N

Naba Barsha A Hindu festival that takes place on 14 April in West Bengal, marking the beginning of the new year. Houses are decorated, and people sing and dance and take out processions. Many perform PUJA (worship) and take a dip in a tank or river.

nabi A term in Islam for a Prophet to whom God has given a message, through an angel, a vision or dream, or directly to the heart. A similar term is rasul, or messenger, but a rasul receives a Holy Book, not merely a message.

nada A Sanskrit word meaning ‘sound’ or ‘tone’. The Sangita Bhashya, a text on music, says: ‘Nada (intelligible sound) is the treasure of happiness for the happy, the distraction of those who suffer, the winner of the hearts of hearers, the first messenger of the god of love… The fifth approach to the eternal wisdom, the VEDA.’ Sound can also be of divine origin. Thus Anahata Nada is the unstruck or divine sound and can be heard within oneself, particularly in the ANAHATA CHAKRA, the hidden energy centre representing the heart.

nadis A Sanskrit term for hidden channels of energy within the body, said to be like light waves or sound waves. Texts on YOGA normally mention 72,000 nadis, while the Yoganushasanam states that there are 3,50,000. Of these, three are considered most important, the Ida, Pingala and Sushumna. The Sushumna is the central channel that runs from the base of the spine (the MULADHARA CHAKRA) along the spinal cord, through the other main CHAKRAS, up to the crown of the head. According to some TANTRIC texts, it then curves downwards, like the handle of a walking stick, to the nostrils. Within it is the vital essence, known as vajra-nadi, and within that the Chitrini, brilliant and subtle. Inside this is the Brahma nadi, representing pure intelligence, shining like the minds of sages, revealing pure knowledge. On either side are Ida, to the left, cool and white, representing the moon, and Pingala, to the right, red and hot, representing the sun and fire. Texts give different descriptions of these nadis, and according to some, they cross each other like the caduceus and end in the nostrils. Along these central nadis rises the KUNDALINI, the serpent power or sacred energy. The other nadis pervade the subtle body, bringing consciousness and energy to every cell. The nadis are energized and purified in various ways, by yogic and Tantric techniques, particularly PRANAYAMA, or specific breathing techniques.

According to the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, a fifteenth-century text, when the nadis are purified, a person becomes happy, peaceful, optimistic and enthusiastic. The body is slim and radiant, and the mystic fire is aroused.

Nadwat-ul-Musannifin An institution for Islamic study located at DELHI, established in 1938. Its scholars belong mainly to the DEOBAND school. It publishes a number of works on Islam, as well as an Urdu monthly, Burhan.

Nadwat-ul-Ulama, Lucknow An institution for Islamic research and study. The Nadwat-ul-Ulama Association was first established at Kanpur in 1893. It moved to Lucknow in present Uttar Pradesh in 1898, where a Dar-ul-Uloom was founded. Its main aims were to bring harmony among Muslims of different groups, to create an atmosphere of unity and cooperation, and to modernize the syllabi of the Arabic MADRASAS. Maulana Shibli Numani was the first academic supervisor of the Dar-ul-Uloom, succeeded by Maulana Syed Sulaiman Nadwi, followed by the well-known scholar Maulana Abul Hasan Ali NADWI. Its syllabus focuses on the QURAN and SUNNAH, but modern sciences and languages are also studied. It has produced outstanding scholars and remains an important institution with over a thousand students. It also has a large library and a research and publications department.

Nadwi, Abul Hasan Ali An Islamic philosopher, historian and scholar. Born in 1914 at Takia Kalan in Rai Bareili, in present Uttar Pradesh, he was educated by his mother and brother, his father having died when he was young. In 1926 he joined the NADWAT-UL-ULAMA at Lucknow and specialized in HADIS, later joining Lucknow University. He also studied for a few months at Deoband, and with the SUFI saint Shaikh Abdul Qadir Raipur. In 1934 he became a teacher in the Nadwat-ul-Ulama, and in 1954, director of education. He had joined the Jamat-i-Islami in 1941 but resigned because he did not agree with its principles. Nadwi was proficient in English and Arabic, and became a noted scholar who travelled to many parts of the world, giving learned lectures in Arabic and English, on Islam. His speeches were listened to by the Muslim elite in Islamic countries, and by other scholars in the West, and collected in books. Collections of his speeches include the Islamic Concept of Prophethood, Western Civilization, and Islam and Muslims. Possibly his most widely read book, is What the World Lost Through Muslims’ Deterioration, while his Saviours of the Islamic Spirit, originally in Arabic, is popular among Muslims. Nadwi commented on the lack of education among Muslims and their ignorance of true Islam. He received a number of awards and honorary degrees and was a member of a number of Islamic organizations, highly respected by ULAMA and other scholars, both in India and abroad. He died in 1999.

nafs A term in Islam usually interpreted as the soul, which is immortal and non-material. Alternatively, nafs has been translated as ‘human conscience’, and also means ‘animal life’, substance, or desire. Certain SUFIS interpret nafs as the lower soul that has to be purified, while Qalb, the heart, is the higher soul in which the divine light can be seen. Other Sufis see seven stages of nafs, the lowest belonging to ordinary human beings, and the highest, Nafs al-Kamila, to the perfected Sufi. This concept indicates that while the essence of the soul may be eternal, its qualities can be modified.

Nag Hammadi documents Ancient documents found in 1945 at Nag Hammadi in Egypt, that relate to eastern or Coptic Christianity, and reflect Gnostic ideas. (See GNOSTICISM). They have usually been dated to between the second and fourth centuries, though they are attributed to earlier authors, and some scholars believe they incorporate earlier traditions. Among the documents is the Gospel of Thomas, which contains sayings of JESUS and provides information on ST. THOMAS, who according to Indian tradition came to India and died here. In addition there are the Gospel of Philip, the Gospel of Truth, the Secret Book of James and other texts. Scholars such as Edward Conze, an authority on Buddhism, have suggested Indian influence, both Hindu and Buddhist, in the ideas of these texts, which differ from mainstream Christianity. Though more research is yet to be done on this, some passages do seem to indicate either Indian influence or an expression of universal ideas and concepts which underlie different religions. For instance, a text called Thunder, Perfect Mind, contains verses reminiscent of the BHAGAVAD GITA:

I am the silence that is incomprehensible,

I am the utterance of my name.

The Trimorphic Protennoia contains a passage similar to a description of BRAHMAN, the Absolute. The text begins: ‘[I] am [Protennoia the] Thought that [dwells] in [the Light]… [she who exists] before the All… I move in every creature… I am the Invisible One within the All.’ (Quotes from Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels).

naga deities A number of naga and nagi deities, male and female snake gods, are described in texts and represented in images. They form part of the Hindu pantheon, but some are also worshipped in Buddhism and Jainism. Such deities represent power, wisdom and fertility.

The worship of snakes probably dates back to pre-Vedic times. In the RIG VEDA, AHI BUDHNYA is mentioned, meaning ‘the serpent of the deep’. In the ATHARVA VEDA there are references to snake deities, among them being Tirashchiraji, Pridaku, Svajo, Kalmasagrivo and Svitro, who were the guardians of the south, west, north, east and upper regions. TAKSHAKA, prominent in later texts, is also mentioned. In the MAHABHARATA and PURANAS, several snake deities are described, including Takshaka, Karkotaka, Padma, Mahapadma and Kulika. The Mayasamgraha, a Sanskrit text, states that nagas or naga deities have two tongues, two arms and seven hoods embedded with jewels. They hold an akshasutra (bead rosary) and have curling tails. Their wives and children have one to three heads. In the much later Shilpa Ratna, a text of the seventeenth century, nagas are said to be human in form above the navel, and snake-like below.

According to some of the PURANAS, the nagas are the children of KASHYAPA and KADRU. They live in PATALA, also known as Nagaloka, a beautiful world, with its capital at Bhogavati.

Several Hindu deities are associated with snakes or with snake divinities. The god VISHNU rests in the waters on ANANTA or Shesha Naga in the intervals between creation. BALARAMA is depicted holding a plough and a snake, both representing fertility, and is said to be a form of Ananta Naga. On the other hand, GARUDA, the vehicle of VISHNU, is an enemy of snakes. KRISHNA, in one of his heroic episodes, struggled with and defeated the serpent Kaliya, probably representing the subordination of a snake cult. SHIVA is associated with snakes and is depicted with a snake around his neck. Nagas and nagis are often shown worshipping deities such as Vishnu.

In Jainism, the Tirthankara PARSHVANATHA is associated with snakes and is surmounted by a canopy of seven hoods. In Buddhism, nagas are depicted on the pedestals of some BUDDHA images. There are MAHAYANA texts dealing with the prevention of snake bite, and with the benefits of friendliness towards snakes.

Independent snake deities existed from early days, and are depicted in sculptures and mentioned in inscriptions. Among such deities are Dadhikarna, and MANINAGA, while among female snake deities MANASA is the most prominent and is still worshipped today. There are several other local deities associated with snakes or the prevention of snake bite, such as GUGA in northern India.

Snakes are associated with wisdom and with the KUNDALINI, the hidden energy in the human body, said to be like a coiled serpent at the base of the spine.

