M

Ma (Maa) A word that means ‘mother’, but is often used for any Hindu goddess, particularly MAHADEVI, PARVATI, DURGA, or one of their forms.

Machhiwara A town in Ludhiana district of Punjab associated with the tenth Sikh guru, GOBIND SINGH. After the battle of CHAMKAUR, the guru escaped through thick forests and came to Machhiwara. He rested briefly in a garden and then spent one night at the house of Masand Gulab Rai. Three GURDWARAS commemorate Gobind Singh’s stay at Machhiwara. The Machhiwara Gurdwara, also known as the Chubara Sahib Gurdwara, is located at Gulab Rai’s house, while the Charan Kanwal gurdwara is built in the garden. This gurdwara is named after the Guru’s feet, which are compared with a divine lotus. Another gurdwara is the Uchch da pir Gurdwara. The guru briefly stayed in a room here, and disguised as the pir of Uchch, was helped to escape from Machhiwara by his Pathan disciples Ghani Khan and Nabi Khan.

Madana A name of the Hindu god of love, KAMA. Madana is also a name of the god KRISHNA.

Madar, Shah A saint whose followers are the MADARIS or Madariyas. ABDUR RAHMAN CHISTI, wrote a biography of Madar, known as Mirat-i Madari, though according to some scholars, this account is based on legends and is not authentic.

Chisti states that Shah Madar, also known as Shaikh Badruddin, was born in 1315 at Aleppo in a Jewish family, but later went to Mecca and Medina and converted to Islam. Finally he reached India, and after visiting Ajmer, Jaunpur and other places, he settled at Makhanpur near Kanpur in present Uttar Pradesh. He lived here for several years, and according to legendary accounts, did not eat for twelve years. As he remained pure and unpolluted, he did not need to bathe or change his clothes. He had great spiritual powers and attracted a number of disciples. His DARGAH at Makhanpur is visited by both Hindu and Muslim devotees.

Madaris (1) A SUFI sect, the followers of Shah MADAR. Madaris are of different kinds; the ascetics wander naked with matted hair, use intoxicants and rub ash on their bodies. Influenced by certain NATHA YOGI practices, they are said to have great power. Their slogan is ‘Dam, Madar’ which can be translated in different ways, as ‘Madar is life’; ‘Madar is spirit’; or ‘Control the breath’. By their ascetic practices, Madaris are able to perform various feats, such as walking on burning coal. (2) Another group of Madaris, including both Hindus and Muslims, are acrobats, jugglers, and those who train monkeys and bears for entertainment. Shah Madar is their patron saint.

Madhava Kandali An Assamese poet who lived in the fourteenth century and translated the RAMAYANA into Assamese. Not much is known about Madhava. He states that the translation was done at the request of the Varaha king Srimahamanikya, who was possibly a ruler of the Kachari dynasty. The Adi and Uttara Kandas, i.e., the first and last books of the Ramayana, are missing in Kandali’s work. The rest is in Assamese verse and keeps close to the original, with some modifications. His translation formed the basis for later Ramayanas in Assamese, including the Giti Ramayana of Durgavara (sixteenth century), the Ramayana of Ananta Kandalai (sixteenth century), and the prose Ramayana of Raghunatha Mahanta (late eighteenth century). In all these the first and last books are missing. SHANKARADEVA rewrote the Uttara Kanda in Assamese verse.

Madhavacharya The probable original name of VIDYARANYA, who lived in the Vijayanagara kingdom in the fourteenth century.

Madhavi A goddess of the earth mentioned in the Uttara Kanda of the RAMAYANA of VALMIKI. SITA had originated from the earth, and at the end of her life, Madhavi arose from the earth to take Sita back. Throughout her life Sita had faced much sorrow. After being rescued from LANKA and undergoing a fire ordeal to prove her innocence, she lived for a while with RAMA, but was then banished to the ashrama of Valmiki. When Rama met their twin sons, LAVA and KUSHA, he wanted Sita once again to prove her purity before the people. Sita who came to the gathering wearing a brown garment, said, ‘As I have not contemplated anyone but Rama, so may the goddess Madhavi provide space to me.’ A divine throne arose from the earth, borne on the head of NAGAS, adorned with gems. The earth goddess was seated on it and welcomed Sita, making her sit with her, and descended once again into the earth. Rama was then filled with grief, but he was assured they would be united in heaven.

As Sita was born from the earth, her return to it is symbolic, in keeping with her earlier role as an agrarian deity.

Madhavi is also a name of the goddess LAKSHMI.

Madhu-Kaitabha The name of two DAITYAS or ASURAS who emerged out of the ear-wax of the Hindu god VISHNU. They are described in the MAHABHARATA and PURANAS. According to the DEVI BHAGAVATA PURANA, they worshipped DEVI and received a boon that they would not die except when they wished. They grew extremely powerful and stole the VEDAS from the god BRAHMA. Finally Vishnu managed to kill them by tricking them into granting him a boon.

Madhva The founder of the DVAITA system of philosophy, who lived in the thirteenth century. Madhva was also known as Ananda Tirtha or Purna Prajna.

Born in 1199 near Udupi in present Karnataka in a BRAHMANA family, he had exceptional abilities; by the age of five he is said to have had a complete knowledge of the VEDAS and all branches of Vedic knowledge. He studied ADVAITA, but gradually developed his own theories. He toured the sacred sites of north India and spent some time meditating in the Himalayas. In VARANASI, he is reputed to have walked on water and to have performed other miracles similar to JESUS. Returning to the south, he founded a Krishna Temple at UDUPI, and wrote a commentary on the BRAHMA SUTRA. His Dvaita philosophy was developed in several works, collectively known as the Sarva-Mula Grantha, and including at least thirty-seven texts. He believed in the reality of the world, rejecting the theory of MAYA or illusion, and in a permanent individual self, unlike the ADVAITA theory of only One Reality. He stopped sacrifices in temples and was against the DEVADASI practice. Some of his ideas are thought to have been influenced by Nestorian Christians who lived in south India in those days.

Madhva died in 1278. According to one legend he was the incarnation of the wind god VAYU and disappeared into the air while meditating. Though these dates of his birth and death are generally accepted, some place him in the eleventh century, and others, between 1238 and 1317.

There are still several followers of Dvaita in Karnataka and elsewhere.

Madhyamika/Madhyamaka A school of MAHAYANA Buddhism that literally means ‘the middle way’. Founded by NAGARJUNA in about CE 150, its main text is his Madhyamika Karika. The school rejects both affirmations and negations of all metaphysical systems, and sees Shunyata as the middle way between being and non-being. SHUNYATA (void) is the only reality, SAMSARA and NIRVANA being the same and unreal. Cosmic change is unreal, and the consciousness that perceives it has no reality either. Yet the world has a qualified practical reality, and Shunyata is the essence that pervades the world, which according to some texts, is identified with the ADI BUDDHA, and the source of bliss. Nagarjuna’s disciple ARYADEVA also made notable contributions to this school. By about 500-50, two branches of Madhyamika developed, the PRASANGIKA and SVATANTRIKA. Later, Madhyamika absorbed other philosophies, including that of YOGACHARA.

madrasa/madarsa/madrassa (1) An Islamic educational institution. The focus is on Islamic subjects such as jurisprudence, theology and philosophy, though some other subjects are also taught. There are a number of madrasas in India, some dating back to medieval times, and each is usually attached to a mosque. The earliest madrasas in north India were established in the thirteenth century and by the fourteenth century, Delhi alone had one thousand. In the eighteenth century, the Dars-i-Nizamiya of Mulla NIZAMUDDIN, based on the Quran and HADIS, became the standard syllabus, later used in the DAR-UL-ULOOM, Deoband, and the NADWAT-UL-ULAMA. Madrasas still exist all over India, though there are suggestions that they should be modernized and their curriculum revised.

(2) The term is also used for Zoroastrian institutes for training priests, but is usually spelt ‘madressa’.

Madrasa, of Mahmud Gawan A MADRASA or Islamic college located at Bidar in Karnataka, founded in the fifteenth century. It was constructed in 1472 by Khwaja Mahmud Gawan, the minister of Muhammad Shah III (1463-82), ruler of the Bahmani kingdom.

The madrasa had a grand reputation that attracted theologians, philosophers and scientists, who discussed and debated various issues. Its library had over 3000 manuscripts.

The three-storeyed madrasa, probably designed by architects from Iran, was a rectangular structure occupying an area of 68 by 60 m. The main entrance was on the east. Large reading halls were attached to it, with semi-octagonal chambers. The facade was once covered in glazed tiles, with a band of Quranic inscription inlaid with gold. Two tall minarets rose to a height of about 30 m.

Though the structure is still standing, it is a shadow of its former self. It was taken over by Aurangzeb before he become the Mughal emperor, in 1656 when he was governor of the Deccan, and used as military barracks. Gunpower stored in some of the rooms exploded and damaged the building. Part of it was also damaged in 1696 by lightning.

Madri The second wife of PANDU, the mother of the twins NAKULA and SAHADEVA, described in the MAHABHARATA. When Pandu died, Madri ascended the funeral pyre of her husband, an instance of SATI in the Mahabharata.

Madurai A city in Tamil Nadu famous for its temples, the most important being the seventeenth century MINAKSHI TEMPLE. Located on the Vaigai river, Madurai has ancient origins, and was the capital of the Pandya dynasty. From the fourteenth century, it was included in the Vijayanagara empire. The Nayakas (local governors) took over after the downfall of Vijayanagara in the sixteenth century.

There are several legends about the sanctity of the city. The Pandyas were worshippers of the Hindu god SHIVA, and a drop of nectar is said to have fallen here from Shiva’s hair, hence the name ‘Madurai’ or ‘the sweetest’. The movement of a great NAGA or serpent marked the boundaries of the city, and the Minakshi Temple was built where its tail and head met.

Madurai was a great centre of Tamil literature. Three literary sangams (meetings) were held here in early days, producing a body of work that is popularly referred to as SANGAM LITERATURE. The city is described in other texts as well, including the SHILAPPADIGARAM, an early Tamil epic.

Magadha A state in ancient India described in early texts, that covered part of present Bihar, extending to the east and south. In the MAHABHARATA, Magadha is said to have been ruled by King Jarasandha, who became an enemy of KRISHNA, and was finally killed by the Pandava BHIMA. However, Magadha is particularly important in the history of Buddhism and Jainism. At the time of the Buddha, King BIMBISARA was the ruler and became a follower and patron of the BUDDHA. He was succeeded by AJATASHATRU, a patron of both Jainism and Buddhism. ASHOKA Maurya (269–232 BCE), the king most responsible for spreading Buddhism, had his capital at PATALIPUTRA in Magadha. Apart from Pataliputra (modern Patna), RAJAGRIHA, VAISHALI, Uruvela (BODH GAYA), and other major sites associated with Buddhism are located here. MAHAVIRA, the Jain TIRTHANKARA, was born near Vaishali, and CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA, grandfather of Ashoka, was a patron of Jainism. One of the most sacred Jain sites, the PARASNATH HILL, is located in the region of ancient Magadha.

The term Maga or Magha, still used for some of the local people, particularly Magha Brahmanas, is thought by some to be derived from Magi, a class of early Zoroastrian priests. This has led to the theory that Zoroastrians once settled here, and were absorbed into Hinduism. This is both because of the similarity with the word MAGI and because of some of the practices of these brahmanas.

Later, the great monasteries of Buddhism, NALANDA and VIKRAMSHILA, were located in Bihar, which itself is derived from the word for a Buddhist monastery, ‘vihara’.

Magha Mela A Hindu festival held once a year at ALLAHABAD, the ancient PRAYAGA, in the month of Magha (January/February). At this time pilgrims come from all over for a dip in the sangam, the confluence of the rivers GANGA and YAMUNA.

magi The high priests of the Medes, who were later absorbed into Zoroastrianism. When the Median empire of western Iran was overthrown by the Achaemenian king Cyrus in 550 BCE, the magi began to influence Zoroastrianism, gradually gaining acceptance as Zoroastrian priests. They are thought to have introduced new elements into Zoroastrianism, including reverence for the elements of nature, which were to be kept pure and undefiled. This led to the exposure of dead bodies, rather than burial or cremation. They also had a role at the time of the Sasanian dynasty, when the office of the Magupatan Magupat, chief of the magi, existed. The magi are described in Greek and Roman accounts, and in the Christian tradition, the wise men who visited the baby JESUS, were magi. They lost their importance after the decline of the Sasanians in the seventh century.

