L

Ladakh A region in the state of Jammu and Kashmir that has a number of Buddhist sects, as well as GOMPAS or monasteries, mainly associated with TIBETAN BUDDHISM.

Among the sects in Ladakh are the NYINGMA, based on the teachings of PADMASAMBHAVA (Thak-Thok Monastery); the SAKYA, with its oracle monks at MATHO; the DRUGPA KAGYU and DRIGUNG KAGYU at Phiyang and Lamayuru; and the GELUG headed by the DALAI LAMA.

Gompas include the Tekse Gompa, HEMIS GOMPA, Lamayuru Gompa, Shankar Gompa, Shay Gompa, and Tsemo Gompa, as well as others at BASGO, Spituk, Rezong, Deskit, Samur and elsewhere. Ladakh also has a number of SHIA Muslims who live in harmony with the Buddhists.

Lahaul and Spiti A district in Himachal Pradesh that has a number of Buddhist monasteries and was once under the control and influence of Tibet. The GURU GHANTAL monastery here dates back to the eighth century, while several others were founded in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, though they were reconstructed later. Buddhism is still the predominant religion in the area.

Lailat al-Qadr A term in Islam that means ‘the night of power’. According to Islamic tradition, it was on this night in the month of RAMZAN of 610 that the Angel Gabriel first spoke to the Prophet MUHAMMAD, and the QURAN descended from the lowest heaven. This event is celebrated during the last few days of Ramzan and special prayers are said. The fate of a person for the rest of the year, is decided on this night. In India this night is known as SHAB-E-QADR.

Lakkundi A town in Karnataka, with ancient Hindu and Jain temples of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Seventeen temples, constructed at the time of the Western Chalukya dynasty, still exist. These are richly decorated, and have pyramidal roofs. Many of them have open porches with multi-faceted pillars. Among Hindu temples, the Kashi Vishveshvara is notable; it has two shrines linked by an open porch, a pyramidal roof, and intricate carvings. The Jain Basti is the largest Jain temple here, with two MANDAPAS or halls opening into the shrine, and a five-storeyed pyramidal tower, capped by a square roof.

Lakshana Devi Temple A temple of the Hindu goddess DURGA, located at Brahmaur in the Chamba Valley of Himachal Pradesh. This wooden temple dates to the ninth century, but was largely reconstructed later. The inner shrine has a metal image of Durga holding MAHISHASURA, the buffalo demon, by the tail. At the doorway are male and female couples, or MITHUNA, the goddesses GANGA and YAMUNA, and the NAVAGRAHA. Other images include a three-headed VISHNU on GARUDA. The temple forms part of a group known as the Chaurasi temples.

Lakshmana The half-brother of RAMA, considered a partial incarnation of the Hindu god VISHNU, who is described in the RAMAYANA. According to the ADHYATMA RAMAYANA, he was an incarnation of Adi Shesha, or ANANTA. Lakshmana was the son of King DASHARATHA by his wife Sumitra, and the twin of SHATRUGHNA. He was married to Urmila, sister of SITA, and had two sons, Angada and Chandraketu. He accompanied Rama and Sita into exile, and helped Rama in the battle to recover Sita from RAVANA. He was always a friend and helper of Sita. When his time on earth came to an end, he went to the banks of the river Sarayu and was conveyed to heaven by the gods. He is known for his loyalty and devotion to Rama and Sita, and is considered an ideal brother. Lakshmana is depicted along with Rama and Sita in Rama temples and in art.

Lakshmana Siddha A sacred site located near Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand. According to tradition, the site has a dual significance. It is said to have been established by Lakshmana, a disciple of DATTATREYA, as a sacred centre of power. In addition, Lakshmana, brother of RAMA, is believed to have performed penances here. A small temple is located at the site.