Texts also mention snake SACRIFICES that took place in ancient times. (See Sarpa Satra).

Snakes are still worshipped all over India. NAGAPANCHAMI, a special festival for snakes, is popular in north India. It probably originated in an earlier ritual, known as Sarbapali, described in the GRIHYA SUTRAS, and performed during the rainy season to honour and ward off snakes.

Two snakes intertwined in the shape of caduceus are often carved on stones and placed outside temples or under trees. Cobras particularly are considered sacred, and killing them is said to bring ill fortune.

Snakes are prominent in other ancient civilizations. In ancient Mesopotamia, for instance, there was a serpent god that was half-man, half-serpent.

A Naga dynasty existed in early northern India, though their name was possibly derived from the Scythian word for leader or chief.

Naga people, religion of The Naga people, who are now mainly Christians, consist of tribes and sub-tribes who probably originally migrated from southern China to the hills of Myanmar and northeast India. Today they live mainly in the state of Nagaland, extending into neighbouring states and into Myanmar. Among the main tribes settled in different parts of Nagaland are the Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Khiamungan, Konyak, Kuki, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sema, Yimchunger and Zeliang. Other tribes include the Kabui (Rongmei and Puimei) and the Kacha (Liangmai and Zeme).

There are different interpretations of the term Naga in this context. According to one theory, Naga is derived from the Burmese word naka, meaning people with perforated ears, as they used to pierce their ears with large wooden plugs. Another theory is that it is related to a Tibetan word, that means mountain people. The term ‘Naga was initially used for these tribes by people of the plains, and later adopted by the tribes themselves.

Nagas retain many of their traditional customs, as well as their traditional form of dress, which is unique to each tribe. Each tribe has its own language and legends, and once had its own traditional deities. In general, there was a supreme, benevolent god, and a number of lesser deities and spirits. The Angamis had a supreme deity known as Ukepenuopfu, whose abode was in the sky. There were special gods for hunting and fishing, as well as a god of death and a god to be propitiated in case of nightmares. Stones and animals were believed to possess spirits. Head-hunting, killing members of enemy tribes in war, and bringing back their heads as trophies, was a common practice among all Naga tribes. These practices died out with the introduction of Christianity but their legends and traditional festivals are still popular. Several tribes trace their origin to mythical ancestors. For instance, Gairemong is the legendary ancestor of the Rongmei Nagas. He was born from a union between a human mother and the Master of the World, who came to her in the form of a charming python. Later, the father bequeathed the land, plants, animals and birds to his son, who ruled the land ensuring peace and prosperity.

Some of the tribal festivals still celebrated (with the name of the tribe in parentheses) are: Sekrenyi (Angami), Ngada (Rengma), Nga-Ngai (Zeliang), Mimkut (Kuki), Tsukhenyi (Chakhesang), Nazu (Pochury), Moatsu (Ao), Aoling (Konyak), Monyu (Phom), Miu (Khiamngan), Nkanyulum (Chang), Metemneo (Yimchunger), Amongmong (Sangtam), Tokhuemong (Lotha), Tuluni (Sema).

See also North-east, Christianity in.

Naga sadhus A sect of SADHUS or holy men, said to have been founded by the ninth-century philosopher SHANKARA, though their actual origin is unclear. Divided into akharas, loosely translated as ‘regiments’, they were once a martial group and fought against the British during the revolt of 1857. They practise extreme asceticism, many of them always remaining naked even in the coldest weather. Naga sadhus usually carry sticks, spears, swords or tridents, remnants of their martial origin, that now have a symbolic significance, representing conquest of the Self. They remain celibate, often smear their bodies with ash, and are known to consume bhang or ganja (cannabis).

There are ten main Hindu akharas, seven Shaivite and three Vaishnavite, as well as additional akharas. Of the Shaivites, the Mahanirvani akhara, Niranjana akhara and Juna akhara are the best known, the sadhus of the last always remaining naked, clothed only in ash. Other Shaiva akharas are the Anand, Atal, Avahana and Agni. Vaishnavite akharas were founded somewhat later, according to tradition by Shri Balanandji Maharaj. These consist of the Nirmohi akhara, Nirvani akhara and Digambar akhara, all of which have split into sub-sects. These ten akharas are together known as the Dasnami, but are different from the DASNAMI sadhus attached to the MATHAS, and in the hierarchy of sadhus are second to them.

Apart from these there are the akharas of Sikh origin, including the Udasin akhara, and the Nirmala Panchayati akhara.

The akharas are under a supreme head known as the Acharya Mahamandaleshvara, while individual akharas are under a Mahamandaleshvara. Each akhara is based at one place, but the sadhus may travel wherever they like. Naga sadhus are prominent at the KUMBH MELAS, where bathing areas are reserved for them at specific times.

Nagapanchami A Hindu festival in which snakes or NAGAS are worshipped. Panchami means ‘fifth’, and this festival takes place on the fifth day of the bright half of the month of Shravana (July/August). It is associated with ANANTA, the serpent on whom VISHNU rests in the intervals between dissolution and creation. It is also a festival to appease and honour all snakes.

At the festival, stone and other images of snakes are worshipped, and images of snakes are made from cloth, or drawn on various surfaces. Rice, flour and bowls of milk are placed near snake holes, and snakes that emerge to accept the food, are said to bring good fortune. No snakes are killed on this day, and fields are not ploughed in case snakes are accidently injured. Naga Panchami is celebrated particularly in north and east India, and has different local forms. In MATHURA the defeat of the Naga Kaliya by the god KRISHNA is celebrated.

In Bengal the Ashtanagas (eight nagas), which include Vasuki, TAKSHAKA, Shesha and Ananta, are worshipped, as well as the goddess MANASA.

The celebration of this festival is said to provide protection from snakes in the coming year.

Nagara A style of temple architecture. See Temples.

Nagari A north Indian script, also known as DEVANAGARI, which is considered a script of the DEVAS or gods.

Nagarjuna A MAHAYANA Buddhist philosopher who probably lived between 150 and 250 CE. He was born in the region of present Andhra Pradesh and was originally a BRAHMANA, but later became a Buddhist. He wrote the Madhyamika Karika, which formed the basic text of the MADHYAMIKA school of Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjuna propounded the basic doctrine of SHUNYATA or emptiness, and tried to show how conclusions reached on the basis of different schools of thought are actually unreal. Among other works attributed to him are the Yuktashashtika or Sixty Arguments, the Shunyata-Saptati, or Seventy Verses on Shunyata, the Pratitya-Samutpadahridaya on ‘dependent origination’, the Dvadasha-dvara Shastra, the Vigrahavyavartani, and many more, which may not actually be his. Nagarjuna is a revered figure in Buddhism and is considered the patriarch of several Japanese Buddhist schools.

Nagarjunakonda An early Buddhist settlement located in present Andhra Pradesh. A large STUPA, 18 m high and 32 m in diameter, constructed in the second century BCE but rebuilt in the third century CE, is located here. During the third to fourth centuries CE, it was the capital of the Ikshvaku dynasty, covering an area of approximately 23 sq km, near the Krishna river. A number of Buddhist monuments and shrines were constructed at this time, for various Buddhist sects. Among these were votive stupas, with a brick-and-rubble filling, overlaid by plaster or lime stucco, often placed within CHAITYA halls. Viharas or monasteries had cells arranged around a courtyard. Several Buddhist sculptures have been found here, and there are Hindu shrines as well.

The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam has submerged the original site, but most of the monuments have been carefully relocated on a nearby hill top.

Nagasena A Buddhist philosopher who lived in the second century BCE and had a series of dialogues on Buddhism with King MENANDER, which form the MILINDA PANHA. According to the Milinda Panha, Nagasena was famed far and wide for his wisdom, and no one could rival him. He settled in an ashram in Sakala, King Menander’s capital in north-west India, where he met the king, who was searching for answers on philosophical questions.

Nageshvara Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA, located at KUMBAKONAM in Tamil Nadu. It was constructed during the reign of the Chola ruler Parantaka I (907–40), and though small in size, is among the finest Chola temples. According to legend, when Adishesha or ANANTA Naga was groaning under the weight of the world, he came here, performed penances and worshipped Shiva as Nageshvara or lord of the snakes. Shiva and PARVATI appeared to him, blessed him and gave him strength. A temple was built at this spot, consisting of a shrine attached to a columned MANDAPA, both raised on a basement.

The inner shrine has a LINGA, as well as various images on the walls. To the north is Shiva as DAKSHINAMURTI, to the west ARDHANARISHVARA, and to the south, BRAHMA. In between there are life-size sculptures, probably of donors or worshippers. On the mandapa walls are other images, including those of DURGA and of Shaivite saints, which are beautifully carved. The basement has panels of lotus petals and epic scenes.

Above the shrine is a pyramidal tower with a hemispherical roof that has been renovated recently. The whole is enclosed in a courtyard, in which there is also a NATARAJA shrine. The basement of this is remarkable, with richly decorated rearing horses and large wheels, the spokes of which are made up of tiny figures. A well in the complex is known as Naga Tirtham.

nagi/nagini Female snake deities, the counterparts of NAGA DEITIES. Nagis often accompany nagas and are depicted in temples.