Mahabali A DAITYA king who had many good qualities but was sent by the Hindu god VISHNU into PATALA or the nether world.

Mahabali, also known as Bali, was the son of Virochana and the grandson of PRAHLADA who was known for his devotion to Vishnu. Several stories are narrated about Bali in the PURANAS and other texts. He succeeded his father to the throne and was the king of the ASURAS when the ocean was churned for AMRITA. He was killed in the battle against the DEVAS, but was brought to life again through the use of sacred herbs. Bali then drove the devas out of heaven and ruled in their place. Everyone was happy under his rule, except the devas and the BRAHMANAS who lost their privileges. The devas appealed to Vishnu, who said that though Bali was devoted to him, he would solve their problems after being born as VAMANA. After some time, ADITI, mother of the devas, gave birth to Vishnu as Vamana.

While Mahabali was offering a sacrifice on the river NARMADA, Vamana appeared to him in the form of a young hermit and requested as much land as he could cover in three steps. Bali agreed, against the advice of his teacher and priest SHUKRACHARYA. Vamana began taking the three steps, and as he did so, he grew enormously in size. The first step covered the whole earth, the second, the whole of heaven. Mahabali then offered his own body for the third step, because a promise given can never be broken. Placing his foot on his head, VAMANA pushed Bali into Patala, the nether world, where he has reigned ever since.

This story may represent the conflict between the people of south India and the Brahmanic traditions of the north, which gradually overlaid early south Indian culture.

In Kerala, Mahabali is still considered an ideal king. He is said to have ruled there and to have made the land prosperous and peaceful. Vamana allows him to come out of the earth for one day every year, and that traditional day is celebrated in Kerala as the festival of ONAM. Mahabali is also revered in several other places across India.

Mahabalipuram A city in Tamil Nadu, also known as MAMALAPURAM.

Mahabharata An early Indian epic, written in Sanskrit and consisting of 1,00,000 verses. It is still popular today, and contains the BHAGAVAD GITA, one of the most sacred Hindu texts. The Mahabharata, with eighteen parvas or sections, has a main story and a number of subsidiary stories. It includes legends, myths and advice on living an ethical life, as well as philosophical and spiritual practices. In fact, it is said, there is nothing the Mahabharata does not contain.

The story: The central story is about two sets of cousins, the KAURAVAS and PANDAVAS, descendants of KURU. DHRITARASHTRA, PANDU and VIDURA, were three sons of the rishi VYASA, from different mothers. According to the story associated with their birth, Shantanu, a king of the Chandravamsha or lunar dynasty, had two wives, Ganga and Satyavati. Devavrata was the son of Shantanu through Ganga, but he renounced his succession to the throne, and was them known as Bhishma. Vyasa was born to Satyavati through a rishi, without her losing her virginity, while she had two more sons from Shantanu, known as Chitrangada and Vichitravirya. Chitrangada died young; Vichitravirya married two daughters of the king of KASHI, Ambika and Ambalika, but also died without any children. Satyavati therefore asked Vyasa to continue the line by begetting children through the two wives of Vichitravirya. Terrified at the sight of Vyasa, Ambika shut her eyes, and thus Dhritarashtra was born blind. Ambalika turned pale at the sight of the rishi, and so Pandu was born pale. Vidura was born through a servant maid who found Vyasa quite congenial, and thus Vidura was intelligent and wise.

They all lived at HASTINAPURA, the capital of the Kuru country. Dhritarashtra was married to GANDHARI and had one hundred sons, known as the Kauravas, the eldest of whom was DURYODHANA. As Dhritarashtra was blind, Pandu became the king of Hastinapura. Pandu had two wives, KUNTI and MADRI, but as it was dangerous for him to have children, his five sons, the Pandavas were born through the help of the gods. Pandu died young and Dhritarashtra took over the throne, taking care of the Pandavas as if they were his own sons. However, there was intense rivalry between the Pandavas and Kauravas, which reached a height when Dhritarashtra, in a fit of generosity, chose YUDHISHTHIRA, the eldest Pandava, as his successor. Games of dice between Yudhishthira and Duryodhana led to Yudhishthira losing his kingdom and all he possessed, and going into exile with his brothers and wife. Many years of conflicts between the two groups culminated in a great war, in which practically all the kings of Bharata (India) took part, on one side or the other. The god KRISHNA, in his human form, played a part in the war, and the BHAGAVAD GITA is a dialogue between him and the third Pandava brother, ARJUNA, on the battlefield, as the war was about to start. The Kauravas were defeated in the war, and all of them were killed. The Pandavas too suffered losses, and all the children of DRAUPADI, their joint wife, were killed. Yudhishthira, at first filled with grief at the destruction caused by the war, was persuaded to take over the Kuru kingdom, which he ruled for many years, ensuring peace and prosperity.

Dhritarashtra could not get over the loss of his sons. He and Gandhari lived in Yudhishthira’s capital for fifteen years and were consulted on affairs of state and treated with great respect by all the Pandavas except BHIMA. Bhima could not forget that the dice game that began all their troubles was assented to by Dhritarashtra. Finally Dhritarshtra and Gandhari, accompanied by Kunti and some of their ministers, went to live in an ashrama in the forest. Two years later they died in a forest fire. After some time Yudhishthira abdicated his throne, and all the Pandavas left for INDRA’s heaven on Mt MERU which they ultimately reached.

The eighteen parvas of the Mahabharata are:

(1) Adi Parva: the beginning, a description of Dhritarashtra, Pandu and their families; (2) Sabha Parva: life at the court; Yudhishthira is defeated in a game of dice, and is forced to go into exile for thirteen years, the last of which had to be spent incognito. The five Pandavas and their joint wife, Draupadi, set out for their exile in the forest; (3) Vana Parva: the life of the Pandavas in the Kamakhya forest; (4) Virata Parva: the thirteenth year of exile is spent in the kingdom of King Virata, with all of them in disguise; (5) Udyoga Parva: both sides prepare for war; (6) Bhishma Parva: Duryodhana refuses to accept their return or even to divide the kingdom, or to give the Pandavas the five villages for which they asked. The war begins at the battlefield of KURUKSHETRA. The BHAGAVAD GITA is composed. BHISHMA commands the armies of Duryodhana, and on the tenth day he falls to an arrow; (7) Drona Parva: DRONA takes charge of the Kaurava army. He is killed after some days; (8) Karna Parva: KARNA takes command of the Kaurava army. He is killed; (9) Shalya Parva: Shalya takes charge of the Kaurava army; (10) Sauptika Parva: most of the warriors of the Pandava army are killed while they sleep; (11) Stri Parva: all the women lament on the battlefield; (12) Shanti Parva: Yudhishthira becomes the king. Bhishma, still alive, lying on a bed of arrows, tells him the duties of kingship; (13) Anushasana Parva: Bhishma discourses on various topics; (14) Ashvamedhika Parva: Yudhishthira conducts the ASHAVAMEDHA sacrifice; (15) Ashramavasika Parva: Dhritarashtra, Gandhari and Kunti retire to live in an ashrama in the forest. After two years they die in a forest fire; (16) Mausala Parva: Krishna was of the YADAVA clan. He and his clan lived at DVARAKA. The Yadavas begin to quarrel. KRISHNA and his brother BALARAMA die. Dvaraka is submerged in the sea; (17) Mahaprasthanika Parva: Yudhishthira hands over the kingdom to his successor. The Pandavas and Draupadi set out for Mt Meru; (18) Svargarohana Parva: The Pandavas and all their relatives are in heaven.

The HARIVAMSHA is appended to the Mahabharata, but is of a later date.

Date: The date of the Mahabharata is not easy to define. In general, scholars believe it was composed around the fourth century BCE, with additions being made up to 400 CE. There are several versions of the Mahabharata, with different recensions, from all parts of the country. A critical edition has been compiled identifying the earlier portions of the text. Though it is an epic and not history, the war and some of the other events are thought to have actually taken place, though not in the manner described. The traditional date of the war is 3102 BCE, while based on geography and archaeological excavations of the cities described, a date of 1000–900 BCE seems more likely.

Geography: The Mahabharata refers to people and kings from all parts of India, but most of the events of the main story take place in present Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan, and other parts of north-west India. Places in these areas and in Uttarakhand are still associated with the Pandavas.

Archaeology: Several of the places of the core area mentioned in the Mahabharata, such as Hastinapura, have the same or similar names today. Excavation and exploration at these sites link the period of the Mahabharata with that of the Painted Grey Ware Culture, datable to between 1200 and 600 BCE. Some scholars believe that such linkages are not merely tenuous but incorrect, as a mythical epic cannot be placed in a historical context. However, most of the early history of India available through contemporary literary sources is interspersed with myths and legends.

Links with other epics: Some scholars find parallels between the great war of the Mahabharata and the Trojan War, as each was the central point for traditional accounts of history.

Other versions: The story also appears in Jain and Buddhist texts, and is retold with variations in tribal and other cultures.

It was translated into Persian and into all the regional languages of India, with the addition of local themes.

Mahabharata, in Jainism Several versions of the MAHABHARATA occur in Jain literature. Among the earliest is the HARIVAMSHA PURANA of Jinasena, composed in 783 CE, which tells the story of the Mahabharata in a Jain setting. Many other Harivamsha Puranas were written, among them one by Sakalakirti and Jinadasa, composed in the fifteenth century. Devaprabha Suri wrote the Pandava Charita around 1200; it has eighteen sargas or sections, following the eighteen parvas of the Mahabharata. Shubhachandra composed the Pandava Purana in 1551. Mahabharata stories are also included in other texts and are even found in the ANGAS.

Mahabodhi Society of India A society set up in 1891 to promote and revive Buddhism in India. It was founded by ANAGARIKA DHARMAPALA (1864–1933), the name adopted by Don David Hewaviratne from Sri Lanka, earlier a Christian. The society has a library of books on Buddhism and publishes Pali and Sanskrit Buddhist texts, as well as translations. It brings out two monthly magazines on Buddhism: Mahabodhi in English, and Dharma Duta in Hindi.

Mahabodhi Temple A Buddhist temple at BODH GAYA, erected near the spot where the BUDDHA gained enlightenment. First constructed around the fourth century, it has been rebuilt and expanded several times. The Chinese pilgrim XUANZANG visited the temple in the seventh century and left a description of it. He said that it was located east of the BODHI TREE, and was the equivalent of about 50 m high, made of bricks and coated with lime, with tiers of niches in which there were golden images. The main image of the Buddha here was said to have been made by the Bodhisattva MAITREYA, disguised as a BRAHMANA.

The temple was again reconstructed in the ninth century and several times after the twelfth century. The most extensive rebuilding was towards the end of the nineteenth century. Some aspects of the original structure have survived from the seventh century.

The temple is built on a broad terrace, the sides of which have niches with plaster sculptures. The walls of the main shrine have sculptured panels between pilasters. At the entrance is a sixth-century Buddha image. Above the shrine, a pyramidal tower rises to a height of 55 m. Subsidiary shrines on the four corners of the terrace replicate the structure of the main temple.

Behind the temple is the Bodhi Tree (not the original), and beneath it a carved stone seat marking the spot where the Buddha sat. The seat possibly dates back to the third century BCE. Around it are posts dating to the Shunga period (second century BCE), which were probably once connected by a railing enclosing the sacred site. There are also later posts of the Gupta period. Two shrines from the eighth century located within the temple compound are of the goddesses ANNAPURNA and TARA. In addition there are several STUPAS of the Pala period.

Other temples have been recently constructed at Bodh Gaya, including a Tibetan Buddhist temple and a Japanese Buddhist temple.

Mahadeva A name of the Hindu god SHIVA, and of one of the RUDRAS.

Mahadeva Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located at Ettumanur, Kerala. It was constructed in the sixteenth century, with additions being made later.