Lakshmi A popular Hindu deity, the goddess of fortune. She is the wife of VISHNU and is worshipped both with him, and separately. Lakshmi is known as Shri, which indicates riches, prosperity and fortune, and this term frequently occurs in the VEDAS. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Shri is referred to as a goddess, born because of the austerities of PRAJAPATI. In the Shri-Sukta, a hymn in praise of Shri, which possibly dates from the sixth century BCE, Shri is described as radiant and glorious, shining like the moon, invoked for fame and prosperity. She is seated on a lotus, a symbol of spiritual growth and purity. In the PURANAS, she is primarily the consort of Vishnu, but is sometimes associated with the god DHARMA, or with INDRA, and at times KUBERA. Lakshmi is mentioned in some versions of the story of the churning of the ocean for AMRITA. As she emerged from the ocean, she was chosen by Vishnu and became his loyal wife, remaining his partner in all his incarnations. Thus she is SITA when he is RAMA, and RUKMINI when he is KRISHNA. As BUDDHA is an avatara of Vishnu, she is also YASHODHARA, his wife.

Lakshmi is normally depicted as a beautiful woman with two or four arms. She usually holds two or four of the following objects: a lotus, a wood apple, a conch shell, a vessel of amrita or divine nectar, a citron fruit, a shield or a club (kaumodaki). As GAJA LAKSHMI she is seated on a lotus with an elephant on each side sprinkling water on her. She is shown with Vishnu in Lakshmi-Narayana images, where she is often seated on his thigh, one arm around his neck. In some images the two are merged into one figure. Other sculptures show Lakshmi and BHUDEVI standing on either side of Vishnu.

Lakshmi represents the social order and settled married life. She is described in texts as well-dressed and decked with ornaments. In SHRIVAISHNAVISM, she is not only Vishnu’s consort, but the mediator for devotees, and embodies compassion. In relation to prosperity, Lakshmi is known to be as fickle as wealth, and if she can be persuaded to stay in one place, riches and fortune follow. In a myth associated with the CHARMINAR in Hyderabad, Lakshmi is said to have come there and fallen in love with a guard. The guard left, asking her to wait for him, and never returned, so that Laksmi continues to wait and brings prosperity to the city.

Laksmi is associated with several festivals. She is worshipped at DIVALI, along with GANESHA, for wealth and prosperity, and is also connected with the harvest. In Orissa, she is associated with crops and fertilty, and worshipped at the Kaumudi Purnima festival. In some areas, she is one of the goddesses worshipped at DURGA PUJA.

Though Lakshmi’s VAHANA or vehicle is usually Vishnu’s bird, GARUDA, she also rides on an owl, generally an inauspicious bird in Hindu mythology. Her opposite is ALAKSHMI, an inauspicious goddess.

Lakshmi is usually secondary to Vishnu, but in some texts and images she is the supreme deity. In the Lakshmi Tantra, she is both creator and destroyer. As MAHALAKSHMI, she is similar to MAHADEVI, the supreme goddess.

Lakshmi is depicted from the second century BCE onwards, a form of her being found in early Buddhist shrines. In later temples, Gaja Lakshmi was worshipped in a separate niche, or carved above the doorway. She remains widely worshipped in several temples, both modern and ancient.

Lakshmi-Narayana Temple A temple of the Hindu deities LAKSHMI and VISHNU, located in New Delhi. It was constructed in 1938, and as it was financed by the industrialist Raja Baldev Birla, it is popularly known as the Birla Temple. From the beginning the temple had no caste restrictions, and the first PUJA was therefore attended by Mahatma GANDHI. It is a grand Orissa-style structure in white marble and red sandstone with tall shikharas or towers, capped with domes. The inner shrine has images of Lakshmi and Vishnu. Outside, there are gardens and fountains.

The temple is extremely popular, and elaborate celebrations take place at the time of JANAMASHTMI and other festivals.

There are several similar temples in other cities.

Lakulisha The founder of the Shaivite PASHUPATA sect who lived in the second century and was said to be an incarnation of the Hindu god SHIVA. An inscription mentions that he lived in Kayarohana, which has been identified with Karvan in Kathiawar in Gujarat. His four main disciples were Kushika, Mitra, Garga and Kaurushya, who are said to have founded four sub-sects of the Pashupatas.

Lal Darwaza Mosque A mosque located in Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, constructed in the time of the Sharqi dynasty in c. 1450, by Bibi Raji, the queen of Sultan Mahmud Shah (1436–58), for her own private use. This mosque is one of the smallest in Jaunpur, though with a design similar to the huge ATALA MOSQUE.

