth century, with additions made later. An earlier temple was destroyed by the Portuguese. The main shrine has a large Shiva LINGA. Nearby is another shrine with the image of Subrahmanya or KARTTIKEYA, and a smaller DEVI or goddess shrine.

The goddess here is known as Kalpakavalli. There are several legends associated with the temple. According to one story, the god Brahma once met Shiva and Parvati in Kailasha, but did not pay respect to them, and Shiva in anger, cut off one Brahma’s heads. To pacify Shiva, Brahma came to this spot and set up a lingam and worshipped it. As Brahma had lost one of his heads (kapala) the linga was known as Kapaleshvara, and the place Kapali-nagara.

Kapaleshvara is still an important shrine, visited by thousands of pilgrims.

Kapaleshvara Tirtha A tirtha or sacred spot, located 2 km north of TIRUPATI in Andhra Pradesh, where a natural waterfall descends from the hills. A small pond has been constructed to hold the water of the fall, and a shrine has been built into a rocky ledge. At the entrance a LINGA, sheltered by a NAGA, is worshipped as SHIVA in the form of Kapaleshvara, or lord of the KAPALIKA. Within the shrine is an image of VISHNU with his consorts, SHRI DEVI and BHU DEVI.

Kapalika A SHAIVITE sect with TANTRIC practices also referred to as Kapala or Mahavrata. The name is derived from kapala, a human skull. Kapaleshvara, lord of the Kapalikas, is a name of the Hindu god SHIVA, while in the MAHABHARATA, Kapalin is also a name of one of the MARUTS. According to a story in the PURANAS, Shiva quarrelled with the god BRAHMA and cut off one of his heads. Thus he committed the sin of brahmahatya, the killing of Brahma, who was a BRAHMANA. To expiate this sin Shiva vowed to wander as an ascetic for twelve years, using only the skull of Brahma as his begging bowl. This is known as Mahavrata, the great vow. Finally Shiva ended his penance at KASHI (Varanasi) at Kapala-mochana Tirtha. Kapalika ascetics use a skull as their begging bowl and sometimes also carry a Khatvanga, a skull mounted on a stick. They are smeared with ashes, wear bone or skull ornaments, and have their hair in matted locks.

The sect seems to have existed from around the fifth century. They are mentioned in negative terms by various writers, such as Mahendravarman of the seventh century and Krishnamishra of the eleventh century. Their philosophy included achieving divine union through the PANCHA-MAKARAS, the five elements used in TANTRISM.

However, the kapala, in addition, has a symbolic meaning, and in the secret language (SANDHA-BHASHA) of TANTRA it can represent the universe, the supreme deity, or the great void (SHUNYA).

Skulls were also used by Buddhist Tantrics.

Kapila An ancient RISHI, the traditional founder of the philosophical system of SAMKHYA. A historical Kapila probably did exist, around the seventh or sixth century BCE, but the text attributed to him, the Samkhyapravachana Sutra, has been assigned a date as late as the fourteenth century CE. The Tattvasamasa is another late text that he is said to have written. These probably had earlier versions, while other texts written by him may not have survived.

There are several myths and stories about Kapila in ancient texts. He is considered the son of the Hindu god BRAHMA, an incarnation of VISHNU, or an incarnation of AGNI. He meditated in a cave at GANGA SAGARA, and a temple of Kapila Muni is located there.

Karaga A Hindu festival celebrated during the month of April in Karnataka in honour of DRAUPADI, wife of the PANDAVAS. At this festival, Vira Kumaras, young men armed with swords, march in a moonlight procession.

karah prasad The prasad or sacramental food distributed at Sikh GURDWARAS. It is so-called because it is prepared in an iron vessel or karahi.

Karam A tribal festival celebrated in August/September, mainly in Jharkhand. A karam tree is planted at a special spot in the village. At the time of the festival, tribals dance and sing around the tree, drinking rice beer. This ceremony is to ensure prosperity for the village.

Karchi Puja A Hindu festival celebrated in July at Agartala in Tripura, in honour of the goddess DEVI or SHAKTI. The main celebrations last for seven days and take place at the temple of Chaturdashi Devata, which contains fourteen images of Shakti.