The square inner shrine contains a LINGA and is enclosed in a circular pillared mandapa. Both have conical timber roofs with metal tiles, and a brass pot finial. Around the MANDAPA is a circular passage with a carved wooden screen depicting scenes from the RAMAYANA and the life of KRISHNA. The mandapa has a wooden ceiling with twenty-five panels adorned with various deities. The porch at the western entrance has seventeenth-century paintings, including one of Shiva as NATARAJA. The temple is in typical Kerala style.

Mahadevi A Hindu goddess who combines aspects of other goddesses, and is considered a supreme deity. The concept of Mahadevi emerged around the sixth century, and has the characteristics of the Absolute, superior to all other deities. Texts deal with this concept in two different ways; firstly, to take a goddess such as DURGA or LAKSHMI, and assign to her the attributes of a supreme deity, with all other gods and goddesses being inferior; and secondly to describe a universal goddess, known as DEVI, Mahadevi or BHAGAVATI. In the Lalita-Sahasranama, the various names of Mahadevi include Jagatikanda (root of the world), Vishvadhika (one who transcends the universe), Nirupama (without equal) and Parameshvari (supreme ruler). She is Mahabuddhi (supreme knowledge), Prajnatmika (the soul of wisdom), and Gurumurti (the form of the guru). Several other names and epithets are given in various texts. In the DEVI BHAGAVATA PURANA, Mahadevi is said to be the ruler of all beings and the creator of BRAHMA, VISHNU and SHIVA. Mahadevi represents SHAKTI, or divine power, and is identified with PRAKRITI, nature or the feminine creative principle, and MAYA or illusion. Mahadevi’s most common form is Durga. According to the Devi Bhagavata Purana, Mahadevi is NIRGUNA, or beyond all qualities and forms, but can assume any form she pleases. In the Saundarya Lahiri, a text assigned to SHANKARA, Devi is described as an extremely beautiful lady, though Mahadevi can also have ferocious forms. Mahadevi thus represents the supreme feminine principle, which can take on a particular form, either benevolent or terrifying.

Mahadeviyakka A female SHAIVITE saint who lived in the twelfth century in south India. She joined the Virashaiva or LINGAYAT sect and was accepted into it by Allama Prabhu, a senior member of the sect. According to some accounts, she was married against her will to Kaushika, a chieftain of the land, while according to others, she had rejected marriage, despite persuasion. She lived as a wandering ascetic, discarding her clothes and composing songs (vachanas) of devotion to the Hindu god SHIVA as MALLIKARJUNA, a form worshipped in her birthplace (village Udutadi). In her songs, she referred to Shiva as her husband and her lord. In one of her songs, she said:

I love the Beautiful One

With no bond nor fear

No clan, no land

No landmarks

For his beauty.

So my lord, white as jasmine, is my husband.

Take these husbands who die,

Decay, and feed them

To your kitchen fires! (Trans. A. K. Ramanujan)

Mahakala A name of the Hindu god SHIVA, as lord of time. Mahakala is also the name of a jyotir LINGA worshipped as Mahakaleshvara at UJJAIN.

Mahakuta A place near BADAMI in Karnataka where there are several early temples of the Hindu god SHIVA, constructed between the sixth and eighth centuries, at the time of the Chalukya dynasty. Temples include the Mahakuteshvara and the Mallikarjuna, the Sangameshvara and the Naganatha or Adakeshvara. There is also a tank, fed by a natural spring, with a small shrine housing a four-faced LINGA in the middle. In the late sixth century, Mahakuta became a great Shaiva centre. A pillar inscription here dated between 592–605, records the dedication of ten villages, by Queen Durlabhadevi to the deity Mahakuteshvara Natha, a form of Shiva. Another slightly later inscription records a grant of jewels and a silver umbrella to the deity. High walls and a gateway have been built around it in recent times. Beyond is another gateway with the deities CHAMUNDA and BHAIRAVA, carved in the form of skeletons. There are more temples nearby, including a NAGA temple 2 km away.

Mahalakshmi A form of the Hindu goddess LAKSHMI in which she represents the supreme goddess, also known as MAHADEVI. Mahalakshmi is usually depicted holding a citrus, mace, shield and skull, with a snake, a LINGA and a YONI on her head. All the three GUNAS or qualities are manifest in her. According to the PURANAS, at the time of the dissolution of the universe, the goddess Mahakali emanated from her, in whom tamas guna, or the quality of darkness, predominates. Mahasarasvati, representing sattva guna, the quality of purity and light, also emanates from her. These deities are described in the DEVI MAHATMAYA.

The primary centre for the worship of Mahalakshmi is at Kolhapur in Maharashtra, where there are shrines of Mahalakshmi, Mahakali and Mahasarasvati, along with a number of other deities. There is also a large Mahalakshmi Temple in MUMBAI, as well as smaller temples elsewhere.

Mahamaha/Mahamakha A Hindu festival celebrated at KUMBAKONAM in Tamil Nadu once every twelve years. A sacred tank is located here, near the river Kaveri. It is surrounded by shrines, and it is believed that at the time of the festival, the water of all the sacred rivers unite in this tank. The festival, also known as the Kumbhareshvara, takes place when the sun is in Aquarius (Kumbha), Jupiter is in Leo (Simha) and the moon is in conjunction with the constellation of Magha. Pilgrims from all over come to bathe in the tank on this auspicious occasion. The tank was constructed in the seventeenth century.

Mahamaya (1) A revered person in Buddhism, Maya or Mahamaya was the mother of Gautama Siddhartha, who later became the BUDDHA. The wife of King Shuddhodana of the Shakya clan, she had mystical dreams indicating that she would give birth to a divine being. Proceeding from Kapilavastu to her parents’ house, she gave birth to Siddhartha in the LUMBINI gardens. Though she died seven days after his birth, there are several legends concerning her in Buddhist texts. Among them are that the Buddha once visited heaven to preach the DHARMA to her, and stayed there three months. At the time of his passing she came down from heaven and wept.

(2) A goddess, a from of DURGA.

Mahamayuri (1) A Buddhist text. It consists of a list of deities followed by magical spells (dharanis) to bring about rain, conquer enemies, remove sickness, etc. It was translated into Chinese by the fourth century.

(2) The name of one of the PANCHARAKSHA, or five protective spells.

(3) Mahamayuri is the name of a Buddhist deity, a goddess of wisdom.

mahant A title of the head of a Hindu temple.

Mahanubhava A religious sect founded by Chakradhara in 1263. It has a voluminous literature in Marathi and is devoted to the worship of five deities including the god KRISHNA and DATTATREYA.

Mahaparinibbana Sutta A discourse in the DIGHA NIKAYA, a HINAYANA Buddhist text of the PALI CANON, that deals with the last days of the BUDDHA’s life, his final sermon, and his relics. Additions were probably made to it at different times, but its core is quite ancient. The text contains the famous words of the Buddha to ANANDA, when asked what would happen after he was gone, and who would lead them. The Buddha replied, ‘Be your own Light; Be your own refuge; Hold to the Dharma as your Light, Hold to the Dharma as your refuge.’ This Sutta is different from the later Sanskrit text, the MAHAPARINIRVANA SUTRA.

Mahaparinirvana Sutra A Buddhist MAHAYANA text in Sanskrit, probably composed between the second and fourth centuries CE. It describes the last sermon of the BUDDHA and explains various Mahayana concepts. According to this text, the essence of Buddhahood, which is in every person, is eternal, blissful and pure, an interpretation similar to the Upanishadic concept of BRAHMAN. It also states that NIRVANA is a permanent and joyous state. This lengthy text thus has concepts different from other Buddhist texts, and claims that these represent the secret teachings of the BUDDHA.

Mahaprajapati The aunt and foster-mother of Gautama Siddhartha, the BUDDHA. She married his father Shuddhodana after the death of his mother MAHAMAYA. The Buddha was known as Gautama because Mahaprajapati was called Gautami. After ANANDA, one of the chief disciples of the Buddha, persuaded him to allow women into the SANGHA or monastic community, she became the first bhikhuni, or nun.

mahapralaya In Hindu mythology, a term for the dissolution of the universe, which takes place at the end of a KALPA. All the worlds, as well as BRAHMA, the creator, come to an end. See pralaya.

mahapurushas A term in Jainism for great beings that exist in the world. There are sixty-three mahapurushas or ‘Great Men’ listed and described in a number of texts. These include twenty-four TIRTHANKARAS, twelve Chakravartins or rulers of the world, nine Vasudevas and nine Baladevas, together constituting fifty-four mahapurushas. Nine Prati-Vasudevas were added, later bringing the total to sixty-three. The first Chakravartin of the current descending cycle was BHARATA, and the twelfth, Brahmadatta. The Vasudevas represent incarnations of KRISHNA, and the Baladevas incarnations of BALARAMA. The Prati-Vasudevas are powerful but wicked beings who are defeated and killed by the Vasudevas. One of each of the Vasudevas, Baladevas and Prati-Vasudevas live at any one time. Thus RAMA (Vasudeva), LAKSHMANA (Baladeva) and RAVANA (Prati-Vasudeva) lived between the time of the Tirthankaras Munisuvrata and Naminatha, while KRISHNA, BALARAMA and Jarasandha (Prati-Vasudeva) were contemporaries of the Tirthankara ARISHTANEMINATHA.

Mahasanghika A Buddhist HINAYANA sect. About one hundred years after the death of the BUDDHA, the community of monks split into the STHAVIRAVADA, or ‘elders’, and the Mahasanghikas, or ‘members of the great community’. According to some accounts this split took place at the time of the second BUDDHIST COUNCIL at VAISHALI, while according to other sources it happened soon after this. The Mahasanghikas differed on the principles to be followed by monks and on the nature of the ARHAT. According to them, even those Arhats who had attained NIRVANA in this lifetime, could be subject to defilements, and still had vestiges of ignorance. The Mahasanghikas are known to have existed in north-west and west-central India near the river Krishna, and are mentioned in inscriptions at AMARAVATI, NAGARJUNAKONDA, MATHURA and elsewhere. After the basic division, other sects emerged, differing on minor points. Among the sects that evolved from the Mahasanghika were the Ekavyavaharika, Lokottaravada, Gokulika, Bahushrutiya, Prajnaptivada, Chaitika, Purvashaila, Aparashaila/Uttarashaila, Rajagirika and Siddharthika. The Chaitikas were in north-west and central India, especially the latter. The Bahushrutiyas, Purvashailas, Rajagirikas and Siddharthikas were all located in the lower Krishna valley, where they constructed STUPAS and other monuments. In the seventh century, a prominent sect was the Lokottaravada, who had settled in Bamian in present Afghanistan. There is little information on the differences in philosophy of the sub-sects. The Prajnaptivada asserted that things did not really exist but arose through linguistic convention, that is through naming them, while the Lokottaravada believed the BUDDHAS are superior and extraordinary beings. The MAHAVASTU is a Lokottaravada text.

Later splits and developments among the Mahasanghika led to the MAHAYANA form of Buddhism.

Mahashveta A Hindu deity, a goddess of the earth. The name means ‘brilliant white’, and is also applied to DURGA, SARASVATI, and a consort of SURYA.

mahasiddha A term for a great SIDDHA, one who has attained perfection through a mastery of all SIDDHIS (powers). Traditionally, eighty-four great siddhas are revered by certain Hindu and Buddhist sects and described in texts on YOGA and TANTRA. Lists vary in different texts and include both men and women. In Tibetan Buddhist sources, the mahasiddhas listed lived mainly before the eleventh century.

Mahatala In Hindu mythology, the fifth of the seven divisions or LOKAS of the nether world or PATALA. The Kadraveyas or children of KADRU live here. They are long, lean and bad-tempered NAGAS who fear GARUDA, the divine bird and vehicle of the Hindu god VISHNU. Among them are Kuhaka, TAKSHAKA, Sushena and Kaliya.

mahatma A term for a great soul. It has been applied to several spiritual leaders, but is most commonly used as a title for M.K. GANDHI, who led India’s freedom movement, basing it on the principles of non-violence and peaceful resistance.

mahatmya A Sanskrit term for an account of a sacred place, region, river, or shrine. The PURANAS include mahatmyas of specific areas, and there are in addition, more recent mahatmyas. Mahatmyas generally recount myths and legends, and describe the sacred TIRTHAS in the area. Mahatmyas may also describe saintly people, deities or sacred obejects.