It has a rectangular prayer hall, opening into a courtyard on the east, with three gateways. The main entrance gateway is made of red sandstone, hence the mosque is known as Lal Darwaza (red gateway). The mosque has ornamental and decorated arches. Special prayers are still held here on Fridays, which are believed to bring peace of mind.

Laleshvari (Lal Ded) A BHAKTI poet from Kashmir, also known as Lalla Arifa or Lal Ded, who is still held in high esteem in Kashmir.

Laleshwari was probably born between 1300 and 1335 at Pandrethan or Sempor near Srinagar, and married at the age of twelve into a Pandit (BRAHMANA) family of Padmapura, a few kilometres away. In childhood she was influenced by the family priest, and after marriage, ill-treated by her in-laws, she maintained an inner detachment from the world. She left home and lived in forests and mountain caves, composing verses to God, and finally achieving union with God. Her collected verses, in Kashmiri, are known as Lala Vak, vak being a Kashmiri verse form. They were transmitted orally, and later written down. Her verses indicate that she worshipped god in all forms, but particularly in the form of the Hindu god SHIVA. She was against animal sacrifices and rituals, and believed that all religions were essentially the same. In one verse she writes:

Whatever work I did, that was worship

Whatever I did, that became a mantra

This recognition entered every fibre of my being

As the essence of the knowledge of Parama Shiva.

Laleshwari is revered by both Hindus and Muslims, and according to tradition inspired the famous NURUDDIN RISHI and other wandering saints. Her verses still constitute many of the proverbs and sayings of Kashmir.

Lalita A Hindu mother goddess identified with the supreme goddess, MAHADEVI. The Lalita-Sahasranama contains a thousand names of the goddess. Lalita is also a form of the goddess SHARADA or SARASVATI. As one of the MAHAVIDYAS, she is represented by the goddess SHODASHI.

Lalitavistara A biography of the BUDDHA written in Sanskrit in about the second century CE. It is considered relatively accurate and records his life up to the time of his first sermon in the Deer Park at SARNATH. Its twenty-seven chapters also contain accounts of some of his past lives.

lama A term in TIBETAN BUDDHISM for an advanced monk, scholar or teacher. It can be used as a generic term for a monk. There are different types of lamas; some may be founders of various Buddhist orders, or great teachers. Without a lama one cannot receive Buddhist teachings, and thus lamas may be revered more than BUDDHAS or deities. The DALAI LAMA is one of the most respected.

Various types of lamas include a Rinpoche, or high-ranking lama, a Tulku, or incarnate lama, and a Khenpo, who is the abbot or head of a monastery.

lam-rim A term in TIBETAN BUDDHISM for ‘stages of the path’, the successive steps on the spiritual path. The graded path of lam-rim was explained in the KADAM school, and later formed part of other Tibetan Buddhist schools. TSONG KHAPA’s Lam Rim Chen Mo, or The Graduated Path to Enlightenment, is a major fourteenth century text, describing this path.

langar In Sikhism, a term for the community kitchen attached to every GURDWARA, from which free food is served to all. It also refers to the free meal served from such a kitchen, or from elsewhere on special occasions. The system of the langar, in which all communities and castes ate together without distinction, was based on an earlier tradition that existed in the Sufi KHANQAHS.

Lanka A city, the capital of RAVANA, described in the RAMAYANA. It is usually located in present Sri Lanka, though archaeologists and historians have suggested other locations as well. Alternatively, it could have been a mythical city. Lanka is described as a grand city with seven moats and seven high walls of stone and metal. It was built by the divine architect VISHVAKARMA for the god KUBERA but was appropriated by Ravana. According to the BHAGAVATA PURANA, Lanka was originally on Mt MERU but was broken off by the god VAYU and hurled into the ocean.

Lankavatara Sutra A MAHAYANA Buddhist text of the YOGACHARA school, probably composed around 400 CE. It discusses various Yogachara concepts through a dialogue between the BUDDHA and the Bodhisattva Mahamati. The text has ten chapters, nine in prose and one in verse. It explains SHUNYATA or emptiness, the theory of ‘eight types of consciousness’ or vijnanas, and the TATHAGATA-GARBHA theory, i.e., that the essence of the BUDDHA is present in all living beings.