Nagore Dargah The DARGAH of a popular SUFI saint, Meeran Sahib Abdul Qadir Shahul Hamid Badshah (d. c. 1560), located at Nagore in Nagapattinam district of Tamil Nadu. The dargah covers an area of about five acres, enclosed with walls and with four impressive entrances. In front of the western gate is a tower 40 m high known as Periya Minar, constructed by Pratap Singh, king of Thanjavur, in about 1760. Within the enclosure, the dargah has a golden dome covering three tombs, of the saint, his son, and his daughter-in-law. A large mosque that attracts a big gathering on Fridays is located nearby. The Vanjur shrine 2 km away, marks the spot where the saint meditated in a cave, whereas another shrine connected with the saint is located at Silladi. Meeran Sahib was said to be a disciple of a SHATTARI saint of Gwalior, but later settled in the south. A fourteen-day festival known as Kandhuri Urs is held every year, and attracts thousands of pilgrims of all religions. Prayers here are said to be answered through the miraculous power of the saint.

Naigamesha A Jain deity, also known as Negamesha, Nemesa, Naigameshin, and other variants. Naigamesha is mentioned in the KALPA SUTRA and other Jain texts, and depicted in sculptures in the first few centuries CE. Sculptural representations show him as an antelope or goat-headed deity associated with children. In the Kalpa Sutra, Negamesi or Harinegamesi, on the instructions of INDRA, transferred the embryo of MAHAVIRA from the womb of Devananda, a BRAHMANA, to that of Trishala, a KSHATRIYA lady, through whom he was born. In the Neminathacharitra, a SHVETAMBARA text on the life of the Tirthankara ARISHTANEMINATHA, the god KRISHNA is said to have worshipped Naigamesha to obtain a son for Satyabhama, his second wife. In other texts, Satyabhama worshipped the deity.

Naigamesha is depicted in narrative panels showing him transferring the embryo, or independently, jewelled and seated on a throne, accompanied by one or more children on his lap or shoulders, and sometimes by a goat-headed female or female attendants. Several images of the first to third centuries CE have been found at MATHURA and other sites.

The BRAHMANAS, GRIHYA SUTRAS and some medical texts mention a deity with a similar name who had a ram’s head. Naigamesha is also one of the names of the god Skanda or KARTTIKEYA, and thus was probably both a Jain and a Brahmanical deity.

The name of the deity has been variously interpreted. Harinegamesi is said to be Negamesi, general of Hari or Indra, or to come from harina (deer), while mesha means ram. The deity was worshipped to obtain children, but after around the third century, his images are rare.

naivedya A term for offerings or oblation in Hindu temples.

Najmuddin Kubra The founder of a SUFI sect known as the KUBRAWIYA, who lived in the twelfth century. The Kubrawiya was a branch of the SUHRAWARDI, and its Indian branches were known as the FIRDAUSI and HAMADANI.

Nakhoda Mosque A mosque located in Kolkata in West Bengal; it is the largest in the region, with space to accommodate ten thousand people. Its two minarets reach a height of 50 m, and a huge dome covers the mosque.

nakshatra A word that literally means ‘star’, but in the Hindu calendric system refers to a lunar mansion, in which the moon is placed during a twenty-four-hour day. The nakshatra divisions are named after the most prominent constellations in the lunar segment. There are twenty-seven nakshatra divisions, each covering 13.20’ on the ecliptic, and 2¼ nakshatras equal one rashi. The nakshatras are: (1) Ashvini; (2) Bharani; (3) Krittika; (4) Rohini; (5) Mrigashira; (6) Ardra; (7) Punarvasu; (8) Pushya; (9) Aslesha; (10) Magha; (11) Purva Phalguni; (12) Uttara Phalguni; (13) Hasta; (14) Chitra; (15) Svati; (16) Vishakha; (17) Anuradha; (18) Jyeshtha; (19) Mula; (20) Purvashadha; (21) Uttarashadha; (22) Shravana; (23) Dhanishtha; (24) Sata-bhisha; (25) Purva Bhadrapada; (26) Uttara Bhadrapada; (27) Revati.

They are used in astrological calculations for fixing the dates of festivals. Other parts of the ancient world also used twenty-seven or twenty-eight similar divisions. A twenty-eighth nakshatra was added in India, but twenty-seven are used currently. In early days, the day was named after the nakshatra, but later the TITHI or lunar day, based on the lunar phase of the moon, came into use.

Nakula One of the five PANDAVA brothers, described in the MAHABHARATA. Nakula was the son of MADRI, born along with his twin brother SAHADEVA, by Madri invoking the ASHVINS, who were twin deities. Nakula was very handsome and an expert horseman and sword-fighter. He took part in the great war, and when YUDHISHTHIRA became king, he was appointed chief of the army.

Naladiyar A Tamil text that forms part of the collection of the PADINENKILKANKKU, or eighteen minor works. The Naladiyar, an anthology of 400 verses, has wise sayings and can be compared to the Buddhist DHAMMAPADA. For instance:

Better to have hatred than the friendship of fools;

Better to have death than chronic illness.

Nalanda Monastery An extensive Buddhist monastery, that existed between the fifth and twelfth centuries, and possibly later, located near the ancient city of RAJAGRIHA (modern Rajgir) in Bihar. XUANZANG, the Chinese pilgrim, visited it in the seventh century and provided a description of it. He said it was founded by Shakraditya and expanded by succeeding kings, including Buddha Gupta, Tathagata Gupta and Baladitya. Shakraditya has been identified with Kumara Gupta I (414–55), a ruler of the Gupta dynasty. Xuanzang also wrote that there were thousands of monks here, all of great ability and learning, and several foreign students. In and around Nalanda were a hundred sacred monuments, including STUPAS and large temples, as well as beautiful BUDDHA images. There was a copper Buddha about 29 m high in a six-storeyed building. Shilabhadra was the head of the monastery, which specialized in MAHAYANA Buddhist studies.

Buddhist texts state that other topics were taught as well, including various systems of philosophy, logic, grammar, medicine and even the VEDAS. The monastery was flourishing in the ninth century when Viradeva, originally a BRAHMANA from Jalalabad, became its head. At this time the king of Java, who belonged to the Sailendra dynasty, built a monastery here for Javanese students with the permission of the Indian king. A number of students from Tibet and China studied here, and the scholars at Nalanda had a profound influence on TIBETAN BUDDHISM.

Between the eighth and twelfth centuries, Buddhist art flourished at Nalanda and in neighbouring areas. Bronze images of Buddhist deities and fine paintings on palm leaf manuscripts were made. These influenced art in Nepal and Tibet, and even in China and Japan.

According to some accounts, the monastery was destroyed by a general of Muhammad Ghori in the twelfth century, but this is contradicted by the account of a Tibetan Buddhist monk, Dharmasvamin. He visited it in the thirteenth century and said that there were more than eighty viharas in and around Nalanda, where Buddhist teachers and their disciples lived.

The remains of Nalanda can still be seen today.

Nalayira Divya Prabandham A collection of the works of the ALVAR saints, who composed songs of love and devotion to the Hindu god VISHNU. The name means ‘The Divine Four Thousand’, and the Prabandham has four thousand verses, most of them composed to be sung or set to music. They are verses of BHAKTI or devotion and love of Vishnu as a personal god. The verses include praises of the deities of 108 Divya Desams, or Vaishnava temples in south India. The text is divided into four parts: the Mudaliyiram, Periya Tirumozhi, Tiruvaymozhi and Iyarpa. Several commentaries have been written on the Prabandham, and some commentators provided a theological framework for the text, naming the parts according to themes. The first two parts are thus also known as Tirumantra, or the divine mantra, and explain the mantra Om Namah Narayanaya, in praise of Vishnu. The third part is classified as Charamashloka, or the verse of death, and is concerned with ways of seeking refuge in the universal soul, while the fourth, known as Dvayamantra, focuses on the ultimate goal and its realization.

Nam simaran Remembrance of the True Name, a term for meditation in Sikhism. In Sikhism, God is recognized as NIRGUNA or without attributes, and at its highest Nam simaran is a meditation on the formless God, leading finally to divine bliss. According to Guru NANAK, meditation on Nam, the True Name, is worship.

Another form is Nam japa or repeating the name of God, and is based on the transforming power of the word. Different names are used for God in Sikhism, including Satnam, Hari, Ram, Mohan, Allah, Khuda, Rabb, but usually the term Satnam (True Name) or Wahe Guru (victory to the guru) is used as a mantra. Reciting Sikh prayers is another form of Nam simaran.

Namadeva A BHAKTI saint of the Maratha region. There are some conflicting views of his life.

Namadeva was the son of a tailor named Damasheti. According to some accounts, his parents moved to Pandharpur when he was still a child, while according to others, they had moved there even before his birth. He was probably born in 1270, either in the village of Narasi-Vamani in Satara district of Maharashtra, or in Pandharpur. He married young, and had four sons and a daughter. Namadeva initially followed his father’s profession, but after facing losses in business, he is said to have become a thief and a murderer. He was transformed, according to some accounts, by a meeting with the saint JNANESHVARA, and according to others because he was touched by the grief of the wife of one of his victims.

Other versions of his life deny this story, and state that he was a devotee of the god Vitthala from childhood.