Mahavagga (1) A Buddhist text of the Pali VINAYA PITAKA. It is the first of the two Khandakas (sections) that form the second part of the Vinaya, dealing with various regulations for the SANGHA. Its ten sections include rules for admission, for the Uposatha and Pavarana celebrations, for life in the rainy season, as well as rules for footwear, clothing, medicines and for settling disputes. The second Khandaka, the Chulavagga, contains other rules for the various aspects of the monastic life.

(2) A section of the Buddhist DIGHA NIKAYA (Book II) is known as Mahavagga because of its length, and contains suttas that mostly begin with maha.

(3) The third section of the SUTTANIPATA is also known as the Mahavagga.

Mahavamsha A Buddhist text that deals with Buddhism in Sri Lanka and provides an account of the history of the island up to the fourth century CE. It is attributed to King Mahanama of the fifth century, but also contains later details. It describes the creation of the Mahavihara there, the planting of a shoot of the BODHI TREE, and various historical conquests. It is important for the history of Buddhism.

Mahavastu A Buddhist text in hybrid Sanskrit that probably originated in the second century BCE, though it was enlarged later, and has references to incidents in the fifth century CE. The Mahavastu states that it was a book of the VINAYA PITAKA, according to the text of the Lokottaravada sect of the MAHASANGHIKA. It is actually the oldest surviving biography of the BUDDHA, and has three sections. The first section describes the life of Gautama Buddha in his previous incarnations as a BODHISATTVA, and the earlier BUDDHAS who lived in those times. The second section describes the Tushita heaven. Reborn there, the Bodhisattva planned his birth on earth in the womb of MAHAMAYA. The third section is similar to the MAHAVAGGA of the Vinaya Pitaka and describes the first disciples of Gautama Buddha, and the rise of the SANGHA. Inserted into the account of the Buddha’s life, are JATAKAS, Avadanas and Sutras, some of which are unknown from other sources. Though it is a HINAYANA text, the Mahavastu has some MAHAYANA concepts, and thus marks a transitional phase between the two major schools.

Mahavibhasha A Buddhist text, the short name by which the Abhidharma Mahavibhasha is usually known. It is a commentary on the Jnana-prasthana, which forms part of the ABHIDHARMA PITAKA of the SARVASTIVADA school. It was composed at the time of the Fourth BUDDHIST COUNCIL held in c. 100 CE, during the reign of King KANISHKA.

Mahavidyas A term for ten Hindu goddesses who are forms of SATI or PARVATI. The ten forms usually mentioned are: KALI, TARA, CHINNAMASTA, BHUVANESHVARI, BAGALA, BHAIRAVI, DHUMAVATI, KAMALA, MATANGI and SHODASHI. According to the related myth, Sati, the wife of SHIVA assumed these forms in order to get Shiva to allow her to go to the sacrifice of her father DAKSHA. Shiva had refused to let her go, as he was not invited. Overwhelmed by the ten forms, some of which are fearsome, Shiva gave her permission. Another story in the Shiva Purana associates these deities with the goddess DURGA, who created them to defeat the demon Durgama. Mahavidya means ‘great wisdom’ and each of these goddesses represents an approach to the attainment of divine wisdom. In some texts, such as the Guhyati-guha Tantra, the Mahavidyas are related to the ten AVATARAS of VISHNU, who are said to have emerged from these deities. Thus, for instance, KRISHNA came from Kali, and NARASIMHA from Chinnamasta. Both these myths indicate the supremacy of the goddesses over the male deities.

Special methods of worship are prescribed for each, including the use of MANTRAS and YANTRAS. The goddesses form a part of Tantric worship focused on SHAKTI or feminine energy, and are propitiated mainly to gain power over others, as well as for the destruction of enemies, and for the conquest of one’s own Self.

The Mahavidyas have their counterparts in Buddhism, while the VIDYADEVIS are similar goddesses in Jainism.

Mahavira The twenty-fourth Jain TIRTHANKARA who revitalized and organized Jainism. He was the successor of PARSHVANATHA, the twenty-third Tirthankara. According to tradition, Vardhamana, later known as Mahavira, was born in 599 BCE, though according to modern scholars, a more likely date would be 540 BCE. His father, Siddhartha, was a KSHATRIYA and prince of the Jnatr clan. His mother is known in various texts by different names, including Trishala, Videhadinna or Priyakarini. According to a legend contained in the KALPA SUTRA and other texts, his real mother was Devananda, a BRAHMANA lady. Vardhamana was conceived in her womb, but the embryo was transferred to Trishala by Harinegamesi or NAIGAMESHA, a minor deity, on the orders of Shakra (Indra).

Vardhamana was born at Kundagrama, a suburb of VAISHALI in present Bihar. He was the second son and was brought up in luxury. He married Yashoda, had a daughter named Anojja or Priyadarshana, and lived the life of a householder until the age of thirty, when his parents died. According to Jain tradition, his parents were followers of the ascetic order of Parshvanatha, and died through self-starvation, as prescribed by the order. Vardhamana then left home to search for enlightenment. According to some traditions, he too joined the Nirgranthas, the sect founded by Parshvanatha. He practised extreme asceticism and endured great hardship for over twelve years. Initially he wore a single garment, but then he discarded it. A passage in the AYARAMGA SUTTA describes his life: ‘He wandered naked and homeless. People struck him and mocked him, unconcerned he continued in his meditations… In winter he meditated in the shade, in the heat of summer he seated himself in the scorching sun. Often, he drank no water for months. Sometimes he took only every sixth, eighth, tenth or twelfth meal, and pursued his meditations without craving.’ In the thirteenth year he attained enlightenment. Now he was known as Mahavira (great hero), Kevali (omniscient, alone), Nirgrantha (free from bonds), and Jina (conqueror).

For the next thirty years he taught the truth he had discovered, wandering to different places. His followers were known as Nirgranthas, the term Jain being used later.

Mahavira systemitized and elaborated on earlier Nirgrantha beliefs and practices, and laid down the main principles of Jainism as it is practised today, along with guidelines for Jain monks and nuns. Liberation was possible only through extreme asceticism and total non-violence.

He died in 527 BCE, at the age of seventy-two, according to the traditional date, at Pava, identified with Pavapuri in Bihar.

This story is based on the SHVETAMBARA scriptures. DIGAMBARA texts differ in certain details. They reject the story of Vardhamana being conceived in the womb of Devananda, and believe that he never married.

Descriptions of Mahavira’s life appear in the Jain Canon, and there are several biographies of him in various Jain texts. Among the notable biographies are those in the ADI PURANA; the Trishashtishalakapurusha Charita; the Mahavira Chariyam in Prakrit, written in 1082 by Gunachandra Ganin; and another text of the same name composed in 1085 by Devendra Ganin or Nemichandra.

Mahavira Jayanti A Jain festival that celebrates the birth of MAHAVIRA, the twenty-fourth TIRTHANKARA. The festival takes place on the thirteenth day of the fortnight of Chaitra (March–April). At this time Jain shrines are visited and ceremonies are held in temples. Jain scriptures are recited, and processions are taken out with the image of Mahavira carried in a ratha or chariot. A special celebration takes place at Kundagrama, his birthplace in Bihar, now known as Kshatriya Kunda. On this day Jains rededicate themselves to follow the teachings of Mahavira.

Mahayana Buddhism A term for a form of Buddhism that probably began to develop from the first century BCE. Mahayana literally means ‘the great vehicle’ (to enlightenment) and is a term used by later adherents to distinguish themselves from the earlier form of Buddhism, which they named HINAYANA.

Mahayana accepts the Hinayana tradition but differs from it primarily in its development of the concept of the BODHISATTVA and in the worship of multiple BUDDHAS. In Hinayana Buddhism, the Bodhisattva is the historic BUDDHA, or later any Buddha, in his prior lives. In Mahayana Buddhism, every follower of the path is a Bodhisattva, a potential Buddha. But while Buddhahood is an attainable goal, the Bodhisattva does not seek to attain it immediately; enlightenment is voluntarily postponed, until every last being is free of suffering and has attained salvation. The Bodhisattva thus dedicates his life to helping others, to suffering for the sake of others.

A number of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are worshipped. The Mahayana Buddhas and celestial Bodhisattvas have superhuman and divine qualities and can help all beings. Other deities are also part of the Mahayana pantheon, though the concept of deities and the role they play was further developed in VAJRAYANA Buddhism.

Mahayana developed additional concepts, including that of the TRIKAYA, or three ‘bodies’ of a Buddha, of which the DHARMAKAYA is the eternal aspect.

Three main Mahayana schools emerged, though there are only subtle differences between the three. The two most important are the MADHYAMIKA and YOGACHARA. NAGARJUNA was the founder of the Madhyamika school, whereas MAITREYANATHA and ASANGA elaborated the principles of the Yogachara school. Some of the differences were so minor that at NALANDA these two virtually coalesced. Another Mahayana school explained the TATHAGATA-GARBHA theory, stating that Buddhahood, or the Tathagata, is innate in everyone.

In India the Mahayana declined in the seventh and eighth centuries and the Vajrayana gained prominence, though several aspects of Mahayana were incorporated into this. By this time Mahayana Buddhism had spread to other countries, and still exists today in different forms in Nepal, Tibet, India, Mongolia, Japan, Vietnam and Korea, while there is some revival of its practices in China.

Mahayana texts Despite some common characteristics, there are several different types of MAHAYANA Buddhist texts.

(1) The earliest Mahayana texts are various PRAJNAPARAMITA SUTRAS, or the ‘perfection of wisdom’ texts. These put forward the Mahayana concept that to attain wisdom, one must realize that nothing exists and that the only reality is SHUNYATA (emptiness). Nagarjuna systemized Prajna-paramita thought, which was further developed in the MADHYAMIKA school.

(2) The AVATAMSAKA SUTRA, also known as the Buddhavatamsaka Sutra, is an important Mahayana text on the BODHISATTVA path, and explains how enlightenment is to be achieved. Its main sections were probably composed by 150 CE.

(3) Texts relating to the Buddha AMITABHA, his compassion and his ability to help living beings, form another group. Amitabha created Sukhavati, commonly translated as ‘Pure Land’, where those who worshipped him would be reborn. The Sukhavativyuha Sutra and other texts are important among Pure Land schools of Buddhism in Japan and East Asia.

(4) One of the most important Mahayana sutras is the SADDHARMA PUNDARIKA SUTRA, commonly known as the Lotus Sutra.

(5) Other texts: There are a number of other Mahayana texts. Several describe various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas while the MAHAPARINIRVANA SUTRA is said to reveal secret teachings of the BUDDHA. The Maha-ratnakuta Sutra is a collection of texts, some of which are early, while the Mahasamnipata Sutra includes seventeen Mahayana texts. Some groups of Mahayana sutras deal with the path of meditation and the doctrine of the transmigration of living beings. Another group describes protective spells or dharanis. Many more texts were composed within each of the schools as they developed.

Mahayana Samgraha A MAHAYANA Buddhist text of the YOGACHARA school, composed by ASANGA. Originally written in Sanskrit, only Tibetan and Chinese versions are available today. It explains various Yogachara concepts.

mahayuga A period of cosmic time. A mahayuga or ‘grand yuga’ consists of four yugas in succession, KRITA or Satya, TRETA, DVAPARA, and KALI. Each successive YUGA is shorter and reflects a decline in morals and in the way of life. The four yugas consist of 4800, 3600, 2400 and 1200 years of the gods, and each such year extends for 360 human years. Together they comprise 12,000 years of the gods, which are equal to 43,20,000 human years. At the end of one mahayuga, the cycle of yugas begins again. The mahayuga is part of a larger cycle of time, the MANVANTARA. Each manvantara contains approximately seventy-one mahayugas. The manvantara, in turn, is part of the KALPA.