Kardang Gompa The largest Buddhist monastery in Lahaul in Himachal Pradesh. Kardang village was once the capital of Lahaul, and the monastery is located above the village on the left bank of the river Bhaga. It was founded about 900 years ago, but lay in ruins until it was reopened by a monk named Lama Norbu in 1912. There are both monks and nuns here, and lamas are allowed to marry and visit their families in the summer to work in the fields. It has a fine library with all the volumes of the KAGYUR and TANGYUR collections, as well as a number of THANGKAS, musical instruments and old weapons. The walls have murals, and there are several statues, including YAB-YUM images. Lama Norbu died in 1952, and his relics are contained in a silver CHAITYA. The monastery belongs to the DRUGPA KAGYU sect.

Karle The site of several rock-cut Buddhist CHAITYAS and VIHARAS dating from about 100 BCE to the fifth century CE, located along the Western Ghats in Pune District of Maharashtra. Cave 8, from the first century CE, has the largest and best preserved chaitya hall of the early monuments in this area. At the entrance is a monolithic pillar with a capital of four lions. Other columns within have capitals with elephants, on which embracing couples are seated. The STUPA has a hemispherical dome and is capped by a wooden umbrella.

karma A Sanskrit word from the root ‘kri’, meaning ‘to do’, karma literally means ‘that which is done’ or ‘action’, but is also a philosophical doctrine. In simple terms, it is the law of cause and effect, the principle that ‘as you sow, so shall you reap’. Every action has a result, and good or bad fortune is said to be the result of one’s own actions. The concept of karma is linked with that of reincarnation, in that the effect of actions can last through several lifetimes. Karma can be changed or modified through right action, and a state beyond the effects of karma is achieved through union with the divine. There are many subtle interpretations and modifications of this concept, but its basic philosophy is accepted not only in Hinduism, but also in Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, and permeates Indian life.

In Hindu texts certain types of karma are mentioned. Among these are:

Prarabda karma, which determines into which body the soul will be born, and how long it will live. It is the cumulative result of all past actions.

Sanchita karma, translated as ‘seed karma’, which constitutes the characteristics and aptitudes of a person, dependent on those in his past life. They can be modified with right practices and thoughts.

Agami karma or the karma that is being created for the future by one’s present actions.

Karma also simply means action, and the best form of action is nishkama karma, something done without desire or thought of a reward.

The concepts of karma and of rebirth are accepted in Buddhism. Many Buddhist schools reject in theory the idea of a permanent Self or entity that is reborn, yet all schools of Buddhism accept stories of the past births of the BUDDHA, and the idea that through good actions in several lives the stage of Buddhahood can be reached. Both negative and positive actions have results; negative actions are those motivated by lust (raga), hatred (dvesha) or delusion (moha), while positive actions include the opposite of these, as well as actions for the welfare of all beings. Without a permanent Self, how karma is transmitted from one life to another is not clear. Yet both concepts are recognized.

Jainism has a unique concept of karmic matter and the karmic body. Karma is part of PUDGALA or matter, and creates the subtle body or karmana sharira, which attaches itself to the JIVA or soul. The physical body dies, but the karma body accompanies the jiva through its lives. Karma molecules are attracted to the jiva according to its actions, and this inflow is known as ASRAVA. It then becomes bound or fixed to the body (bandha), but can be eliminated when the jiva realizes it is distinct from the material world. Even after this realization, it is not easy for the jiva to free itself. The first step is samvara or stopping the inflow (asrava) of karmic matter. The next is tapas, consisting of meditation or concentration on one’s true nature. The process by which the karmic body then disintegrates is known as NIRJARA. Finally, MOKSHA is reached.

To help in extinguishing karma, Jains believe a thorough understanding of it is necessary, and describe eight types of karma. Four of these are destructive or ghati karmas: mohaniya karma, which is delusory; jnana-avaraniya karma, which obscures knowledge; darshan-avarniya karma, which interferes with sense perception; antaraya karma, which obstructs the energy of the jiva. Another four are non-destructive or aghati karmas. These are: vedaniya karma, which produces feelings; nama Karma, which determines the nature of a person’s rebirth; ayu karma, which determines the lifespan; gotra karma, which determines the status.

Karma is a concept also accepted in Sikhism. It determines one’s birth, but salvation is attained not only through actions, but through grace.

Though the same term may not be used, karma as the law of cause and effect is accepted in other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Zoroastrianism. In Zoroastrianism, the GATHAS (Yasna 43.5), states: ‘You maintain that words and deeds bear fruit, evil comes to the evil, a good reward to the good.’

Later thinkers provided new interpretations of karma, notable among them being Sri AUROBINDO, who had a somewhat different interpretation of the concept. He saw karma as something that takes place to help the individual soul on its path, rather than as a mechanism of cause and effect or reward and punishment.