He received a divine vision and then spent his time singing ABHANGAS or verses in praise of the god VITTHALA or Vithoba, a form of VISHNU. He lived mostly at PANDHARPUR, the centre of the Vithoba temple, but also travelled with Jnaneshvara. His verses, in simple Marathi and Hindi, are still popular, and reflect his pure love for god. He died in 1350.

namaz A term for prayer in Islam, referred to as salat in Arabic. Namaz is one of the basic duties of Islam, compulsory for every Muslim adult who is in good health. The five prayers that must be offered daily are known as Fajr, Zuhar, Asr, Maghrib and Isha. Fajr is offered before dawn, Zuhar (actually considered the first) in the afternoon, the third between Zuhar and sunset, the fourth after sunset but before night, and the fifth any time during the night, but preferably before midnight.

An AZAN or call to prayer is made from mosques for each of the five daily prayers to indicate the correct times. Men go to the mosque to pray whenever possible, while women pray at home. Wuzu or ablutions are made before prayers.

On Fridays (juma) a special juma (congregation) prayer is offered in place of the Zuhar, which is preceded by the khutba or sermon. There are also special prayers on ID and other festivals. Prayers are offered facing the QIBLA (direction of Mecca).

Nambi Andar Nambi A BHAKTI saint and worshipper of the Hindu god SHIVA, who lived in the tenth and eleventh centuries at the time of the Chola ruler Rajaraja. He put together a collection of the hymns of the NAYANARS or Shaivite saints, to which additions were made later. This collection is known as the TIRUMURAI and includes his own verses on the saints SAMBANDAR and APPAR, as well as those in praise of Vinayaka (GANESHA) and of CHIDAMBARAM. Nambi also composed the Tiruttondar-Tiruvantadi, an account of their lives, based on Sundaramurti’s Tiruttondattogai.

Nambudiri, Cherusseri A sixteenth-century writer in Malayalam who composed a long poem, Krishna Gatha, based on stories of the life of the Hindu god KRISHNA in the tenth Skandha of the BHAGAVATA PURANA. His work is recognized as a religious and poetic masterpiece.

Namdhari A Sikh sect also known as Kukas. It was founded in the 1840s by Bhagat Jawahar Mal and his disciple Baba Balak Singh, who lived at Hazro in the North-West Frontier Province. Their aim was to revive and purify Sikhism, which by then had accumulated several non-Sikh practices and Hindu customs, and had lost its simplicity. Their centre was the Jagiasi Abhiasi Ashram at Hazro, and as the movement gained followers, Baba Balak Singh (d. 1862) came to be known as the eleventh guru. His successor Ram Singh (1815–85) moved the centre to Bhaini in Ludhiana, Punjab, and laid down several rules for his disciples, including not eating meat or drinking alcohol, not coveting another’s wife or property, not practising female infanticide or allowing marriages to take place before the age of sixteen, and not joining government service or patronizing government facilities. In addition Namdharis were to rise at dawn and meditate and pray, and to distinguish themselves from other Sikhs, were to wear their turbans straight across the forehead, instead of the two ends meeting at an angle.

Namdharis came to be known as Kukas, for when they assembled for Chandi ki Path, a reading of certain scriptures, they reached a state of ecstacy, emitting cries (kuks).

Ram Singh divided the Punjab into Kuka districts, each in charge of a disciple known as a Subah. As Namdhari influence spread, some became fanatical and organized protests against cow slaughter that often led to violence. In 1872 they came in conflict with the British, after which Ram Singh and some others were exiled and the Namdharis suppressed. Though reduced in strength, Namdharis continued to exist and had a series of gurus. Their guru still resides at Bhaini, while the headquarters of the sect is at Sri Jiwan Nagar, Hisar, Haryana. They follow the principles laid down by Ram Singh and revere him as an incarnation of Guru GOBIND SINGH (d. 1708).

Namdharis view their historical past not merely as a purificatory movement, but as a nationalist struggle against the British.

Namgyal Institute of Tibetology An institute for the study of Buddhism, located at Gangtok in Sikkim. Opened in 1958, the institute has a collection of BUDDHA and BODHISATTVA images, fine THANGKAS, and a large library of books on Buddhism, including Tibetan, PALI, Sanskrit and Burmese texts, as well as translations and scholarly works in English. There are a number of Tibetan manuscripts, and writings from the KANGYUR and TANGYUR collections. The institute has initiated research on various aspects of Buddhism, the history of Tibet, and the structure and phonetics of the Tibetan language. It also edits and publishes ancient texts.

Nammalvar One of the ALVAR saints, who composed songs of love and devotion to the Hindu god VISHNU. He was born in Tirunagari, the son of a local chief named Kariyar and his wife Udayamankayar, and was initially named Maran, and later Shathakopa and Nammalvar. Always spiritually inclined, he is said to have renounced the world at the age of thirty-five, devoting himself to the worship of Vishnu.

Legendary accounts present a different picture. According to these, the child did not speak or move at birth, and considering him divine, the parents left him at the Vishnu temple nearby in a golden cradle, under a tamarind tree. He stayed there without speaking or moving for sixteen years until the Alvar saint Mathura or Madhura Kavi saw him and recognized his greatness, after which Nammalvar began to sing songs of praise to Vishnu. Madhura Kavi then became his disciple. According to this account, he continued to compose and sing songs of devotion under the tamarind tree, until he left the world at the age of thirty-five. His compositions, include Tiruvaymozhi, that forms part of the NALYIRA DIVYA PRABANDHAM. They are not only devotional hymns, but are deeply philosophical, later commented on by exponents of VISHISHTADVAITA.

Nanak, Guru The founder of Sikhism. Nanak was born in 1469 at Talwandi (now known as Nankana Sahib) in Punjab, in present Pakistan, to Mehta Kalu Chand and his wife Tripta.

Nanak’s life is known mainly through the JANAM SAKHIS, which were composed later. According to these, even as a child, Nanak was reflective and spiritually inclined, and though he studied with a Hindu pandit and learnt Persian with a Muslim Maulvi, he was not interested in studies, or later in business. His father despaired of him, but his sister Nanaki and the village landlord Rai Bular believed he was a saint. Nanaki was married to Jairam of Sultanpur, and later Nanak went there and worked as a store-keeper. Meanwhile he was married to Sulakhni, daughter of Mula, and had two sons, SRI CHAND in 1494 and Lakshmidas in 1496. Soon after this, Nanak had a mystical experience when he went into the Bein river to bathe, and disappeared. All had given him up for dead, but he reappeared after three days, and the first words he is reported to have said are: ‘There is no Hindu and no Mussalman.’ The essence of the teachings he was soon to reveal, were received by him in a divine vision. He left Sultanpur and began travelling in order to spread his divine message.

According to some Janam Sakhis, he made four Udasis or divine missions over a period of twenty-three years, accompanied by MARDANA, his Muslim disciple. Some accounts state that BALA, his Hindu disciple, also went with him. GURDWARAS or shrines are located at most of the places he visited, and stories and legends are associated with each of these places.

In his first Udasi he travelled to various places in Punjab and then moved towards DELHI. On the way he met the SUFI saint, ABU ALI SHAH QALANDAR in Panipat, and in Delhi he stayed with a Muslim faqir named Majnu. The MAJNU KA TILA GURDWARA marks his visit here. He then went to HARDWAR, KEDARNATH, BADRINATH, JOSHIMATH, AYODHYA, VARANASI and PRAYAGA. Along the way he came across people of different sects, commented on superstitious practices, and indicated the true path to those he met. He also went to GAYA, Bengal, Assam and Orissa before returning to Sultanpur in 1509. After this he visited a few towns in Punjab, before beginning his second Udasi around 1510. He crossed through Rajasthan, the Deccan and south India, and reached Sri Lanka. On the return journey he passed through Gujarat and Multan. His third Udasi probably began in the summer of 1517. Some time before this, around 1516, he founded a settlement of Sikhs at KARTARPUR. In the third Udasi, he is said to have visited some Himalayan regions, reached Mt KAILASHA and MANASAROVARA, and according to some accounts, crossed into Nepal and Sikkim. He then went to Tibet and returned through Ladakh. On his fourth Udasi, Nanak went to Baluchistan, and from the port of Miani sailed for Mecca. Here he had discussions with QAZIS and MULLAS, before proceeding to Medina. According to some accounts he even visited Palestine, Turkey and Syria, though most accounts state that he went to Baghdad and then returned via Iran and Afghanistan. He settled down in Kartarpur along with MARDANA, and a growing community of his followers. Here he met Lehna, whom he chose as his successor, naming him ANGAD. After this he made a few short trips, including one to Achal, where he conversed with YOGIS and SIDDHAS. The ACHAL SAHIB GURDWARA marks this spot. Guru Nanak died at Kartarpur in 1539. According to legend, his Muslim and Hindu disciples quarrelled about how to dispose of the body. The body was covered with a sheet, and when the sheet was lifted, only flowers remained.

The historical Nanak This account of his life is based on the Janam Sakhis, which are hagiographical, written some years after his death, and contain legends and stories of miracles that are doubted by historians. Some scholars do not believe that he visited all the places described in his Udasis, while others point out that there is evidence for most of these visits.