Mahdawi Movement An Islamic movement started in the fifteenth century, based on the concept of the MAHDI, a term for a Messiah. Several people at various times claimed to be the Mahdi, but in India the most important was Sayyid Muhammad, born in 1443 at Jaunpur (in present Uttar Pradesh) during the reign of Sultan Muhammad of the Sharqi dynasty. Sayyid Muhammad traced his descent to Musa al-Kazim, the seventh IMAM of the ISNA ASHARI Shias. Muhammad was said to have been a child prodigy who completed his Islamic education by the age of twelve. After a visit to Mecca in 1495–96, he stated that he was the Mahdi. He went to Gujarat and acquired several followers there, but was condemned by the ULAMA. Initially he aimed to bring about a spiritual regeneration at a time of moral decay, and to achieve harmony between different Islamic sects. He set up dairahs (centres for spiritual practice), for this purpose Gradually his ideas became more extreme, and he even recommended the imposition of the JIZYA or poll tax on Muslims with divergent beliefs. Mahdawis in dairahs strictly followed the laws of the SHARIA and were not allowed to mix with or marry non-Mahdawis. Facing opposition in India, Muhammad moved to Afghanistan, where he died in 1505, but the movement continued after his death. He was succeeded by his son, Sayyid Mahmud (d. 1512), followed by the latter’s brother-in-law Khwandamir (d. 1524). By this time dairahs had been set up in Sind, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the Deccan, and the movement posed a threat to political authority. Shaikh Abdullah Niyazi and Shaikh ALAI were important leaders during the reign of Islam Shah Sur, and Shaikh Alai was executed in 1550. The Mughal emperor AKBAR was initially keen on suppressing the Mahdawis, but did not take concrete steps towards this. AURANGZEB tried to crush the movement, and the centre moved further south, but Mahdawis continued to exist.

There are still some Mahdawi groups in India, particularly in Hyderabad and further south.

mahdi A term in Islam which signifies a spiritual redeemer or messiah. Literally it means ‘the guided one’, or ‘one who guides’ or is fit to direct others. It is believed that the mahdi is a future messiah, who will make an appearance when Muslims are oppressed and divided, and will unite them and bring peace to the world.

Sunnis and Shias have different views on the mahdi. Sunnis are divided on the issue, and some Sunni scholars and groups totally reject the mahdi concept.

The term mahdi is not in the QURAN, but is mentioned in some Sunni Hadis. These Hadis provide various details on the MAHDI. Putting them together it would seem that the mahdi will be a descendent of the Prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima; he will have the same name as Hazrat Muhammad; he will rule for seven years, and spread peace and justice in the world; he will lead a prayer at Mecca, and Jesus would also be present there. According to some Hadis, the mahdi would be helped by the abdals, the hidden mystics.

There are several more statements on the mahdi, which are disputed by Islamic scholars, or not considered authentic.

ISNA ASHARI Shias have a different concept, and believe that the twelfth IMAM did not die, and remains hidden. He will return as the mahdi and rule personally, providing a true interpretation of Islam and spreading the religion.

Over time, several people in various parts of the world have claimed to be the mahdi including some within India. During the reign of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–88) a man named Rukn called himself the mahdi, but was killed along with his followers by the sultan. The most important claimant however, was Sayyid Muhammad of Jaunpur, of the fifteenth century who started the MAHDAWI MOVEMENT. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadiya movement in the nineteenth century, was another claimant.

The mahdi concept is similar to that of Kalki in Hinduism, the saoshyant in Zoroastrianism, the Bodhisattva Maitreya in Buddhism, and the messiah in Christianity and Judaism.

Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi A guru who revealed the method of TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION to the world. There are some conflicting accounts of his early life. His date of birth is not exactly known, but he is thought to have been born in 1911, or according to his own disciples, 1917 or 1918. He studied at Allahabad University, and around 1939 found his guru Swami Brahmananda Sarasvati in the HIMALAYAS. Swami Brahmananda was the Shankaracharya of the Jyotir Matha in Badrinath from 1941 till his death in 1953, and Mahesh became his secretary and studied with him during this time, learning and exploring meditation techniques. He was named Bal Brahmachari Mahesh. After the Swami’s death, Mahesh continued to live in the Hinalayan regions, for another two years. He formulated the simple theory of transcendental meditation (TM) which, in its first stage, consists of the mental repetition of a short MANTRA. He then visited south India, and was instructed by Swami Brahmananda in a dream to spread the technique and message of TM. In 1957 he founded the Spiritual Regeneration Movement in Chennai (Madras). In 1958 he went to Myanmar and some other East Asian countries, and in 1959 he began to tour the world to spread his message. His form of meditation reached a height of popularity in the sixties and seventies. He still has several adherents, though with the emergence of other systems, TM has declined in popularity. The Maharishi’s books include a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita; The Science of Being, and Meditations, while several others have written on the theory and practice of TM. The Maharishi also started universities and educational institutions in India and abroad, and a political party in England. He claimed that if even 1 per cent of the population practices TM, a transformation would take place in the world. The Maharishi moved to the Netherlands in 1990. In January 2008, he announced that his work in the world was over, and transferred administrative control of all his organizations to his disciples. He died on 5 February 2008.

While TM is a practical technique, a sadhana, Mahrishi also gave talks on various philosophical topics. In these, he largely followed the theories of ADVAITA. He stated that life was bliss, but it was the non-apprehension of true reality that led to sorrow. TM was one method of discovering the true blissful Self within, but was not the only method. Maharishi said that any mode of experience could be used as a path to realization. Yet this path was ‘pathless’, meaning that it was not at some far distance, but could be realized immediately. He said: ‘Meditation is a process of leading the mind towards the realization of the Self, a process by which the pathless path can become reality for the individual.’ Meditation was neither contemplation nor concentration, but a subtle means to reach the divine inner self.

Maheshvara A name of the Hindu god SHIVA.

Maheshvara Sutra A Sanskrit text that deals with the means of attaining realization through four sciences, which in this text are attributed to the Hindu god SHIVA. They are YOGA, VEDANTA, language and music, which are all said to emerge from the sound of Shiva’s damaru or drum. It is an esoteric text.

Mahishasaka A HINAYANA Buddhist sect, an offshoot of the STHAVIRAVADA. Mahishasakas differed on certain points: they stated that a gift to the SANGHA or monastic community produced a ‘great fruit’, and was better than worshipping or making offerings to a STUPA. However, Dharmaguptikas and others said that in worshipping a stupa one was paying reverence to the BUDDHA, who was far superior to any monk in the Sangha. Mahishasakas believed in the simultaneous penetration into truth, and in the non-existence of the past and future. That is, they believed that only the present is real. Regarding ARHATS, they felt they were perfected beings, incapable of regression. Another point of divergence was their views about the gods; they denied that a holy life (BRAHMACHARYA) was possible for the DEVAS.

Some scholars believe there were two different Mahishasaka schools, the first, which had much in common with the Sthaviravada, originating at the time of the First BUDDHIST COUNCIL at RAJAGRIHA. and another later group which branched off from the SARVASTIVADA.

Mahishasura The buffalo ASURA or demon vanquished by by the Hindu goddess DURGA. In a story in the MAHABHARATA, it is Skanda (KARTTIKEYA) who kills this demon.

According to accounts in the PURANAS, Mahisha was the son of the Danava Rambha and a female buffalo, Mahishi, and was born as the result of a boon granted by the god AGNI. Agni had promised that the child could not be defeated either by the DEVAS or the asuras. According to another account, BRAHMA had granted him a boon by which he could not be killed except by a woman. Mahisha became extremely powerful. He defeated the devas and they all ran away from him, so that the asuras gained control of devaloka, the world of the gods. Finally the Devas created Durga, a beautiful and poweful woman, to kill him. In some accounts, at the very first sight of Durga, Mahisha fell in love and wanted to marry her. Durga stated that she would marry him only if he could defeat her in battle, but he was unable to do so and was killed by her.

Sculptures of Durga killing Mahisha (known as Mahishasuramardini) appear from the first century CE onwards. In a few, Mahisha is depicted as a man with horns, while in most he is a buffalo, often with a human head.

This mythological theme once again reveals the conflict between the devas and asuras. In this case it could indicate attempts to incorporate a tribal deity into the Brahmanical pantheon. Before Agni awarded him a boon, Rambha worshipped the YAKSHA Malavata and lived among the yakshas after marrying Mahishi, indicating the connection of Mahishasura with yakshas or non-Brahmanical deities.

Mahmud Faruqi Jaunpuri, Mulla One of the greatest Muslim philosophers of India. His Shams al-Bazigha, a text that deals with physics and metaphysics, is still used in MADRASAS in India. He died in 1652.

Mahuli A town located near Satara in Maharashtra, at the confluence of the Krishna and Yenna rivers, noted for its Hindu temples of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The temples are built in Maratha style. The largest is the Vishveshvara Mahadeva Temple, constructed in 1735. Among others are the Radhashankara Temple, the Bilveshvara Temple, the Rameshvara Temple and the Sangameshvara Mahadeva Temple. Near the temples are some tombs and memorials, including one of a favourite and brave dog of Raja Shahu (1761–72).

Ram Shastri Prabhune, the spiritual and political preceptor of the fourth peshwa Madhavaro (1761–72) was born at Mahakuta adding to the sanctity of the place.

Mai Than Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at AGRA in Uttar Pradesh. Agra was visited by Guru NANAK and Guru RAM DAS, but this gurdwara is associated particularly with the ninth guru, TEGH BAHADUR. On his visit here, Mai Jassi, a devout disciple, invited him to stay at her house, and as he agreed, the house was later sanctified and revered as a gurdwara.

Mainaka A mountain mentioned in the PURANAS and other texts; it seems to refer to both a mythical and a real mountain. Most Puranas suggest that it was in the lower Himalayas, while some state it was to the north of KAILASHA. Mainaka is personified as the son of HIMAVAN and Menaka, the brother of Uma or PARVATI.

According to the RAMAYANA, Mainaka was located in the ocean, and provided a resting point to HANUMAN, when he leapt to LANKA. Once, it is said, all mountains had wings, but INDRA began cutting them off. The god VAYU saved his friend Mainaka from having his wings cut, by placing him in the ocean. In return, Mainaka helped Hanuman, the son of Vayu.

Maitreya (1) A BODHISATTVA, said to be the future BUDDHA, who lives in the Tushita heaven. He is the saviour to come, and the next Buddha to be born on earth. When he comes to earth, he will bring peace, prosperity and salvation, and will teach the path that will save all sentient beings. Maitreya is described in a number of MAHAYANA sutras and is an important deity in Mahayana Buddhism. His concept is similar to that of KALKI in Hinduism, of the MAHDI in Islam, as well as of Messiahs of other religions. Maitreya also forms a part of the Theosophical divine hierarchy; according to this he is said to reside in the mystical land of SHAMBHALA.

(2) Maitreya was also an ancient RISHI, the son of Kusharava and a disciple of Parashara.

Maitreyanatha A teacher of ASANGA and the founder of the YOGACHARA school of MAHAYANA Buddhism. According to some accounts, Maitreyanatha was a name used by Asanga to compile the teachings revealed to him in a vision by the Bodhisattva MAITREYA, while according to others the two were different, and Maitreyanatha lived between c. 270 and 350 CE. The works composed by Maitreyanatha are the Yogacharabhumi, the basic Yogachara text; the Mahayanasutralankara, explaining the stages of the BODHISATTVA path; the Madhyantavibhaga, a discussion of Yogachara concepts; the Abhisamayalankara, which summarizes the Ashtasahasrika; the Dharamadharmatavibhanga on how ‘unreal imagination’ produces existence; and the Vajrachchhedikavyakha, a commentary on the VAJRACHCHHEDIKA SUTRA. The first two texts are sometimes attributed to Asanga, and part of the third to VASUBANDHU. The TATHAGATA-GARBHA theory, the theory of vijnaptimatrata, or the concept that what appears real is only a representation in one’s consciousness, and the TRIKAYA theory, are among the concepts discussed in his works.

Majjhima Nikaya A HINAYANA Buddhist text of the PALI CANON, literally ‘medium-length suttas or discourses’. The Majjhima Nikaya forms part of the SUTTA PITAKA and has 152 suttas that cover all kinds of topics, including Buddhist ideas as well as myths and legends. There are stories that reveal the benefits of following the Buddhist path and passages on the purity and equality of all castes. While some suttas explain the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, KARMA and NIRVANA, others critically comment on the different and strange sects existing at the time, for instance the dog ascetic or ox ascetic, who lived the way a dog or ox would.

As in the DIGHA NIKAYA, the BUDDHA is at times described as an extraordinary human being, showing the way to truth, at other times as a divine power with the ability to perform miracles.