Karma Kagyu A school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM, a sub-sect of the main Kagyu school. It was founded by Dusum Khyenpa (1110–93), who became the first Karmapa, or head of the school. The sixteenth Karmapa, Ranjung Rigpe Dorje (1924–81) was appointed the head of the whole Kagyu tradition while in exile. The present head is the seventeenth Gyalwa Karmapa Ogyen Drodul Trinley Dorje, who is living in exile in DHARAMSALA in Himachal Pradesh after escaping from China in 2000. After some initial hesitation, the DALAI LAMA recognized him as the Karmapa. The school has re-established its headquarters at the Rumtek monastery in Sikkim, but because there are rival claimants to the position, the seventeenth Karmapa has not taken over officially at Rumtek.

Karma Mimamsa Another name of Purva MIMAMSA, an ancient school of philosophy.

Karma Yoga The path of union with the divine through KARMA or action. Patanjali’s YOGA SUTRA describes Kriya Yoga, another term for Karma Yoga, as action dedicated to the divine. The BHAGAVAD GITA explains that any action performed should be offered to the Supreme, without looking for its fruits or rewards. It also speaks of different types of actions and of work or action that is silence. Swami VIVEKANANDA is among those who explained the path of Karma Yoga in detail.

Karmaprabhrita A Jain text sacred to the DIGAMBARAS. It is said to be based on the lost DITTHIVAYA text, the twelfth ANGA which no longer exists. The text deals with KARMA and is also called the Shat Khandagama Sutra. According to tradition, Dharasena, who lived in the first or second century at GIRNAR in Gujarat, sent a message to the Jain monks in south India stating that true knowledge of the Jain Canon was disappearing. Two scholars, Pushpadanta and Bhutavali, were sent to him and compiled this text based on his teachings. It was completed on the fifth day of the bright fortnight of Jyaishtha, and this day is celebrated every year as Shruta Panchami, the day when the teachings were received.

Karna The name of the first of KUNTI’s sons in the MAHABHARATA. He was thus the brother of the PANDAVAS. Karna was born through the sun god SURYA, but was not acknowledged by Kunti who was then unmarried, and was brought up by a charioteer. As he grew up, he learnt the art of warfare from DRONA and PARASHURAMA and became a great warrior. As he was apparently of low birth, he was humiliated by ARJUNA, though he was befriended by DURYODHANA. He remained Duryodhana’s loyal friend and was killed in the great war by Arjuna. Finally Kunti revealed that Karna was in fact Arjuna’s brother.

Kartarpur The name of two towns sacred to Sikhs. (1) A town founded by Guru NANAK on the right bank of the river Ravi, opposite DERA BABA NANAK. A large community of the guru’s followers settled here. (2) A town in Jalandhar district of Punjab, founded by the fifth Sikh guru ARJAN DEV. The guru came here in 1598; planting his sandalwood walking-stick in the ground, he stated that it would be the support of the faith in this place. Nearby a well was dug, named Gangsar, as the water from the GANGA was miraculously said to flow here. One of Arjan Dev’s disciples is said to have lost his lota (vessel) in the Ganga at HARDWAR, but found it here. The town prospered and grew with the blessings of the guru. Around the stick (tham) the Tham Sahib Gurdwara was built with funds granted in 1833 by Maharaja RANJIT SINGH. Guru HARGOBIND visited this place after a battle fought nearby, and Guru TEGH BAHADUR was married here.

Kartavirya A mythical king of the Haihayas, described in the PURANAS and other texts. He worshipped the rishi DATTATREYA and obtained a boon of a thousand arms and a golden chariot that could travel anywhere according to his will. He ruled the earth for 85,000 years, and there was peace, prosperity and justice. He visited the ashram of JAMADAGNI and stole a sacred cow, after which PARASHURAMA cut off his arms and killed him. According to one version, as his rule was oppressive, the Hindu god VISHNU was incarnated as Parashurama for the specific purpose of killing him.

Karttika Festival A Hindu festival that involves the worship of the god SHIVA in the form of the five elements—earth, water, fire, air and ether. It is celebrated at Shiva temples, mainly in south India, in November/December.

Karttikeya A Hindu god, also commonly known as Skanda and Kumara. In the south he has several names, including Subrahmanya and MURUGAN. His other names include Mahasena, Shakha, Vishakha, Guha, Brahmanya and Naigameya.