Latin Catholic Church A CATHOLIC CHURCH that has 119 dioceses and 16 Archdioceses in India. It has existed in India since the thirteenth century, when missionaries including MONTECORVINO, a Franciscan, Jordan Catalani, a Dominican, and John Marigloni, another Franciscan, came to south India. Pope John XXII established the diocese of Quilon with the Cathedral Church and nominated Cataloni the first Latin bishop of Quilon (present-day Kollam in Kerala). Its jurisdiction comprised all the Latin Churches in India and Southeast Asia. However, there were few Catholics in India until the coming of the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese received their authority from the PADROADO, an agreement between the Pope and the king of Portugal that gave the Portuguese authority to convert the local people. Francis XAVIER, who arrived in 1542, particularly helped in spreading Catholicism. Portuguese Catholics in the Kerala area attempted to bring the SYRIAN CHRISTIANS under Catholicism and initially had some success. In the sixteenth century, JESUITS from Goa were invited to the court of the Mughal emperor AKBAR, and though they did not manage to convert him, they spread Catholicism in the north, establishing Catholic settlements at AGRA, DELHI, Lahore, Jaipur, Nawar and Patna. There were some Catholic missions in the north-east as well, though at this time they did not have much effect. In 1662, Pope Gregory XV attempted to counteract the influence of the Portuguese and founded the Congregation of PROPAGANDA. Three Apostolic Vicariates and a Prefecture were created in India in the seventeenth century. The Vicariate of Malabar included both Syrian and Latin Catholics. In 1886, Pope Leo XIII constituted the Catholic Hierarchy of India. There were seventeen ecclesiastical units under the Propaganda and two under the Padroado (Goa and Mylapur). Two Apostolic Vicariates for the Syrian Christians were established in 1887 at Thrissur and Kottayam. The Propaganda tried to promote local priests, but this was opposed by the Padroado, and the first Indian head of a Latin-rite diocese was appointed in 1923. In 1944 the Indian missionary bishops formed the Catholic Bishops’ Conference in India, and in 1948 Pope Pius XII established the Internunciate in India, which was raised to a Nunciate in 1967. An Archbishop is appointed as Apostolic Nuncio (ambassador of the Vatican) to India. The Conference of Catholic Bishops of India, formed in 1988, now represents the Latin Church.

The Latin Church exists all over India and follows the Latin rite. GOA, parts of KERALA and MUMBAI have a number of Latin Catholic churches. Churches dedicated to MARY, mother of Jesus, are among the most popular.

Lava A son of RAMA and SITA, the twin of KUSHA. After the death of Rama, he ruled north Koshala, with his capital at Shravasti. According to tradition, the RAMAYANA was narrated to Lava and Kusha by VALMIKI, and they popularized it by travelling to various places and reciting it.

Lavan A four-stanza hymn composed by the Sikh guru, RAM DAS. It forms part of the Anand Karaj or Sikh marriage ceremony. Each stanza is read as the couple circumambulate the GURU GRANTH SAHIB. The hymn invokes God’s blessing for the marriage but also has a deeper meaning, signifying the unity of the soul with God. The fourth stanza states: ‘In the fourth round the mind receives divine knowledge and is inwardly united with god. Through the grace of the guru this blissful state is reached. The sweetness of the beloved pervades us, body and soul. The lord God is united with his holy bride.’