Majnu ka Tila A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located on the banks of the river YAMUNA in DELHI. A Muslim boatman once lived here and used to take people across the river free of charge. He constantly spoke of his love and yearning for God, and thus came to be known as ‘Majnu’, the name of the legendary lover, always pining for his love. Guru NANAK came here and blessed the boatman, who attained the divine vision for which he yearned, and became a disciple of Nanak. His dwelling was called Majnu ka Tila, and many came to visit it. Guru HARGOBIND and Guru RAM RAI were among those who briefly stayed here. In 1783, General BAGHEL SINGH lived here and erected a small shrine at the place. Later Maharaja RANJIT SINGH built a small marble gurdwara at this spot. This still stands, along with a new and larger gurdwara constructed in 1950.

makara (1) A mythical sea-creature, often depicted in sculptures and in temples. It is the emblem of the Hindu god KAMA and of the goddess GANGA, and the vehicle of the god VARUNA. It is usually depicted with the head and forelegs of an antelope or a goat, and the body and tail of a fish or crocodile. It is also called kantaka, asitadamshtra (with black teeth), and jalarupa (water form). The term makara has sometimes been translated as a shark, dolphin or crocodile. A somewhat similar symbol occurs in twelfth-century churches in Spain and France.

(2) Makara is the name of the sign of Capricorn.

Makara Sankranti A Hindu festival that takes place on 14 January and marks a change of season, or the end of winter. According to the Hindu calendar, the sun enters Makara (Capricorn) on this day. The festival is important in Maharashtra and is also celebrated in Karnataka, Bihar and other states. In Maharashtra it is specially auspicious and lasts for seven days. Women share kumkum (red powder), bangles, combs and metal pots with their friends and distribute til (sesame) sweets. On the seventh day, milk is boiled in earthen pots and offered to the rising sun. A female deity is worshipped riding on an animal, the animal for the year being decided by astrological calculations. This indicates the prospects for the coming year. PONGAL, celebrated in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, and LOHRI in Punjab, are similar festivals.

Makara Vilakku A Hindu festival that takes place at the temple of the god AYYAPPA at SABARIMALA, beginning with the sighting of the Makara Jyoti on 14 January. The same night the deity Malikappurathuamma, from a nearby temple, is brought in a procession to the steps of the Ayyapa temple, then returning to her own abode. A seven-day festival follows, during which offerings are made to forest deities.

makaras Five items that are used in TANTRIC rites. See Pancha-makaras.

Makhdum-i Jahaniyan The popular name of JALALUDDIN BUKHARI, a SUFI saint of the SUHRAWARDI order who lived in the fourteenth century.

Makka (Mecca) Masjid, Hyderabad A mosque located in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, constructed in orthodox style. It was begun in 1617 by Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612–26) and added to by his sucessors, Abdullah (1626–72) and Abul Hassan (1672–87), and finally completed in 1693–94 under the direction of the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB. The mosque measures about 68.5 m by 55m. It has fifteen arches, five on each of three sides, while the fourth wall has the mihrab. The five arched facade was carved from a single piece of granite, flanked by two granite columns. In front is a courtyard, in which there is a room believed to contain a sacred relic, a hair of the Prophet Muhammad. More than 8000 people are said to have worked for seventy-seven years to build this grand mosque, that is now a heritage structure.

mala A term for a rosary of sacred beads used while chanting MANTRAS, or worn around the neck. A mala also denotes any garland or necklace.

Malabar Independent Syrian Church A Church of the ORTHODOX tradition of SYRIAN CHRISTIANS, with its headquarters at Thozhiyur, Kerala, founded by Kattumangattu Mar Koorilose in 1772. He was consecrated Metropolitan of the Malankara Church at Mattancherry by Mar Gregorius of Jerusalem, but was opposed by other church leaders. He therefore went to Malabar, where he settled at Anjoor in Thrissur district and founded a separate Church. The Church has a strength of about 21,000, with followers primarily in Kerala.

malaika The term for angels in Islam. According to the QURAN, they are messengers of God, with two, three or four pairs of wings. A HADIS states that the angels consist of light, except for IBLIS, who alone is made of fire, and who was banished from paradise because he disobeyed God. The angels of Islam correspond to some extent with those mentioned in the various books of the BIBLE, and the term karubiyam (cherubim) is also used. Jibril (Gabriel) was the messenger who appeared to the Prophet MUHAMMAD. Mikail (Michael) provides knowledge and food. Israfil is the angel who will sound the trumpet on the day of judgement, while Izrael or Azrail is the angel of death. Munkir and Nakir interrogate the dead in their tombs. Harut and Marut were two angels sent to earth by God, but they became sinful themselves and taught people magic, without warning them not to use it for evil.

Apart from these, each believer has two recording angels known as Kiramul-Katibin, who record his good and bad deeds. Iblis, the Islamic Satan, has similarities with Lucifer. Different accounts of angels in Islamic texts mention a number of other angels, including guardian angels, eight angels who support the throne of god, and nineteen angels in charge of hell.

Malankara Orthodox Church A Church of the ORTHODOX tradition. The church emerged because of the crisis faced by SYRIAN CHRISTIANS in Kerala with the coming of the Portuguese and later the British. Seeking freedom from Portuguese domination after the revolt of COONEN KURISU, the Church appealed to the Syrian Patriarch for help, who sent Mar Gregorius of Jerusalem to India, and confirmed Mar Thoma I as Bishop of the Church. The Church began to grow and develop, but soon after the British took over Malabar in 1795, ANGLICAN influence threatened its traditional culture. Finally the church split into three, one section joining the Anglicans, one forming the separate MAR THOMA CHURCH, and the third remaining as the Malankara Orthodox Church (Jacobite). However, conflicts within the church continued, resulting in another split in 1911, followed by a period of peace after 1958, and the appointment of the Catholicos of the East in 1964, with administrative jurisdiction limited to India. After yet another split in 1975, one section has its headquarters at Devalokam, Kottayam, Kerala and another at Muvattupuzha.

Malik Mughis’ Mosque A mosque located in Mandu, Madhya Pradesh. It was built in 1432 by Malik Mughis, the prime minister of Hoshang Shah, sultan of Mandu.

The mosque is constructed on a raised platform, enclosed in a courtyard and surrounded by colonnades. A projecting porch on the east forms the main entrance, and there is an arched corridor in front with a domed turret on each side. The open prayer hall has numerous pillars with pointed arches supporting the roof. In the western wall are niches with MIHRABS, decorated with blue tiles and floral designs.

Malika Jahan’s Mosque A mosque constructed in 1587, located at Bijapur in Karnataka. It was built by Ibrahim II of the Adil Shahi dynasty, who ruled from 1580 to 1627, for Princess Jahan Begam, after whom it is named. It is a small mosque, consisting of a rectangular hall, constructed on a high plinth. Its façade has three arches with tall minarets and a parapet of perforated stone screens. The prayer hall is covered by a large dome. The mosque has intricate and delicate carvings, and despite its small size is considered the gem among medieval Bijapur monuments. As it is decorated with hanging chains, it is also known as the Zanjiri (chain) Mosque.

Mallikarjuna A name of the Hindu god SHIVA and of one of his jyotir LINGAS, located at SRISAILAM.

Mallinatha The nineteenth Jain TIRTHANKARA, who according to SHVETAMBARA texts was a woman, the only female among the twenty-four Tirthankaras. However, DIGAMBARAS reject this, stating that Malli was a man, as according to them, only men can attain enlightenment. According to stories in Shvetambara texts, Malli was a great beauty, the daughter of the king of MITHILA (north Bihar). Six princes from different states were in love with her, but the king refused their offers of marriage. At this, they combined and planned to attack Mithila. Malli thought of a solution and asked her father to agree to each of their offers. She had a special house built, in which she placed a replica of herself, and filled its head with remains of food, which gradually rotted. While the princes contemplated the beauty of the replica, believing it to be her, she opened its head and a terrible stench emanated from it. The princes naturally retreated in disgust. Malli then preached to them on the transient nature of the body, saying that though she may appear beautiful, within her too was dirt, blood and pus. Then she narrated her former lives and stated that she was about to become a nun. The six princes too renounced the world.

Mamalapuram A city in Tamil Nadu, also known as Mahabalipuram, famous for its rock-cut temples and reliefs, as well as for other temples. The early temples date back to the seventh and eighth centuries, when it was a port of the Pallava dynasty. These include eight rock-cut shrines, known as rathas, of which the five PANDAVA RATHAS are the most important. A rock relief, known as ARJUNA’S PENANCE, is carved in intricate detail. Among structural temples, the SHORE TEMPLE dates back to the eighth century. On a nearby granite hill there are rock-cut cave temples. Other temples are located to the north and west. According to tradition, the asura Mahabali once ruled here and the place was named Mahabalipuram after him. As Mahabali oppressed the people, he was defeated by Vishnu as Vamana. Later, the place was renamed Mamalapuram, after the Pallava king Narasimha Varman I, who was known as Mamalla (the great wrestler). Mamalapuram is also associated with Bana, son of Mahabali.

Manasa A Hindu goddess associated with snakes. She is usually depicted as a woman with seven snake hoods above her head, and she often holds a snake as well. Manasa brings prosperity, protects worshippers from snakes, protects children, and is worshipped to obtain a child. She is a popular deity in Bengal, where Manasa Mangalas, texts dating to the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, narrate stories and legends about her, and describe methods of worship. She was probably initially a folk deity. In mythology, she is the sister of the Naga king Shesha or ANANTA and the wife of the rishi Jaratkaru. She is worshipped in other parts of India as well, particularly in Himachal. Though a snake deity, she is in a different category from other Naginis, or snake goddesses. She has similarities with the goddesses Janguli of Buddhism and Padmavati of Jainism.

Manasarovara A sacred lake north of Mt KAILASHA. Like the mountain, the lake is revered by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, and there are several myths relating to it. The god BRAHMA created it through his mind (manasa). In Buddhist texts, it is known as Anotatta or Anavatapta, the lake which is calm and without heat. It is mentioned in Jain texts as Padmabrida. The explorer Sven Hedin (1865–1952) described the lake: ‘The oval lake lies like an enormous turquoise embedded between two of the finest and most famous mountain giants of the world, the Kailasha in the north and Gurla Mandhatta in the south, and between huge ranges above which the mountains uplift their crowns of bright white eternal snow.’

Manatunga A Jain poet who probably lived in the ninth century or later, though according to Jain lists of teachers, he could have lived as early as the third century. His work, the Bhaktamara Stotra, is revered by both SHVETAMBARAS and DIGAMBARAS, and its verses are used as protective MANTRAS or spells. According to legend, he had himself locked in a house, bound by forty-two fetters, but by composing this Stotra, freed himself, thus proving its power. The poem praises RISHABHA, the first TIRTHANKARA, as the highest deity:

Thou art Buddha, because the gods praise the awakening of thy mind.

Thou art Shankara, because thou workest out the salvation of the three worlds;

Creator art thou, because through thy doctrine thou hast created a path to salvation;

Thou, O Lord are Purushottama, the highest of all beings.

Manatunga also composed the Bhayahara Stotra, a poem in praise of PARSHVANATHA, the twenty-third Tirthankara.

mandala A circle or diagram that represents some aspect of mystic power—a deity, a hierarchy of deities, a cosmic principle, or the whole cosmos. Mandalas are used for worship, for protection, and to arouse one’s own power. They usually form part of TANTRIC worship, but are used in other systems as well.

Mandana Mishra A disciple of KUMARILA BHATTA and an exponent of the Purva MIMAMSA philosophy. He wrote the Vidhiviveka and Mimamsanukramani on Mimamsa. According to tradition, he was defeated by Sri SHANKARA in a philosophical argument and became his follower. He was then known as Sri Sureshvara Acharya and was installed by Shankara as head of the SRINGERI Matha. As sureshvara, he wrote commentaries on Shankara’s works, including the Manasola Varttika, on the Dakshinamurti Stotra. His Naishkarmya Siddhi summarizes the teachings of Shankara. In addition he wrote the Balakrida, a commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti, and elucidated Shankara’s commentaries on the Taittiriya and BRIHADARANYAKA UPANISHADS.

mandapa A term for an assembly hall in a Hindu temple. A temple may have one or more mandapas, which are connected or adjacent to the inner shrine.