According to myths, he was born in order to destroy the asura TARAKA. Taraka was troubling the gods, but they were unable to defeat him, because he had received his powers through a boon from the god BRAHMA. It was predicted that only a son of SHIVA could destroy him. However, Shiva, after the death of his wife SATI, was in retreat, meditating, not wishing to marry again. Sati had been reborn as Uma (PARVATI) and she too sat in meditation till Shiva noticed her and married her.

After the marriage, Shiva and Parvati engaged in love-play on Mt KAILASHA and Shiva dropped his seed, which was accepted by the god AGNI. Unable to hold it, Agni gave it to the river GANGA, who transferred it to the six Krittikas, the wives of sages. They threw their foetuses back in the Ganga, who threw it into a forest of reeds, and there Karttikeya was born, named after the Krittikas, and with six faces as he had six mothers. Then Uma and Shiva took back their child.

He grew into a handsome young man, and riding on a peacock, he led the gods and defeated Taraka. He became the commander-in-chief of the divine forces.

Karttikeya’s younger brother was GANESHA. To decide who would marry first, their parents asked them to travel around the world. Whoever returned first would be married first. Strong Karttikeya set off on his peacock, while Ganesha slowly walked around his parents, saying that to him they were the world. Ganesha was married first, and Karttikeya felt unhappy. Therefore, it is said, he went to the south and never returned to north India again.

Today Karttikeya is worshipped primarily in the south, particularly in his form as Murugan, but at one time he was popular in north India as well. He is depicted on coins of the Yaudheyas, who ruled between the second century BCE and the third century CE in the area of Haryana and Garhwal. The MAHABHARATA and MAHAMAYURI record that he was the god of Rohitaka (Rohtak, Haryana). He is also depicted on the coins of the Kushana ruler Huvishka (second century CE) and the Gupta ruler Kumaragupta (CE 412–55), and in inscriptions of Skandagupta (CE 455–67), there are references to temples dedicated to Karttikeya. In Bengal, several images of him have been found dated between the eighth and eleventh centuries. In south India he was the tutelary deity of the Kadamba dynasty. As Subrahmanya he is depicted at AIHOLE and ELLORA.

Myth and iconography indicate that Skanda-Karttikeya is a composite god, originally with YAKSHA affinities. In some texts he is even identified with SANAT KUMARA, the mind-born son of Brahma. He is also identified with MANGALA, or Mars.

In the BRIHAT SAMHITA he is described as riding a peacock and holding a shakti (spear). In the VISHNUDHARMOTTARA he is said to be six-faced and four-armed, riding a peacock, and dressed in red. In his two right hands he holds a cock (kukkuta) and a bell (ghanta), in his left hands a victory flag (vaijayanti pataka) and a spear. His consort is Devasena, while in the south, his two consorts are Devayanai and Valli or Mahavalli. In the north he is often considered unmarried.

Karttikeya is worshipped mainly in Shiva temples, though there are independent Murugan temples in the south. One of the places sacred to Karttikeya is the SRISAILAM hill, where he is said to have gone immediately after leaving home; there is a shrine dedicated to him here. He is worshipped in Shiva shrines in Bhubaneswar (Orissa), and along with DURGA in Bengal. There are a number of subsidiary shrines dedicated to him, prominent among them being those in the KAPALESHVARA TEMPLE in Chennai, and in the NATARAJA TEMPLE at CHIDAMBARAM.

karuna A Sanskrit term meaning compassion, which is important in Buddhism. Along with prajna or wisdom, it is one of the two main attributes of a BODHISATTVA.

Karva Chauth A day-long fast observed by Hindu women for the welfare of their husbands. The fast is popular in the north and normally takes place in October on the fourth day of the fortnight before DIVALI. On this day women wake early and eat and drink water before sunrise. They then neither eat nor drink anything until the rise of the moon. In the evening women wear jewellery and fine clothes and wait for their husbands to take them out to see the moon. The couple then eats together, celebrating marriage and togetherness.

Kashayaprabhrita A Jain text sacred to the DIGAMBARAS. It was compiled by Gunadhara in the second century CE, based on the lost DITTHIVAYA text. It deals with desires or passions and their pitfalls. Later commentaries by Virasena in the eighth century and JINASENA in the ninth century are also respected texts.

Kashful-Mahjub A SUFI text written by ABUL HASAN AL-HUJWIRI. The Kashful Mahjub is the first-known manual on SUFISM in Persian. In this text, Hujwiri, who lived in Lahore in the eleventh century, explained and commented on a number of Sufi sects and practices prevalent at the time.