Lent A period of forty days of fasting and penance in Christianity. The forty days of Lent begin with Ash Wednesday and end on the eve of EASTER. Lent commemorates Christ’s sojourn in the wilderness, when he fasted and prayed.

leshya A concept in Jainism. Leshya, signified by a colour, indicates the condition of the soul, which is affected by various types of KARMA. The six main leshyas, with a number of shades or tints in between, are black, blue, grey, red, yellow (or pink) and white. Black, blue and grey are negative states. A cruel and wicked person develops a black leshya; one who expresses greed, anger and other negative qualities has a blue leshya; a dishonest person has a grey leshya. Red, yellow and white are positive leshyas. A humble, honest, restrained person develops the red leshya; one who in addition devotes himself to studies and duties, the yellow leshya; and one who is totally controlled, free from passion, calm and with senses subdued, has the white leshya. These leshyas lead the soul to different forms and courses in life.

lhakhang A term for a Buddhist temple in TIBETAN BUDDHISM.

linga A term for the emblem of the Hindu god SHIVA. The linga is the depiction of Shiva in a column or pillar form. It represents the phallus, but at the same time, is a representation of the cosmos, and a symbol of fertility, life and regeneration. Myths connected with the linga narrate that Shiva appeared in this form as a column of fire, the top and bottom of which could not be seen.

Some trace the first depiction of the linga to the INDUS CIVILIZATION. The emblem was also depicted on coins and seals from the second century BCE onwards, while an early linga in stone, found at Gudimallam near Renigunta in Andhra Pradesh, is thought to belong to the second or first century BCE. Textual references seem to indicate that the cosmic significance of the linga was introduced at a later date to make its worship more acceptable.

SHAIVA AGAMAS describe different types of lingas. The Kamika Agama mentions six types: svayambhuva, or self-created; daivaka, or made by the gods; arshaka, made by the RISHIS; ganapatya, made by the GANAS; manusha, made by people; and bana lingas or natural objects that look like lingas. These are all sthiralingas, or fixed lingas.

Manusha lingas, and how they should be made, are extensively described. Each has three parts: Brahmabhaga, a square lowest section; Vishnubhaga, an octagonal middle section; and Rudrabhaga or Pujabhaga, the top section, which is generally cylindrical, and is the portion that is worshipped. The two lower sections are usually inserted into the ground or in a pedestal. There are several different categories of manusha lingas, based on the type of carving on the upper section. Particularly sacred out of these are the ashtottarashata, with 108 lines, and the sahasra linga with 1000 lines. One to five faces of Shiva, representing his different aspects, may be carved on the linga.

From a fairly early period, the linga was the main object of worship in several SHAIVITE shrines and temples, with depictions of the god used as accessories on the walls. Lingas enshrined in temples follow the standards laid down in texts, but can also be classified according to the elements they represent. Most sacred are the twelve jyotir lingas, or lingas of light, enshrined at SOMANATHA, in Gujarat; KEDARNATHA in Uttaranchal; KASHI VISHVANATHA in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh; Mahakaleshvara at Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh; OMKARESHVARA, in Madhya Pradesh; Mallikarjuna at SRISAILAM, Andhra Pradesh; Vaidyantha or Baijnath at Deogarh in Jharkhand; Ghushmeshvara, in Maharashtra; Bhima-shankara, in Maharashtra; Tryambak-eshvara, also in Maharashtra; Nageshvara, in Gujarat; and RAMESHVARAM in Tamil Nadu. There are also lingas of other elements, vayu or air, prithvi or earth, jala or water, akasha or space as well as lingas representing yajna or sacrifice, Soma or the moon, and Surya or the sun. Important among these are the Vayu linga at the KALAHASTISHVARA TEMPLE in Andhra Pradesh; the Tejas or fire linga in TIRUVANNAMALAI; the Akasha linga at CHIDAMBARAM; the Jala linga at Jambukeshvara at Tiruvanaikaval, Tamil Nadu; and the Prithvi linga at the Ekambareshvara Temple in KANCHIPURAM. An ice linga is worshipped at AMARNATH.

Lingas can be made by individuals in their homes, and there are rules laid down for making and consecrating them. Temples enshrining lingas are found in all parts of the country and range from the huge and vast to small, mud structures.

The linga is worshipped by all Shaivites, but it is the special emblem of the LINGAYATS or Virashaivas, a Shaivite sect.

Linga Purana A Sanskrit text, one of the eighteen major PURANAS of Hinduism. The Linga Purana has two parts, Purvardha and Uttarardha, It begins with an account of the holy places visited by the rishi Narada, who finally rearches Naimisharanya. Suta Lomaharshana reaches there and reaches there and rectites this Purana at the request of the rishis. The text focuses on the consecration and worship of the LINGA, and of Shiva along with his five forms of Ishana, Aghora, Vamadeva, Tatpurusha and Jata. It describes SHIVA as the creator of the universe. Twenty-eight incarnations of Shiva are described.