Nanak’s teachings are conveyed through his verses in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB, and through accounts provided in the Janam Sakhis and other texts. The most important of his verses in the Granth Sahib is the JAPJI, containing the Mul Mantra. Others include the Asa di Var and SIDDHA GOSHT. Nanak spoke of one universal God, eternal and beyond form. He emphasized that all people were equal and that rituals were unnecessary, most important being good actions. Superstitions, magical practices, TANTRISM and too much book learning led nowhere.

The religion of Sikhism is founded on his basic teachings, which were added to by the later gurus.

Nanak Jhira Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Bidar in Karnataka. According to the JANAM SAKHIS, Guru NANAK came here on his second udasi or missionary tour of south India. He stayed on the outskirts of Bidar town, where there were several Muslim faqirs who listened to his teachings with interest and reverence. People from the surrounding areas gathered to hear him. There was a shortage of drinking water in the area, and Nanak, with his compassionate heart, wished to help them. He moved some rubble on the side of a hill, and a spring of sweet water was miraculously revealed. The place was then known as Nanak Jhira (jhira = stream). The water is collected in a white marble tank and is said to have healing properties. The Nanak Jhira Gurdwara was built nearby. A LANGAR or free kitchen serves the pilgrims who visit the place, and Sikh festivals, particularly the birthday of Guru Nanak are celebrated here.

Bidar is also remembered for one of the PANJ PIARE, Bhai Sahib Singh, who was originally from here.

Nanak Matta Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in Udham Singh Nagar District of Uttarakhand. Guru NANAK came here on his way to Mt KAILASHA. At that time Gorakhpanthis, followers of the Yogi GORAKHNATHA, lived here, and the place was known as Gorakh Matta. Guru Nanak had a discussion with them about the true religion, and they became his followers. The name of the place was changed to Nanak Matta, and a shrine in memory of the guru’s visit was maintained here. Some Gorakhpanthis resented this and wanted the place restored to them. In the seventeenth century, they tried to destroy the shrine and burnt the pipal tree near it. However, Guru HARGOBIND went there and the Gorakhpanthis, impressed with his discourses, allowed the shrine to exist. Later, a gurdwara was built there.

Nanak Panth A term for the followers of Guru NANAK, the founder of Sikhism. In early years the term included all Sikhs, but later it came to signify those who were not members of the KHALSA.

Nanak Piao Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in DELHI, at the place where Guru NANAK is said to have stayed in around 1505. Many people came to see him and brought him food and offerings, which he distributed to the poor. At this time Sultan Sikandar Shah Lodi was ruling Delhi. A story is told, related to the guru’s stay here. Elephants were tethered near where the guru was staying, and when one of them died, the mahout began to lament. Guru NANAK asked him to pray instead, and the elephant revived. The sultan then came to him and demanded that he kill it and revive it in front of him, but the guru refused, and the angry sultan imprisoned him. SUFI saints convinced the sultan that Nanak was a holy man, and simultaneously a great earthquake took place in Delhi, which many people connected with the imprisonment of the guru. Nanak was released, and later a gurdwara was built here. A well from which Nanak used to serve water to the poor, exists here.

Nand Lal ‘Goya’, Bhai A Sikh poet who was a disciple of Guru GOBIND SINGH. Born in 1633 in Ghazni (Afghanistan), he wrote poems in Persian and Arabic. He married a Sikh girl, came in contact with Guru Gobind Singh and became his disciple, living with him from 1697. He wrote a number of works on Guru Gobind Singh and his code of conduct, and his writings are considered sacred. Several RAHIT-NAMAS are attributed to him, including the Tanakhah-nama, the Prashan-uttar, and a prose Rahit-Nama. In the first two verse namas, questions asked by Nand Lal are answered by the guru. For instance, Nand Lal asks what deeds a Sikh should perform, and the guru replies that only those deeds, which reflect the divine name, charity and purity. Nand Lal died at Multan in 1715.

Nanda A cowherd who raised the god KRISHNA. According to one account in the BHAGAVATA PURANA, in a previous birth he was one of the eight VASUS, who because of a mistake he made, was reborn as a cowherd. After praying to BRAHMA, he was told he would be liberated when he was born as Nanda and took care of Krishna. According to the SHIVA PURANA, he was earlier born in a cowherd family but gained great merit by worshipping SHIVA, and thus became the foster-father of Krishna. Along with his wife YASHODA, he cared for KRISHNA until he reached adulthood.

Nanda Devi A Hindu deity, a mountain goddess, after whom Nanda Devi mountain in the Himalayas is named. There are a number of Nanda Devi temples in the western Himalayas, at Nauti, Chandpur, Kurur, Srinagar (Garhwal), Nandaprayaga, Gopeshwar, Almora, Baijnath, Ranikhet and other places.

The origin of the deity is not clear, and she is not mentioned in the PURANAS. According to some accounts, she is a form of PARVATI, while according to others, she is YOGA MAYA, the daughter of the cowherd NANDA. Folk songs, however, describe her as a local princess. A popular Nanda Devi festival takes place once a year in the month of Bhadon or Bhadrapada (August-September), when Nanda Devi goes to visit her mother’s home, escorted in a procession known as the Nanda Jat. Once in twelve years, an even more elaborate festival, the Nanda Raj Jat, is held, said to have been started in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by the rulers of Garhwal and Kumaon. In this festival the deity is accompanied by a four-horned ram who, when the goddess returns home, is said to proceed on its own to Mt Trishula. This festival still takes place, and the four-horned mountain ram, a rare creature, really does inexplicably walk off on its own in the direction of the mountain, leaving behind the goddess and accompanying villagers. The goddess Naina Devi at Nainital, and Naina in Himachal, are thought to be variants of Nanda Devi.

Nandana The grove of the Hindu god INDRA, where the PARIJATA tree grows, located in Devaloka, the world of the gods. Good people go there after death, particularly those who have controlled their senses and have not killed any living beings.

Nandi (1) A white bull, associated with the Hindu god SHIVA. Nandi is the chief of all Shiva’s GANAS and the guardian of four-legged animals. He is alternatively known as Nandin or Nandikeshvara. Other names are Shalankayana, Nandideha, and Tandava-tilaka. He was earlier sometimes depicted in human form, or as a form of Shiva known as Rishabha (bull).

Nandi images are found in or outside most Shiva temples. The largest such image is near the VIRABHADRA TEMPLE at Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh, that is over 6 m high and 9 m long. Another large Nandi image is near the Mahanandi Shiva temple in Andhra Pradesh, while in a radius of about 6 km around Mahanandi are nine Nandi temples, known collectively as the Nava Nandi. In some temples, Shiva is depicted as seated on Nandi.

There are several stories regarding how Nandi came into being. According to the Vayu Purana, he was the son of Kashyapa and Surabhi. In a story in the Linga Purana, Nandi was the son of the rishi Shilada.

(2) A name of the god Shiva and of Vishnu.

Nandi Sutta A Jain text of the SHVETAMBARA canon. Sometimes listed with the PAINNAS, it is usually not connected with any group of texts. According to tradition, this Sutta was written by Devarddhi, who presided over the Jain Council at Vallabhi, when the texts were written down.

It is an encyclopedic work that begins with a verse in praise of MAHAVIRA. It then describes the twenty-four TIRTHANKARAS, the eleven GANADHARAS or heads of schools, followed by a Theravali or list of teachers, the last of whom was Dusagni, the teacher of Devarddhi. It also surveys the whole Jain canon and summarizes everything that a monk needs to know.

Apart from this, it discusses different fields of knowledge, including texts and concepts of other religions, mathematics, drama, poetry and grammar.

Nandini A divine cow in Hindu mythology, sometimes considered the same as Surabhi and KAMADHENU, or thought to be the mother or offspring of Surabhi.

Nannaya A poet who lived from 1023 to 1063 and translated part of the MAHABHARATA into Telugu. He was the priest and court poet of King Rajaraja Narendra of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty, who ruled the country of Vengi, with present Rajahmundry in Andhra Pradesh as its capital. Nannaya was asked by the king to translate the Mahabharata and he translated the Adi Parva, Sabha Parva, and part of the Aranya Parva, but could not complete the whole work. Though meant to be a translation, Nannaya introduced certain changes, which made it rather a retelling of the original story.

The translation was later continued by TIKKANA and Yerrapragada.

Naoroji, Dadabhai A prominent PARSI in the freedom movement, and the first Indian MP in Great Britain who lived from 1825 to 1917. He was also involved in the reform of Parsi society and customs. He was a founding member of the the Rahnumae Mazdayasnan Sabha, an organization for Parsi reform, and in 1851 started the Rast Goftar, a Gujarati newspaper putting forward liberal views. He believed that the purity and simplicity of the GATHAS should be revived, and initiated a ‘Back to the Gathas’ movement.