Mandara A mythical mountain used by the gods, for the churning of the ocean to obtain AMRITA. Mandara has been identified with real hills, including one located about 45 km south of Bhagalpur in Bihar. This isolated hill, about 220 m high, has a groove around its middle, said to be the mark left by the serpent VASUKI, who was used as a rope in the churning of the ocean. On the hill are remains of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu shrines, among them a temple of VISHNU known as Madhusudana, an image of NARASIMHA carved in a cave, and a huge image of VAMANA and of the daityas MADHU-KAITABHA. At the foot of the hill is a sacred tank known as Papaharini.

In the MAHABHARATA and some PURANAS, Mandara is located in the Himalayas, with Badarika ashrama on it, or to its south.

Mandi Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Mandi in Himachal Pradesh. Here Guru GOBIND SINGH held discourses while seated on a large flat stone near the river. A gurdwara marks the spot.

Mandukya Upanishad An UPANISHAD commented upon by GAUDAPADA and SHANKARA, that can be dated to between the sixth and third centuries BCE. It gets its name from the rishi Manduka and is attached to the ATHARVA VEDA. This short Upanishad elaborates on the nature of BRAHMAN or the Absolute, and the sacred word OM, which represents Brahman. Gaudapada’s Karika or commentary explains ADVAITA in the context of this Upanishad, while Shankara further elucidates the basic Advaitic principles.

Mangala One of the NAVAGRAHA or nine planets in Hindu mythology. Mangala represents the planet Mars, and according to some myths, was born from the god SHIVA through a drop of his blood or sweat. Other accounts state that Mangala was the son of BHU DEVI and VISHNU. The deity is also identified with the god KARTTIKEYA, but is depicted differently. Mangala’s vehicle is a ram and he is red in colour, with four arms. He is worshipped in temples, usually along with the other Navagraha. He is considered the protector of landed property and of wives.

Mangala also means ‘auspicious’.

Mangala-Kavya Literally, ‘auspicious poems’, Mangala Kavyas consist of verses praising and narrating the myths and legends of deities in Bengal. MANASA, DHARMA THAKUR and SHITALA are among the deities who have Mangala Kavyas. These are both written and oral texts, which are sung in praise of the deities, and modified by the singer. They date back to medieval days.

Mangu Math Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Puri, Orissa. Guru NANAK is said to have come to the JAGANNATHA TEMPLE here and watched the evening ARTI in the temple. Inspired by this, he sang a song of devotion nearby, indicating that the best arti is that performed by nature. His song, named ‘Arti’, is recorded in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB. The first few lines state: ‘The sky is the silver plate/The sun and moon the lamps/The stars are jewels/the wind conveys the incense of all the flowers on earth.’ The gurdwara was built to mark the place where he sang.

Mani Singh, Bhai A Sikh scholar who was closely associated with Guru GOBIND SINGH. Born in 1670 in village Sunam in Punjab, he was the younger brother of Bhai Dyala, who was martyred in 1675 along with Guru TEGH BAHADUR. Mata Gujri, the mother of Guru Gobind Singh, took care of Mani Singh, and the two boys grew up together. Mani Singh spread the message of Sikhism and wrote down the final version of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB on the guru’s instructions. This task was completed in 1705 and remains the version that is used today. In 1721 Mani Singh became the head granthi of the HAR MANDIR (Golden Temple) at Amritsar, and wrote a number of works on Sikhism. He also compiled the DASAM GRANTH based on the teachings of Guru Gobind Singh. He was arrested and executed by the Mughal authorities at Lahore in 1737.

mani stones A term in TIBETAN BUDDHISM designating a pile of stones painted with Buddhist images or carved with the Buddhist MANTRA, ‘Om Mani Padme Hum’. They can range from small stones to massive rocks. Once found all over Tibet, they can still be seen near some Buddhist monasteries in India. Carving piles of stones with images is said to have been a pre-Buddhist custom in Tibet, later absorbed into Buddhism.

Manibhadra A YAKSHA chief mentioned in several texts and known through inscriptions and images. According to the MAHABHARATA, the yaksha Manibhadra stayed at the court of KUBERA and was worshipped particularly by merchants and travellers. ARJUNA too once worshipped this yaksha. Manibhadra is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain sources. In the Buddhist Samyutta Nikaya, the yaksha Manibhadra is said to live in Manimala Chaitya in MAGADHA (Bihar). The later MAHAMAYURI states that Purnabhadra and Manibhadra, two yaksha brothers, were worshipped in Brahmavati. In the Jain Surya Prajnapti, an early text, it is said that a Manibhadra Chaitya was located to the north-east of the city of Mithila (north Bihar). One of the earliest images of this deity was found at Pawaya in Madhya Pradesh and can be dated to the first century BCE. An inscription states that the image was erected by Manibhadra worshippers. Several other Manibhadra images dating to the early centuries CE have been found at MATHURA and elsewhere.

manikhor A term in TIBETAN BUDDHISM for a prayer wheel. The ‘wheel’ is a hollow cylinder that contains within it Buddhist scriptures, and is turned by the faithful. Small wheels are held in the hands, while huge ones kept in temples require more than one person to turn them.

Manikkavachakar A BHAKTI saint of the ninth century who was associated with the NAYANARS and worshipped the Hindu god SHIVA. Born near MADURAI in the Tamil region, he was a minister of the Pandyan king, but became absorbed in his devotion to Shiva. As he abandoned his duties, the king put him in prison, and after he was released he became a wandering ascetic, singing of his love for Shiva. His verses are collected in the TIRUMURAI and include the Tiruvachakam, with 654 verses in 51 hymns, and the Tirukkovaiyar, with 400 verses. In one verse, he wrote:

You are my lord

Melting my bones

You entered my heart

And made it your shrine.

Manikyanandin A Jain philosopher of the eleventh century known for the Parikshamukha Sutra, a work on logic, based on the earlier Nyayavinishchaya of AKALANKA. In DIGAMBARA sources Manikyanandin is said to have lived in the sixth century, while in other sources he is a teacher of the eleventh century. There were probably two Manikyanandins.

Manimekhala A goddess of the ocean described in the Tamil epic, the MANIMEKHALAI.

Manimekhalai A Tamil epic, the sequel to the SHILAPADDIGARAM, which has been dated by various scholars between the second and sixth centuries CE. This philosophical epic, said to have been written by the merchant Shattan, tells the story of Manimekhalai, the beautiful daughter of Kovalan and the dancer Madhavi. After Kovalan’s unjust death, Madhavi, once a courtesan, became a Buddhist nun. Despite her beauty, Manimekhalai shunned the pleasures of the world and sought truth, finally gaining ultimate knowledge. The story is set in the second century CE in the Tamil region, when the Cholas ruled the area. The text consists of thirty verse chapters.

The epic begins in the city of Puhar, where the festival of INDRA is taking place. Both Madhavi and Manimekhalai do not participate in the festival, as they have become disciples of the great Buddhist teacher, Aravana Adigal, who has explained to them the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS and the basic rules of conduct (shila). Along with a friend, Manimekhalai visits a garden where the BUDDHA’s footprints are enshrined, and Udayakumara, prince of the Chola dynasty, sees her and falls in love. Manimekhalai is attracted to him as well, but the goddess MANIMEKHALA appears, takes her away, and explains her true destiny to her. She also gives Manimekhalai a magic bowl that can provide unlimited quantities of food.

Wherever she goes, Manimekhalai feeds the poor with her magic bowl. She pursues her studies, and dressed like a man, she goes to different places, learns about various philosophies and enters into erudite discussions with philosophers. Convinced of the truth of Buddhism and guided by Aravana Adigal, she gains supreme wisdom.

The text describes the society, religion and philosophy of the times. It mentions a number of deities, particularly SHIVA and MURUGAN, as well as sects and philosophies including the Jains, AJIVIKAS, LOKAYATS or materialists, the SAMKHYA, VAISHESHIKA and others, against the backdrop of Buddhism. It is an important text for the history of religion, apart from being an interesting account of an intelligent young woman who chooses her own path in life.

Maninaga A deity sometimes identified with MANIBHADRA, but who is actually a different deity, as he is not a YAKSHA but a NAGA. Maninaga is mentioned in texts and inscriptions.

Manipura Chakra One of the seven main CHAKRAS or hidden energy centres within the body. The Manipura Chakra, in the solar plexus region above the navel, is described in TANTRIC and other texts. It is a shining lotus of ten petals, the colour of heavy-laden rain clouds. On the petals are the Sanskrit letters da (cerebral) to pha, of the colour of the blue lotus, with the nada and bindu above. Within is the region of fire, triangular in shape, shining like the rising sun. Outside the triangle are three svastikas.

By meditating on this, one acquires the power to destroy and create, as well as the wealth of knowledge.

manji A preaching office of the early Sikh panth or community, and also a territorial division for spiritual purposes. Guru AMAR DAS established twenty-two manjis, each consisting of a group of Sikhs under a spiritual leader. This system helped him to keep in touch with Sikhs, as the Sikh population had increased considerably. Sangats or congregations in each manji were addressed by the sangatia or preacher, also known as the manji, and offerings from the sangat were used for the LANGAR, or community kitchen serving free meals.

Manjushri A BODHISATTVA who embodies supreme wisdom. Manjushri is described in a number of MAHAYANA Buddhist sutras, including the AVATAMSAKA SUTRA and the Surangamasamadhi Sutra. According to these, long ago, even before the Buddha SHAKYAMUNI was born, he had sufficient merit to become a BUDDHA, but he chose to remain a Bodhisattva, tirelessly being reborn and helping others on the path.

In images, Manjushri is depicted holding a sword to destroy ignorance, and a book to reveal divine knowledge.

Manjushri Mula Kalpa, Arya A Buddhist text that is considered one of the earliest TANTRIC texts, though it describes itself as a MAHAYANA sutra. In this text the Bodhisattva MANJUSHRI, the Buddha SHAKYAMUNI and the goddess Vijaya describe how to use MANTRAS and other rites for protection, for the destruction of enemies, and to attain all things. It falls in the class of Kriya Tantras.

Manmatha A name of the Hindu god KAMA.

manthras A term used in Zoroastrianism, similar to the Sanskrit MANTRA. Manthras are sacred words of power. In the GATHAS, the Prophet ZARATHUSHTRA says that he is a Manthran, or one who teaches manthra. He states that manthra, meaning ‘the word of God’, should be followed (Yasna 45.3) and that his manthra is the greatest of all truths (Yasna 28.5). Later, Manthra Spenta, the holy manthra, was personified and known as Marespand. Some texts mention specific manthras, such as Fashusho Manthra, the manthra for animals.

mantra A sacred sound, word, or verse. The word in Sanskrit means ‘instrument of thought’, and mantras are used in all religions in different ways, either to invoke deities or powers, or in meditation. They may be used alone, or along with an image, MANDALA or YANTRA. Mantras are given to a disciple by a guru at the time of initiation, though some mantras can be used without initiation or transmission by a guru. Mantras are generally shorter than prayers, and their power is revealed through repetition and concentration. In Hinduism, OM is considered one of the most powerful mantras, as it is the original word and the origin of all. The GAYATRI MANTRA, mantras for SHIVA, VISHNU, RAMA, KRISHNA, GANESHA and other deities, are commonly used. Mantras are frequently used in Buddhism. They include protective spells known as dharanis, described in MAHAYANA Buddhist texts, as well as other mantras. Mantras form a major part of VAJRAYANA Buddhism. In TIBETAN BUDDHISM, ‘Om Mane Padme Hum’, is a popular mantra. There are also Jain mantras invoking the TIRTHANKARAS.

The repetition of any deity’s name is considered a mantra, while specific mantras are used to invoke particular deities or powers. There are mantras which are said to be able to kill or give life, to guard and protect, cure disease, or grant any desire. Among different types of mantras, bija or seed mantras are sounds or syllables that represent a deity or concept. NIRGUNA (without attributes) mantras are those such as Om, invoking the universal Absolute, while SAGUNA (with attributes) mantras invoke a particular deity. Mantras are also prescribed in TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION and other newer systems. Apart from conferring powers or qualities, physiological changes such as relaxation, freedom from stress and reduced blood pressure, can be experienced while using mantras.