Lingaraja Temple A temple dedicated to the Hindu god SHIVA, located in Bhubaneswar, Orissa. The temple is said to have been first constructed in the seventh century, but the present structure dates back to the eleventh century, with some later additions. It is a typical Orissa-style temple, with the inner shrine, known as the deul, the hall or jagmohan, the dance hall or nat mandir, and the bhog mandir or hall where offerings are made. The linga in the shrine rises about 20 cm above the ground, and is over 2 m (8 ft) in diameter. The whole complex is in an enclosure, entered from the east. The outer walls have two levels, divided by mouldings with sculptured niches. The tower over the shrine, reaches a height of 38.5 m. There are other small shrines in the enclosure, as well as a temple of the goddess PARVATI, dating to the thirteenth century.

According to legends, Parvati came here in disguise, as the area had been praised by Shiva. Here two asuras wished to marry her, but she defeated them. Shiva then appeared and constructed a lake, now known as the Bindusagar, for her to quench her thirst. He took the form of Lingaraja, and began to live near the lake. Later, the temple was constructed around his linga form.

The temple is still in use, and there are twenty-two daily ceremonies in worship of the deity.

Lingayats A SHAIVITE sect, also known as Virashaivas. The sect was founded in the twelfth century by BASAVANNA in the region of Karnataka, and may have developed as a reaction against BRAHMANA dominance and discrimination. Lingayats rejected the sanctity of the VEDAS and the authority of Brahmanas, and were against caste, sacrifices and pilgrimages. Certain Vedantic principles were accepted but were reinterpreted with Shaivite terminology. Thus SHIVA was recognized as the eternal principle, self-existent and beyond all attributes. Shiva’s divine symbol was the LINGA, and no other image worship was allowed. The Shunyasampadane, written on Allama Prabhu, a saint of the sect, throws more light on their practices.

In some texts six progressive stages of worship are described. Briefly, the first stage consists of simple BHAKTI; the second of nishthe, or discipline, enduring temptations and ordeals; in the third, avadhana bhakti, the devotee recognizes that the lord is everywhere and ‘receives’ or acknowledges Shiva’s presence in the world. The fourth stage is anubhava bhakti, in which the devotee sees Shiva within herself and others and is filled with compassion. The fifth stage is one of ananda or bliss, when the devotee is united with Shiva as a lover. However, at this stage separation from the divine, can still take place. In the sixth stage there is samarasa, when the devotee and Shiva are one, and all worship is ended. Later writers subdivided these stages into several more, though different aspects of each can be present at the same time. Apart from Basavanna and Allama Prabhu, other notable saints included Ekantada Ramayya, Kasimayya, Siddharama, Machideva, Bomayya and MAHADEVIYAKKA, a woman. These saints composed songs or vachanas of love and devotion to Shiva, many of which are preserved. A religious centre (the Anubhava Mandapa) was set up, where the saints of the new sect met and exchanged ideas.

Lingayats are still a practising sect, but caste distinctions gradually reappeared, and the sect itself became a caste, located mainly in Karnataka. Jangamas, or hereditary priests became a part of the sect.

Lingayats have five main MATHAS or religious centres at Kedarnath, SRISAILAM, Balehalli, UJJAIN and VARANASI. All members are attached to one of these centres and initiated by a guru. Each carries a small linga and wears a white dot on the forehead. The dead are buried instead of being cremated. Certain daily rites, such as worship of the linga, and some samskaras, such as initiation of male children, are practised. Their philosophy is described as Visheshadvaita.

The literature of the sect is in Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu. Some Shaiva Agamas contain aspects of the philosophy, but the most important literature is in Kannada.

Lohri A harvest festival celebrated on 13 January in north India, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Himachal. Similar festivals, such as MAKARA SANKRANTI and PONGAL, are celebrated elsewhere on 14 January, when the sun enters the constellation Makara (Capricorn) according to the Hindu calendar. Lohri marks the beginning of spring and has its own local rituals. The first Lohri after a couple is married is considered a special occasion for them, as well as the first Lohri after a son is born.