Naqshbandi Order A SUFI order that originated from the Khwaja order founded in Central Asia, its main principles being established by Khwaja Abdul Khaliq (d. 1220), who lived near Bukhara. It came to be known as Naqshbandi, named after Khwaja Muhammad Bahauddin Naqshband (1317–89), one of the members of the order. The order became popular in India with the arrival of Babar, who became the first Mughal emperor in 1526, and was a follower of one of the Naqshbandi saints. It gained prominence when Khwaja Baqi Billah (1563–1603), a Naqshbandi saint from Kabul, came to DELHI in 1599, and popularized the order in the four years before his death. Naqshbandis were orthodox and were initially against SAMA and the liberal policies of the Mughal emperor AKBAR. Baqi Billah’s disciple Shaikh AHMAD SIRHINDI (1564–1624) was one of the most important Naqshbandis who was critical of Akbar’s liberalism. He condemned Sama, and put forward WAHDAT AL-SHUHUD concepts. His ideas were opposed by SHIAS and other Sufis, and though the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB supported the order and was even initiated into it in 1665, opposition to it remained strong, leading to its decline. Two Naqshbandis, Mirza Mazhar and his son MIR DARD, revived the order in the eighteenth century, with a broader and less rigid philosophy.

The sons of Baqi Billah, Khwaja Khurd and Khwaja Kalan, were opposed to Sirhindi and had a different school of thought, following WAHDAT AL-WUJUD beliefs. Shah WALIULLAH, the famous philosopher of the eighteenth century, was influenced by them.

Narada An ancient RISHI or sage, the author of some hymns in the RIG VEDA, described in the MAHABHARATA, PURANAS and other texts. Narada lived in svarga or heaven, but made frequent trips to earth. According to the Mahabharata, he visited the PANDAVAS a number of times and advised them on right action and conduct, and also tried to persuade DHRITARASHTRA to get DURYODHANA to make peace, but failed.

Narada narrated the BRIHHANNARADIYA PURANA, and the NARADIYA PURANA, to suta.

In the Puranas, Narada is a complex character. He was one of the seven rishis created by BRAHMA, but had a number of odd births, partly because of his mischievous nature. In one life he was born as a GANDHARVA, in another as a worm. After he had persuaded the sons of DAKSHA to wander over the earth, he was reborn as his son. He was once changed into a monkey, and on another occasion into a woman. But Narada continued to wander between heaven and earth, predicting the future and giving advice, both good and bad.

Other stories about him state that Narada played the vina, which became the musical instrument of the world. He supported the DEVAS in their struggle against the ASURAS over AMRITA or divine nectar, and protected the pot of Amrita. He inspired VALMIKI to compose the RAMAYANA, and according to the CHHANDOGYA UPANISHAD, he gained divine wisdom from SANAT KUMARA. The Narada Dharma Shastra is attributed to him. He was known by various other names, including Devarishi, Parameshthi and Surarishi.

Naradiya Purana A Sanskrit text, a minor PURANA or Upapurana, describing the worship of the god VISHNU. It includes the RUKMANGADACHARITA, the story of a king named Rukmangada, who was devoted to Vishnu. Another text of the same name forms a major Purana, but is usually known as the BRIHANNARADIYA PURANA, to distinguish it from the Naradiya Purana.

Narahari Tirtha A BHAKTI saint who probably lived from 1241 to 1333, and is said to have been a disciple of MADHVA. According to various accounts, Narahari Tirtha was a regent of the Gajapati kings of Kalinga (Orissa) for twelve years, but later settled on the banks of the Tungabhadra river in the south. He was an ascetic, composing songs of love and devotion. In one of the first songs he composed, he said, ‘Call on god to whom all creation submits, and give up the enemies within the Self’. He asked people to live a true life, without deceiving themselves. He is also considered the founder of the HARIDASA sect, devotees of the Hindu god VISHNU or Hari, based in the region of Karnataka. Among the Haridasas were KANAKADASA and PURANDARADASA, whose compositions are still sung today.

naraka A name for hell in Hindu mythology. It is the most commonly used name for hell even today, though ancient texts mention several others. According to the MANU SMRITI, there are twenty-one hells, while other texts give varying figures. The VISHNU PURANA describes twenty-eight hells to which people are assigned by YAMA on the basis of their misdeeds. There are hells for those who have cheated or robbed others, and for those who kill and harm others. The hell of Lalabhaksham, for lustful people, consists of a sea of semen; Vatarodham is for those who have harmed creatures of the forest.

Narakasura An ASURA king who ruled over Pragjyotisha (Assam). He was the son of the daitya HIRANYAKSHA and PRITHVI, goddess of the earth. He obtained a divine weapon from the Hindu god VISHNU, and could not be killed as long as he kept this with him. He married 16,000 princesses who, according to one story, were his daughters in a previous birth. Narakasura treated his wives badly and caused terror and devastation in the world. Finally he was killed by the god KRISHNA, who married all his wives to provide them with protection and status.

Nara-Narayana Two ancient RISHIS. The Sanskrit word Nara literally means ‘man’, while NARAYANA later became a name of the Hindu god VISHNU. There are several stories about these rishis in the MAHABHARATA and PURANAS. According to a legend in the DEVI BHAGAVATA PURANA, BRAHMA created DHARMA from his breast, and Dharma married ten of the daughters of DAKSHA. Among their sons were HARI, KRISHNA, Nara and Narayana. The first two became YOGIS, and Nara and Narayana became rishis. According to some accounts, they were the sons of Dharma and Ahimsa, and are said to be forms of KRISHNA and ARJUNA.

Various texts state that they lived in the Himalayas in Badarikashrama for a thousand years. Though they were rishis, they were good warriors. They once defeated SHIVA in battle, and the axe that they threw at Shiva was the one he gave to PARASHURAMA. They also defeated PRAHLADA and according to the VAMANA PURANA, Prahlada then realized that Narayana was actually the same as Vishnu.

Narasimha A Hindu deity, one of the ten main AVATARAS or incarnations of the god VISHNU. In this, Vishnu took the form of a half-man, half-lion (nara = man, simha = lion) in order to defeat the daitya HIRANYAKASHIPU. The latter, who was the father of PRAHLADA, and brother of HIRANYAKSHA, had practised great austerities and obtained a boon from the god BRAHMA. By this boon, he could not be killed by man, god, demon or animal; he could not die in the day or in the night, neither inside his home nor outside, neither in the earth nor in the sky. Having obtained apparent immortality, he began to rule the world as a tyrant. He was angry with Vishnu, who had already killed his brother; his anger increased because of Prahlada’s devotion to Vishnu. Finally Vishnu assumed the shape of Narasimha, which was not a man, animal or demon, and killed him at dusk, when it was neither day nor night, in the courtyard of his house, which was neither within nor really outside, and just a little above the ground, which was neither on earth nor in the sky.

Narasimha is always depicted with the face of a lion and the body of a man, but there are several variations, with different expressions and moods. A number of images show him in combat with Hiranyakashipu, or emerging out of the pillar in which he was concealed. In some texts, nine forms are described, but his images in different temples reveal even more. Among his forms are: Prahladavarada Narasimha, in which Narasimha is shown blessing Prahlada; Yogananda Narasimha, or a peaceful and tranquil Narasimha teaching YOGA to Prahlada; Guha Narasimha, where Narasimha conceals himself; Kroda or Ugra Narasimha, the angry form; Vira Narasimha, a warrior form; Malola or Lakshmi Narasimha, where he is with his consort LAKSHMI; Jvala Narasimha, where he emits flames of anger; Sarvatomukha Narasimha, with a number of faces; Bhishana Narasimha, a ferocious form; Bhadra Narasimha, another fierce form; Mrityormrityu Narasimha, or Narasimha as the defeater of death.

Narasimha images and temples are found all over India and became popular from around the fourth century. Early images can be seen at ELLORA, MATHURA, Garhwa (near Allahabad) and elsewhere, but later he was most popular in south India.

In Andhra Pradesh, Narasimha temples are found at AHOBALAM, Dharmapuri, Mangalagiri, Simhachalam, Khammam and other places. In Karnataka there are a number of temples dedicated to the deity, but the most outstanding is the free-standing image carved out of a rock at Vijayanagara, today known as Hampi. Made in the sixteenth century, this reaches a height of almost 7 m. A well-known Narasimha temple in Tamil Nadu is located at Namakkal, while other famous temples are at Joshimath in Uttarakhand, Charthana in Maharashtra, and Nrusinghanath in Orissa. Narsimhapur, a town in Madhya Pradesh, is named after a Narasimha temple located here, constructed in 1800.

As one of Vishnu’s AVATARAS, Narasimha represents a stage in evolution from the animal to the human.

Narasimha Mehta A Vaishnava BHAKTI saint and poet, also known as Narsi Mehta, who belonged to Gujarat, and probably lived from 1414 to 1480 (alternative dates 1408–75). Born in Talaja village near Junagadh in an orthodox Nagar brahmana family, he married Manekbai and had a daughter and son. He was originally a worshipper of the Hindu god SHIVA, but Shiva himself is said to have revealed to him a vision of KRISHNA. After this he worshipped Krishna, chanting his name continuously and envisaging himself as one of the GOPIS. He saw Krishna as the one beyond form, eternal and unknowable. Through bhakti or love, Krishna could be seen without eyes, through an internal vision. Narasimha Mehta, through his vision of god, transcended caste, and composed devotional poems in Gujarati, singing of the joy of union with god. Men and women of all castes gathered around him, but the traditional BRAHMANAS rejected him.