Mantra Yoga Mantras or sacred words can be used for different purposes, but in Mantra Yoga, the aim is union with the divine. The basic ethical principles are followed, as in other forms of YOGA, and then a mantra is prescribed, which may be used along with other visual aids, such as images or symbols. Swami Paramahansa Muktananda, a renowned yogi, said that as a MANTRA is repeated, it first purifies the outer body and then the subtle body. Correctly practised, the mantra finally permeates the whole being, leading to total transformation.

Mantrayana A term for the VAJRAYANA school of Buddhism, which uses MANTRAS of various kinds. Mantrayana is also sometimes distinguished from Vajrayana, as being that part of the latter that uses only mantras, and not any other rites.

Manu A term referring to the first man, or to an archetypal man. It is also the name or title of fourteen mystical rulers of the earth. According to Hindu myths and cosmological stories in the PURANAS and other texts, BRAHMA, creator of the world, has a beginning and an end. One lifetime of his is known as a mahakalpa, at the end of which there is a MAHAPRALAYA, or great deluge. One day of his is known as a KALPA. A kalpa consists of fourteen MANVANTARAS, each presided over by a Manu.

The names of the fourteen Manus in each kalpa are usually given as: Svayambhuva; Svarochisha; Uttama (Auttami); Tamasa; Raivata; Chakshusha; Vaivasvata; Savarni or Savarna; Dakshasavarni or Dakshasavarna; Brahmasavarni or Brahma-savarna; Dharmasavarni or Dharmasavarna; Rudrasavarni or Savarna; Rauchyadevasavarni; Indrasavarni or Bhautya or Bhaumi.

The seventh, MANU VAIVASVATA, rules the world today.

Manu Smriti A Sanskrit text, also known as the Manava Dharma Shastra. It consists of laws, customs and ethics of the Hindus. Its core was probably composed in the first few centuries CE, though it is attributed to the mythical Manu Svayambhuva, the spiritual son of the god BRAHMA. There are several similar texts, but the Manu Smriti gained popularity as it was chosen by Warren Hastings, governor-general of India from 1774 to 1784, to act as a guide for officials of the East India Company in their interactions with Hindus.

Additions and changes were made to it over the years; in its present form, it has between 2685 to 2694 verses divided into twelve sections. Laws, customs and duties of kings, BRAHMANAS, other castes and women are recorded. However, the status of the higher castes is not merely based on birth. For instance, an ignorant brahmana is said to be as useless as an elephant made of wood. Customs and laws relating to inheritance, birth, marriage, death and the four traditional stages of Hindu life are described. Strict rules for each of the four stages are prescribed. For instance, a Brahmachari, that is, one in the student stage, should never criticize his teacher, should always speak respectfully to him, should rise earlier and go to bed later than him, should be seated at a lower level, etc. Though he should respect the teacher’s wife, if she is young and he has reached the age of twenty, he should not greet her by touching her feet. After he has completed his studies, he should return home and marry a wife of equal caste.

These and other minute details of behaviour are laid down, with similar details being provided for the householder and for the next two stages of life. Penances and punishments are also prescribed for violating the laws. Towards the end of the book there is a description of the mind, the JIVA or individual soul, and the means of union with the ATMAN.

Though many laws have been altered in modern times, the Manu Smriti is still referred to for customary Hindu practices. It has been criticized, however, for the secondary position it gives to women and SHUDRAS.

Manu Vaivasvata According to Hindu mythology, the name of the seventh MANU who presides over the current MANVANTARA or epoch. Manu Vaivasvata was the son of Vivasvat, another name of SURYA or the sun, and all living beings are descended from him. A great flood took place during his time, and he was saved from it by the god VISHNU, in the form of MATSYA (a fish). According to the VISHNU PURANA, in the manvantara over which he presides the gods or DEVAS are the ADITYAS, RUDRAS and VASUS, the name of INDRA is Purandara, and the seven rishis are VASISHTHA, KASHYAPA, ATRI, JAMADAGNI, Gautama, VISHVAMITRA and BHARADVAJA.

manvantara A period of cosmic time. According to Hindu mythology, there are approximately seventy-one MAHAYUGAS in a manvantara and fourteen manvantaras in one KALPA, which is one day in the life of BRAHMA, the creator. At the end of each manvantara, constituting 30,67,20,000 years, the world is destroyed and re-created. A manvantara is presided over by a MANU, and each manvantara is assigned a different Manu. Different sets of deities and RISHIS are born in successive manvantaras, including seven rishis (saptarishis) known as PRAJAPATIS.

Manyu A deity who personifies anger, mentioned in the RIG VEDA. He glows like fire and bestows wealth. United with Tapas, or ascetic fervour, he grants victory to his worshippers and slays their foes.

Mappila/Moplah A community of Muslims of Kerala, who speak Malayalam and are concentrated in the districts of Kudungallur, Kozhikode and Palakkad. The word Mapilla or Moplah has been interpreted in different ways. It may be derived from ‘mapillai’, an abbreviated form of ‘maha pillai’ meaning great respected person, or from mopilla which means husband in colloquial Malayalam, and son-in-law in Tamil. Early Muslim immigrants (Arabs and others) on the Kerala coast, who married into local families were possibly referred to as Mapillai. Mapillas are generally SUNNIS. They have incorporated local customs in their way of life.

Mar Thoma Church An independent church that combines elements of Eastern Syrian Christianity and Anglicanism.

Named after Mar Thoma or ST. THOMAS, it was formed in 1889 as a result of ANGLICAN influence on a section of SYRIAN CHRISTIANS of India. It belongs to the family the Lesser Eastern ORTHODOX Churches and retains the essential character of the Orthodox Church in its liturgy, mode of worship, ceremonies and rituals, but also has Protestant aspects.

The first Anglican mission (CMS) started to work in Kerala in 1816. A group of Jacobites of the Syrian Church, influenced by the Anglicans and led by Palakkunnath Abraham Malpan of Maramon (1796–1845), a professor at Kottayam Seminary, and Kaithayil Geevarghese Malapan of Puthuppally, attempted to bring about some reforms in the Syrian Church. In 1836, this group was excommunicated. Malpan then sent his nephew, Deacon Mathew, to the Jacobite Patriarch at Mardin, Syria, who consecrated him bishop. The new bishop, Mathew Mar Athanasius, reached Malabar in 1843 and carried on with the reforms. Conflicts in the Syrian Church intensified and reached a head after Patriarch Pathros III visited Malabar in 1876, and convened a Synod that condemned the reformists. After a period of confusion and litigation, the Mar Thoma Church was established, initially with only three churches attached to it. The church then developed independently.

In 1927 new liturgical books in accordance with the reformed theology were published. In 1952 another split took place, with a breakaway group forming the St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India. However, the Mar Thoma Church continued to grow, and today it has over 9,00,000 members, 1062 parishes, 11 dioceses and 680 priests in different parts of the world, including India, West Asia, Africa, North America and Western Europe.

The Church has a democratic system of administration with the Metropolitan as the head, assisted by an Episcopal Synod, Executive Council and Prathinidhi Mandalam. Its headquarters is at Thiruvalla, in Kerala.

Mara The one who destroys. In Buddhism Mara is considered the tempter of the BUDDHA, just as Satan tempted JESUS. While Siddhartha, the Buddha-to-be, sat in meditation under the BODHI TREE, Mara tried to prevent and distract him. Mara is said to have offered Siddhartha the rulership of the world, and when he refused, Mara sent an army of demons to threaten him, and then his own daughters to attract him. (The details of Mara’s attempts vary in different texts.)

Mara actually represents the inner struggle between good and evil. In one passage in the PALI CANON Siddhartha tells Mara, ‘Lust is your first weapon; the second is dislike for a higher life; the third is thirst and hunger; the fourth is desire; the fifth is laziness and sloth; the sixth is fear; the seventh is doubt; the eighth is hypocrisy; the ninth is seeking praise, honour and false glory; the tenth is exalting oneself and despising others.’ He adds that bliss can be attained only by conquering these shortcomings. Siddhartha was able to conquer them, thus defeating Mara and achieving Buddhahood, as he had attained all the PARAMITAS (virtues or perfections).

Mardana, Bhai The companion and close disciple of Guru NANAK, the founder of Sikhism. Mardana was born in 1459 at Nanakana Sahib. His parents, Bhai Badre and Mai Lakho were Muslims and were part of a community of musicians and dancers. Mardana accompanied the guru on all his journeys and sang and played the rabab, a stringed instrument, composing some of the music for the guru’s hymns. Three of Mardana’s own compostions are included in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB. After accompanying the guru for forty-seven years, Bhai Mardana died in 1520. According to some sources, the guru was returning from Mecca and Medina, and Mardana died near the river Khurram in Afghanistan, while according to other sources, it happened at KARTARPUR near the river Ravi when they were back home. Guru Nanak performed his last rites himself, and then asked Mardana’s son, Shahzada, to accompany him instead. There are many stories about Mardana in the JANAM SAKHIS.

Mariamma A Hindu mother goddess worshipped in villages in south India. There are several local myths associated with Mariamma. According to one story, she was once a village girl, born in a BRAHMANA family. A lower caste youth, pretending to be a brahmana, married her. When she discovered his real identity, she killed herself, and after her death she was worshipped as a goddess. Another myth is similar to that of ELAMMA-Renuka, but here she has a brahmana head and an ‘untouchable’ body. Both these myths are related to the inclusion of DALITS in Hindu rituals, and the conflicts arising out of this.

Marichi (1) An ancient RISHI, a mind-born son of the god BRAHMA, and one of the PRAJAPATIS. His wives included Kala, Urna and Sambhuti, and the most famous of his children was the rishi KASHYAPA, born from his wife Kala.

(2) Marichi is mentioned as the chief of the MARUTS.

Marichi, goddess A Buddhist mother goddess described in TANTRIC texts. She is said to be a consort of the Buddha VAIROCHANA, and is invoked in the morning, in connection with the rising sun. She has some similarities with the god SURYA who is also known as Marichimali, meaning, ‘one with a number of rays’. Marichi is depicted with several arms, and rides across the sky in a chariot drawn by seven pigs, whereas Surya’s chariot is drawn by seven horses.

Markandeya A RISHI or sage who gained eternal youth and according to tradition, composed the MARKANDEYA PURANA. In Hindu myths, he was the son of Mrikandu, born after the latter had performed tapas (austerities) to please the god SHIVA. Finally, Shiva appeared to him and asked whether he would prefer a long-lived, dull son, or a wise and virtuous one who would live only till the age of sixteen. Mrikandu chose a wise son, and Markandeya was born. From childhood he knew all the VEDAS and SHASTRAS, and when he was almost sixteen, he learnt of his impending death and began worshipping Shiva. When YAMA, god of death, came to take him away, his attendants having failed to do so because of the boy’s radiance, Markandeya clung to the idol of Shiva, and Yama’s noose caught it as well. Angry at this, Shiva killed Yama, but later revived him, and also made Markandeya an eternal youth of sixteen. Thus, the story says, Shiva received the name Mrityunjaya, conqueror of death. Markandeya lived in the Himalayas in his ashrama known as Pushpabhadra for over ten crore years, survived the MAHAPRALAYA or great deluge, and is said to be still alive. According to some texts, his wife was DHUMRORNA or Dhumra (usually the wife of Yama), otherwise known as Murdhanya, and his son was Vedashiras. He was also known as Bhargava, Bhrigukulashardula, Brahmarishi, Viprarishi and Dirghayu.

Markandeya Purana A Sanskrit text, one of the eighteen major PURANAS of Hinduism, named after the rishi MARKANDEYA, who is said to have composed it. It begins with Jaimini, a disciple of VYASA, praising the MAHABHARATA and asking Markandeya four questions that are not answered in that text. The questions are referred to four wise birds who provide the answers. This is followed by a dialogue between a father and son on the life of a BRAHAMANA. Stories and legends are narrated, including that of King Vipaschit, who visited hell and refused to leave until all the sufferers there were released. Feasts, sacrifices and ceremonies related to various deities are also described in this Purana. Its ancient origin is clear, as there are hymns to the gods INDRA, AGNI, SURYA and BRAHMA, who were more important in Vedic times, with less emphasis on VISHNU and SHIVA. One section, the DEVI MAHATMYA, focuses on the worship of the goddess DURGA.