On the evening of Lohri, bonfires are lit and people dance and sing around them. Sweets made of sesame or til, along with puffed rice and popcorn, are thrown in the fire, and handfuls of this mixture are distributed to the poor. Small coins are also thrown, and wishes are made for wealth and prosperity in the future. In some areas songs are sung about Dulha Bhatti, a legendary person similar to Robin Hood, who, long ago, robbed the rich and distributed their wealth to the poor.

loka A term used in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain mythology, signifying a type of world, or a division of the universe into different worlds. In Hinduism there are various classifications of the different worlds. Triloka, or three worlds, are commonly mentioned and consist of heaven, earth and hell. In some PURANAS, fourteen worlds are mentioned as part of the BRAHMANDA or cosmic egg. There are seven in the upper world and seven in the nether world. The seven upper worlds are: Bhuloka, the earth; Bhuvarloka, between the earth and the sun, where munis, SIDDHAS and perfected ones live; Svarloka, the heaven of INDRA; Maharloka, where saints such as BHRIGU live; Janarloka, where BRAHMA’s mind-born sons, Sanaka, Sananda, Sanatana and SANAT KUMARA are; Tapoloka, the home of Vairaja; Satyaloka, the heaven of Brahma, where one is freed from rebirth. The seven lower worlds are: ATALA, ruled by Bala or Mahamaya; VITALA, ruled by Hatakeshvara, a form of SHIVA; SUTALA, under MAHABALI; TALATALA, under Maya; MAHATALA, the residence of Nagas; RASATALA, where some of the enemies of the DEVAS live; PATALA, in which Vasuki is the ruler and the chief NAGAS or serpent gods dwell. The seven lower realms are together referred to as Patala. These are not the same as NARAKAS or hells. When the rishi NARADA visited these worlds, he said they were wonderful, and better than Indra’s heaven. There are different lists of these lokas in various PURANAS. In some texts there are eight lokas: Brahmaloka, where the higher deities live; Pitriloka, where the PITRIS, RISHIS and PRAJAPATIS dwell; Somaloka, with the moon and other planets; Indraloka, where the lesser deities dwell; Gandharvaloka, which has GANDHARVAS and similar beings; Rakshasaloka, the world of the Rakshasas; Yakshaloka, of the YAKSHAS; Pishachaloka, of the PISHACHAS.

In Buddhism the different worlds include dhatus and lokas. The PALI CANON describes three realms: the Kamadhatu or realm of desire, where six classes of gods, humans and animals live, apart from anti-gods, hell-beings and hungry ghosts; the Rupadhatu, or realm of forms, where there are gods who have practised various types of DHYANA or meditation; the Arupyadhatu, or formless realm, for those who have achieved the state beyond form. Each realm has several heavens, and up to twenty-six heavens are described. Apart from these there are a number of hells, for which the term naraka is usually used. Eight hot hells and eight cold hells are often described.

The ABHIDHARMAKOSHA of Vasubandhu describes two sets of heavens above the earth, and six cold and six hot hells below.

MAHAYANA and VAJRAYANA texts describe a number of heavens ruled over by Celestial BUDDHAS.

Jain texts state that there are several lokas within the universe. Madhyaloka, the middle world, has various continents, of which Jambudvipa, which includes India, is the most important. Below is Adhaloka, which has seven levels, while above is Urdhvaloka, with two types of heaven, one for ordinary (but good) souls, and the second for those close to emancipation. At the apex is Siddhashila, the place of the SIDDHAS or liberated souls. There are also numerous hells.

Lokacharya, Pillai A Vaishnavite philosopher who belonged to the TENGALAI school of VAISHNAVISM. According to some accounts he flourished in the second half of the thirteen century, and was born in 1205 while according to others he was born in 1130 in south India. He was influenced by the BHAKTI songs of the ALVAR saints and believed that though bhakti, and a total surrender to God, salvation could be attained through the grace of god. The collection of hymns of the Alvar saints, the NALAYIRA DIVYA PRABANDHAM is the main sacred text of this school. Lokacharya’s works are mainly written in Sanskritized Tamil, put together as the Ashtadasha-rahasya. Of the individual texts, the Tattva-traya, Tattva-shekhara, Arthapanchaka and Shrivachanabhushana are among the most important.