Narasimha’s compositions include autobiographical poems, verses to Krishna, and to the god beyond form. One of his bhajans Vaishnava Jana, was a favourite of Mahatma GANDHI, and the first few lines can be translated as: ‘Who venerates each one in the world, who speaks ill of none, whose senses and mind are disciplined, blessed is the mother who gave birth to him. Him we call a Vaishnava.’

Narayan Guru A guru and leader of the Ezhava community of Kerala, who was born in 1854 or 1856 at Chempazhanti near Thiruvananthapuram, in Kerala. He was extremely learned and knew Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu, apart from Malayalam. He spoke against the caste system and worked to raise the social and economic status of the Ezhavas, who were a backward caste, setting up the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam for this purpose. He had a large following before his death in 1928, and continues to be revered by the Ezhavas and others.

Narayana A name of the Hindu god VISHNU. Narayana was probably an independent deity whose concept was later merged with that of Vishnu. In early texts, Narayana was a name given to both BRAHMA and PRAJAPATI. The MAHABHARATA states that Prajapati first rested in the waters, known as Naras as they were the sons of Nara, and therefore Prajapati was called Narayana. The same principle is expressed in the RIG VEDA, which states that the waters contained the embryo of the gods. Narayana, resting on the waters, was later represented by Vishnu in his Sheshashayana form, resting on Shesha or ANANTA.

NARA-NARAYANA, two ancient RISHIS, were said to be brothers of HARI and KRISHNA, both names or forms of Vishnu.

As the concept of the god Vishnu developed, Narayana began to be used as an alternative name for him.

Narmada river A river in central India, that has a number of sacred sites along its banks. Rising at AMARKANTAK in Madhya Pradesh, it flows between the Vindhyan and Satpura Ranges, and after covering a distance of 1300 km, enters the Arabian Sea. According to the PADMA PURANA, it is the purest of rivers in the three worlds, and DEVAS, ASURAS, GANDHARVAS and RISHIS who bathe in it attain eternal bliss. The same text states that there are 60 crore and 60 thousand sacred ghats along the river.

Naropa A Buddhist scholar who lived from c. 956 to 1040, and was the teacher of MARPA. Naropa was originally at NALANDA, but left to study with TILOPA (989–1069), who was known as a MAHASIDDHA. Tilopa’s esoteric teachings were transmitted through Naropa to Marpa, and are known as the ‘Six Dharmas’, or ‘Six Yogas’ of Naropa. These, termed Naro Chodrug in Tibetan, form an essential part of the KAGYU school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM. They include techniques for producing inner heat; experiencing the body as illusory; entering the dream state; perceiving the clear light; experiencing the state between birth and death; and transferring one’s consciousness.

Nasatyas A name of the ASHVINS, deities described in the RIG VEDA.

Nashik A city in Maharashtra, located on the river Godavari. It is one of the sacred cities of Hinduism, and has several shrines and temples. The northern part of Nashik is known as Panchavati, identified with the Panchavati of the Ramayana, where Rama lived while in exile. Two Rama temples, Kala Rama and Gora Rama, are located here. The Sita Gumpha cava, is said to be the place from which Ravana abducted Sita. Rama Kund is a sacred site on the Godavari where Rama is said to have bathed. Nashik is also one of the places where the KUMBH MELA is held every twelve years. Among other temples here are the Sundara Narayana Temple of the god Vishnu and the Modakeshvara Ganesha Temple. Rock-cut Buddhist caves locally known as Pandu Lena, dating back to the first century BCE, are located in hills to the west of the city. Tryambakeshvara, 22 km away, has one of the twelve jyotir lingas of the god SHIVA.

Nasiruddin Mahmud, Shaikh A SUFI saint of the CHISTI order, a disciple of NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA. Nizamuddin appointed a number of Khalifas or deputies, but his chief successor in DELHI was Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, who came to be known as Chiragh-i Dilli, or the lamp of Delhi.

Nasiruddin was born in 1276–77 in the region of Avadh, and by the age of twenty-five, had renounced the world and become a Sufi, fasting, praying and living in isolation. He was forty-three years old before he decided to come to Delhi, where he was welcomed by Shaikh Nizamuddin. He became a prominent Sufi of Delhi, and a supporter of Sultan Firuz Tughlaq. Once attacked by a QALANDAR, Nasiruddin received eleven knife wounds, but forgave his attacker and would not allow him to be prosecuted. He died in 1356, and a tomb was built on his grave by Sultan Firuz, with further enclosures and a mosque erected by the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah (1719–48).

His teachings, which were compiled in the Khairul Majalis by Shaikh Hamid Qalandar, represent the height of Chisti philosophy. He said that a Sufi should fast, pray and practise ZIKR, inwardly withdrawn from the world, even when in company. Control of the breath was an important part of Sufi practice, and the perfect Sufi was a master of the breath. His tomb, known as CHIRAGH-I DILLI’S DARGAH, remains a place of pilgrimage.

Nasks A division of Zoroastrian literature. According to tradition, twenty-one Nasks were collected at the time of the Sasanian dynasty of Iran (226-651 CE). These included books in three groups: seven on religion, seven on statecraft and seven on medicine. With the coming of the Arabs most of these texts did not survive, though summaries exist in Pahlavi. The DINKARD describes the contents of the Nasks and explains how the Nasks were composed, each related to the twenty-one words of the AHUNA VAIRYA prayer. Two Persian RIVAYATS also describe the Nasks. The only surviving Nask is the VENDIDAD, while fragments of some others exist.

nastika A term indicating non-orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, i.e., those which do not base themselves on Vedic literature. Buddhism, Jainism, the philosophy of the AJIVIKAS and of other materialist schools, are thus in this category. Some scholars include only materialistic schools which do not believe in an afterlife, and thus exclude Buddhism and Jainism.

Nataraja A form of the Hindu god SHIVA. In this form, Shiva is the god of dance and the lord of the universe. Images of Nataraja are many and varied, as Shiva performs various dances described in the NATYA SHASTRA. These include the nadanta or tandava, lalita, lalatatilaka, katisama, talasamphotita and others. In the most common form, Shiva is depicted in the tandava pose, the dance of destruction. In this pose, he stands with his right leg on a dwarfish figure, crushing him under his feet. This figure represents Asmarapurusha or Muyalaka, the embodiment of illusion or MAYA. Shiva’s left leg is raised and bent at the knee. He has four hands; the front right hand is in Abhaya Mudra, the gesture to dispel fear, while the back right hand holds a kettledrum, known as a damaru. The front left hand points downwards towards the raised foot, while the other holds fire. The whole is encircled in flames. The Chidambaram Mumanikovai, desccribes the inner meaning of this form, in a verse in praise of the deity: ‘O my Lord, thy hand holding the sacred drum has made and ordered the heavens and earth and innumerable souls. Thy lifted hand protects both the conscious and unconscious order of thy creation. All these are transformed by thy hand bearing fire. Thy sacred foot planted on the ground, gives an abode to the tired soul struggling in the toils of causality. It is thy lifted foot that grants eternal bliss to those that approach thee. These five actions are indeed thy handiwork’. The sound of the drum thus is shabda, the ‘word’ from which creation arises. The dance represents all movement in the universe, and the conquest of illusion. On his head Shiva wears a symbol of the moon and of the river GANGA contained in his matted hair. The moon represents the light of the ATMAN, and the Ganga the flow of wisdom. Thus the main aspects of Shiva are contained in this image. Some images have six, eight, ten, sixteen or more arms, and are in different dance postures. Under the Chola dynasty of south India, bronze and stone images of Nataraja were made, and a number of temples or shrines were dedicated to the deity, the most important being the NATARAJA TEMPLE at Chidambaram. Gangaikondacholapuram, a city of the Cholas, has temples with exquisite Nataraja images. The Nataraja form was popular in Bengal between the eighth and twelfth centuries, and several SHIVA temples in Bengal have images of Nataraja, with a separate shrine or hall dedicated to the deity.

Nataraja Temple A temple of the Hindu god NATARAJA, a form of SHIVA, located at Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu. It was constructed mainly in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, during the time of the Chola dynasty, with later additions.

However, the origin of the temple dates back to the sixth century.

This huge temple complex has several shrines within an area of twenty-two hectares. There are four enclosure walls, the outermost constructed in the seventeenth century, at the time of the Nayaka dynasty. The main shrine, known as the Chit Sabha, has an image of Nataraja in the dance form known as Ananda Tandavam. According to traditional accounts, Shiva performed his famous dance in a forest exactly at this spot, at the request of the gods and RISHIS. Nearby is an image of the goddess Shivakami or Shivakama Sundari, a form of PARVATI.

Five stone steps lead to the Chit Sabha, representing the five syllables of the Shiva mantra, namah shivaya. On the silver-plated doorposts are representations of Vyaghrapada (a RISHI who was granted a boon of having a tiger’s feet, so that he could climb trees to collect flowers for the deity) and PATANJALI, who worshipped Shiva here. There are several other halls and shrines, among them the Kanaka Sabha or golden hall; the Nritta Sabha or dance hall, in the form of a chariot; the Deva Sabha with images of various deities; and the Raja Sabha or thousand-pillared hall used for festivals. Other shrines include the Shivakami Amman shrine and a temple of Subrahmanya or MURUGAN. There are four towering GOPURAMS as well as numerous sculptures of Shiva, other deities and Shaivite saints. The 108 dance forms described in the NATYA SHASTRA are depicted in the temple.