Kashi The ancient name of VARANASI, a sacred city. It is particularly sacred to the Hindu god SHIVA. According to the PURANAS and other texts, all the sacred places or tirthas associated with Shiva are also represented here.

The Kashi Khanda, a section in the SKANDA PURANA, describes early Shiva temples located in and around Kashi.

Kashi Vishvanatha Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located at VARANASI in Uttar Pradesh. Originally an ancient shrine, the temple was reconstructed in 1585 but demolished during the reign of the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB, when a mosque was built at the spot. In 1777 the temple was rebuilt adjacent to the mosque. The LINGA in the inner shrine is said to be the original one, which was thrown into the nearby well when the temple was destroyed. The walls are intricately carved, and above the temple are a series of spires. There are other small shrines in the courtyard, with lingas and images of deities. Behind is the Jnana Vapi well whose waters are said to provide JNANA or wisdom. The adjacent mosque is named after it.

Kashyapa An ancient RISHI or sage, one of the seven great rishis, said to be the grandson of the Hindu god BRAHMA and the progenitor of human beings. He was the father of Vivasvat and grandfather of MANU. Some of the Vedic hymns are attributed to him, and in Vedic texts he is also a mythical being associated with the sun. In the MAHABHARATA and PURANAS, he is a rishi who married thirteen daughters of DAKSHA, through whom all beings in the world were descended. Among his wives were ADITI, mother of the ADITYAS and of Vivasvat. VAMANA, an incarnation of VISHNU, was also born to her. Other wives included Danu, mother of the DANAVAS; DITI, mother of the DAITYAS; and KADRU, mother of the NAGAS or serpents. Khasa was the mother of YAKSHAS and RAKSHASAS. Others were mothers of demons, birds and various beings. Thus through Kashyapa all living beings were born. He is also called PRAJAPATI.

Kashyapa/Kassapa A close disciple of the BUDDHA, also known as Maha-kashyapa, who presided over the first BUDDHIST COUNCIL at RAJAGRIHA.

Kashyapiya A HINAYANA Buddhist sect, a branch of the STHAVIRAVADA, alternatively known as Suvarshakas. They held a position between the SARVASTIVADA and other Sthaviravada sects, regarding the nature of existence. The Sarvastivada believes that past, present and future all exist, while the Sthaviravada that only the present exists. The Kashyapiya said that when the fruits of the past have been realized, those aspects of the past ceased to exist, while the rest of the past continued to exist.

Katarmal Surya Temple A temple of the Hindu god SURYA located at Katarmal near Almora in Uttarakhand, constructed in the twelfth century. In the main shrine is an image of Surya, about 1 m high, made of brownish stone. The temple is in a dilapidated state.

Katha Upanishad A verse UPANISHAD that can be dated between 600 and 300 BCE. This is one of the most popular Upanishads, that tells the story of Nachiketa, a pious boy. Seeing his father offering old and barren cows to BRAHMANAS, he questioned him, saying, ‘To whom then will you give me?’ He asked again and again, till his angry father said, ‘I will give you to death’. The boy dutifully went to the house of YAMA, god of death, who happened to be away. He waited for him for three days, and when he returned, Yama granted him three boons, in apology for his absence. For the first boon, Nachiketa asked that his father, Gautama, be pacified. For the second, Nachiketa asked for the knowledge of the fire (AGNI) that leads to heaven and immortality, and Yama taught him the fire sacrifice, which was then named after him. For the third boon, Nachiketa said, ‘There is that doubt when a man is dead—some say he is, some say he is not—this I should like to know.’ Then Yama taught him the truth about life and death, and about the ATMAN, knowing which all is known, and neither grief nor fear remain.

SHANKARA, the ninth-century philosopher of ADVAITA, is among those who have commented on this Upanishad.

Kathavatthu A HINAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA of the PALI CANON. This text is ascribed to Tissa Moggaliputta, who presided over the third BUDDHIST COUNCIL held in the third century BCE. Some scholars accept this, while others reject it; a third group believes the core could have been compiled by Tissa, with later additions. The text has twenty-three sections. Each section has eight to twelve questions, consisting of views held by opposing sects. Typical questions are: ‘Does everything exist?’ ‘Do the pupils of the Buddha share in his superhuman powers?’ ‘Can animals be reborn among the gods?’ After a dialogue, the correct answer according to Buddhist principles is given. The text is important for an understanding of the views of different sects.