Lokapalas Guardian deities in Hinduism, also known as DIKAPALAS, guardians of the directions. In a different context, Lokapalas are sometimes referred to as a group of five deities, including Vedic and later deities. These five are GANESHA, DURGA, VAYU, DYAUS and the ASHVINS.

Lokayata A Sanskrit term indicating materialistic schools of philosophy. It is specially used for the CHARVAKA school.

Lonka Shaha A Jain of the fifteenth century who founded the Lonka GACHCHHA from which other SHVETAMBARA sects developed. Lonka lived in Ahmadabad in the Gujarat region, though according to some sources he was originally from Kathiawar. At first an official in the government, he gave up his job when he felt pain at the sight of birds being caught in a trap. Instead, he began to make a living by copying Jain manuscripts, and as he studied Jain texts further, he started teaching the truths of the Jain religion. He soon gained a large following, and though he remained a layperson he was popularly known as Muni Dayadharma, while the sect he founded was known as the Daya Gachchha. Several of his disciples became munis (monks). Lonka was succeeded by Rupa Rishi, followed by Jiva Rishi. A sub-group of the Lonka Gachchha, the Bijamata, was founded in 1513 by a person named Bija, while the main group came to be known as STHANAKAVASI.

Lonka was against the worship of images in temples, a common practice in Jainism.

Losar The Tibetan new year, usually celebrated in February. At this time lamps are lit in Buddhist temples, offerings are made and prayers chanted. Dances and other festivities take place. The festival is celebrated in Tibetan Buddhist temples in India (See Tibetan Buddhism).

lotus A flower that is considered sacred. Spiritual texts state that a person should be like a lotus that grows with its roots in mud, yet rises above, pure and untainted. In Sanskrit texts, the lotus has a number of names, including kamala and padma.

Several Hindu deities are associated with the lotus, particularly the goddess LAKSHMI. A lotus grows out of VISHNU’s navel, hence he is known as Padmanabha (with a lotus navel). BUDDHAS and BODHISATTVAS are often depicted seated on a lotus. The lotus represents fertility, growth and purity.

Lotus Sutra A popular English name for the SADDHARMA PUNDARIKA, a MAHAYANA Buddhist text.

Lumbini The birthplace of the BUDDHA in Nepal, known today as Rummindei. According to the story of the Buddha’s birth, his mother Mahamaya was on her way from Kapilavastu to her parents’ home. While resting in the Lumbini gardens she gave birth to Siddhartha, later to become the BUDDHA. The Mauryan empereor ASHOKA set up a pillar here in the third century BCE. An inscription on the pillar, which is still standing, records that this was where the Buddha was born.

lungta A term in TIBETAN BUDDHISM for a ‘wind horse’, an image often depicted on tar-chok or prayer flags. The horse is a symbol of good luck, with the emblem of the three jewels of Buddhism on its back. The galloping horses cross the sky, spreading Buddhist teachings and taking prayers to heaven as the flags blow in the wind. The lungta image is sometimes printed on parchment or thin paper, and scattered on mountain tops or in sacred places.

Lutheran Church A Protestant Church based on the teachings of Martin Luther (1483–1546), who started the REFORMATION in Germany. Luther was against a number of Catholic practices of the times, among them the system of buying indulgences, or making cash payments for sins committed. He stated that the Catholic Church was not the only channel of communication with God, and that salvation was attained by grace, and not by works. Lutheranism spread through Europe and later North America, and a number of Lutheran Churches emerged. As they had no substantial philosophical differences, many joined together in unions. The Lutheran World Federation was set up in 1947.

Lutheranism also spread to India, where there is a united forum of these churches known as the United Evangelical Lutheran Church in India, with twelve member churches from all parts of the country. In Lutheran Churches, the basic unit is the congregation, administered by an elected council headed by a pastor or a layman elected by the council.