Chidambaram is said to be the centre of the universe, representing the ATMAN or soul within the heart. The area was earlier known as Tillai or Ponnambalam, which remain some of the alternate names of the temple.

Festivals take place all through the year and there is a constant flow of pilgrims to the temple. The most important festival is the ten-day festival in the month of Marghazi (December to January), concluding on the day of the full moon.

Natha yogis A Hindu SHAIVITE sect, said to have been founded in the tenth century by MATSYENDRANATHA and GORAKHNATHA who formulated various practices that would lead to the transformation of the mind and body. The aim of the yogi was to enable people to become Nathas or masters, to rise above bondage, sorrow and limitation, and attain complete control over oneself, even to the extent of conquering death. Hatha Yoga and Tantric practices were combined, based on earlier systems. The adherents were also known as Kanphata Yogis because of the earrings they wore, which split their ears (kanphata = torn ear). There were nine traditional Nathas or leaders. Nathas worship SHIVA in the form of BHAIRAVA, as well as HANUMAN and DATTATREYA.

Nathas seem to have been prominent around the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and are mentioned in Sikh literature. Guru NANAK is said to have had discussions with yogis of this sect, and to have convinced them of his philosophy, as described in the SIDDHA GHOSHT section of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB. Natha yogi sects still exist.

Nathamuni A BHAKTI saint and devotee of the god VISHNU, also known as Ranganatha Muni, who lived between 824 and 924. He was the son of Ishvara Muni, and the first of the VAISHNAVA acharyas, the successors of the ALVAR saints. He put together the hymns of the Alvar saints in the NALAYIRA DIVYA PRABANDHAM and popularized them in Vaishnava temples of south India. His Yogarahasya and Nyayatattva form the beginnings of the VISHISHTADVAITA philosophy, which was fully formulated and developed by RAMANUJA. Nathamuni was the first acharya of the SRIRANGAM temple. His grandson was the scholar and philosopher YAMUNACHARYA.

Nathdwara Shrinathji Temple A temple of Shrinathji, a form of the Hindu god KRISHNA, located at Nathdwara, 50 km north-east of Udaipur in Rajasthan, on the Banas river. The image here is said to be Svayambhu, or self-created, and represents Krishna raising the mountain GOVARDHANA, to protect his fellow cowherds from the deluge sent by the god INDRA. The image was intitially enshrined near Govardhana in the MATHURA region, but was brought to the state of Mewar in the seventeenth century to protect it from possible destruction by AURANGZEB. According to legend, as the chariot carrying the image rolled along, it stuck at this point, and therefore this was considered the right place to install the image.

Shrinathji was worshipped by VALLABHACHARYA, and his followers still take care of the temple, which attracts a number of pilgrims.

National Council of Churches of India An association of Churches of India, that began as the National Missionary Council, founded in 1914. Various Christian agencies and Churches were associated with it over time. In 1923 it became the National Christian Council of India, Burma and Ceylon, and after 1947, the National Christian Council of India. It was renamed the National Council of Churches of India in 1979. Its headquarters are at Nagpur. Most of the PROTESTANT and ORTHODOX CHURCHES are members of this body. ROMAN CATHOLIC Churches are not part of the Council, but coordinate with it.

Natya Shastra A Sanskrit text of the first or second century, that describes various forms of dance, drama and music, in great detail. The text is said to have been written by Bharata, and emphasizes the divine nature of all art forms. Classical dance forms, as well as temple dances, were originally described in this text.

Nau Ruz A term for the BAHAI new year celebrated on 21 March, which marks the end of a nineteen-day period of fasting. Celebrations include prayers and festivities, which are adapted to local customs. The Bahai scriptures state that the equinox marks the rejuvenation of life, and symbolizes a new spiritual birth. Thus the sun at the equinox can be compared to the spiritual suns, the great spiritual leaders and prophets who appear from time to time to rejuvenate and purify life on earth. The same term is used for the Iranian and Kashmiri new year. See NAVROZE.

Navagraha A group of nine planets, which are considered deities in Hinduism. They are SURYA, the sun; SOMA, the moon; MANGALA or Mars; BUDHA or Mercury; BRIHASPATI or Jupiter; SHUKRA or Venus; SHANI or Saturn; and the two shadow planets, RAHU and KETU. Surya has a number of separate temples, while the others are often depicted in groups or in separate shrines within temples. Among the notable Navagraha temples are the NAVAGRAHA TEMPLE, GUWAHATI, the Navagraha Temple at Ujjain, and the series of NAVAGRAHA TEMPLES in Tamil Nadu.

In temples the Navagraha are depicted as sculptures, on panels in relief, by their symbols, or in the form of LINGAS.

Navagrahas are important in astrology and are believed to have ill or good effects depending on their placement in a person’s astrological chart or horoscope. Separate rituals, prayers and MANTRAS are recommended for propitiating each of the planets.

Navagraha Temple, Guwahati A Hindu temple located on Chitrachal hill, near Guwahati in Assam, constructed in 1752 during the reign of Rajesvar Singh. In this temple, the NAVAGRAHA, or nine planets, are symbolized by LINGAS, each covered by a different coloured cloth, representing the colours associated with the planets. The original garba-griha or inner shrine still exists, while the tower or shikhara has been rebuilt after its destruction in an earthquake.

Navagraha Temples, Tamil Nadu The NAVAGRAHA, or nine planets, are very sacred in Tamil Nadu, and worshipping them is said to bring great benefits. Separate shrines dedicated to individual grahas are located in a number of temples. They include the shrine of MANGALA or Mars at Vaitheeswaran Koil, BUDHA or Mercury at Thiruvenkadu, KETU at Keezhaperampallam, SHANI or Saturn at Thirunallaru, Jupiter at Alangdi, SOMA or the Moon at Thingalur, RAHU at Thiruganeswaram, SURYA at Surianar Koil, and SHUKRA or Venus at Kanchanur. All these are located within a radius of 60 km, and the whole circuit can be completed within three days.

Navapada Oli A Jain ritual and festival. Ayambil Oli, also known as Navapada, takes place twice a year for a period of nine days, in the months of Chaitra (March–April) and Ashvina (September–October). Ayambil refers to a penance of semi-fasting, consisting of one meal a day of simple food, without spices, milk, sugar, salt, oil, butter, fruits or vegetables. At the same time meditation on the Navapada or nine pious entities is practised, and worship to them is offered. The Navapada are arihants, siddhas, acharyas, upadhyayas and sadhus (together constituting the Pancha Parameshthi or five holy beings), as well as jnana (knowledge), darshana, charitra (character), and tapa (austerities). Oli is connected with the story of SHRIPALA and Mayana, who lived in ancient times. Shripala was cured of leprosy after practising Oli nine times, and its practice is believed to be helpful in curing and preventing diseases. The story of Shripala and Mayana is enacted during this festival.

Navaratra A festival of nine nights during which DURGA PUJA, or the worship of the Hindu goddess DURGA, takes place. The festival occurs before DASHAHARA in October/November. Another Navaratra or period of Durga worship for nine days takes place in spring. According to some PURANAS, only ghi (clarified butter) should be eaten at the start of the puja on a new moon day. An open temple with sixteen pillars should be constructed, and a platform made in the middle on which a throne should be placed, covered in white silk. The image of DEVI or Durga is to be placed here and worshipped. Nine young virgin girls should be worshipped on these days.

Worship during the Navaratras remains popular, with several regional variations.

Navjote The term for the thread ceremony of Zoroastrians. Literally it means ‘new birth’. The ceremony originates in the concept that each person should understand the religion, and choose it for themselves, after which they can be initiated into the religion. However, it is now a ritual, usually performed for children between the ages of seven and fifteen. The child is given a ritual bath, after which the main ceremony takes place, when the priest or priests, along with the child, recite prayers in front of the sacred fire. During this recital, the sacred vest, SUDREH, and sacred thread, KUSTI, are put on the initiate for the first time, as a formal induction into the religion. In Zoroastrianism both boys and girls undergo the Navjote ceremony. After this initiation the prayers are to be recited at least twice a day.

Navroze A term for the Zoroastrian new year. The same term is used in Kashmir, Iran and elsewhere, and is often spelt Naoroz or NAU RUZ. Because of variations in the Zoroastrian calendar in India, there are three different new years, of the Fasli, KADIMI, and SHAHENSHAHI sects. The Fasli new year, also known as Jamshedi Navroze, and according to tradition started by the legendary king, JAMSHED, is based on a solar calendar and is observed every year on 21 March. This day is celebrated in Iran and a number of other countries, indicating the continuation of Zoroastrian traditions even after its decline.

The Kadimi and Shahenshahi are based on a lunar calendar and take place on varying dates in July and August respectively. Most PARSIS celebrate Jamshedi Navroze as well as one other new year. On Navroze prayers are said and JASHANS are held, and friends and family celebrate with feasts.

Traditionally, Navroze was celebrated for fourteen days, beginning on the eve of the new year. On Navroze morning, a white cloth was spread on a table, and seven items beginning with ‘s’ were placed there: sib (apple), sabzi (vegetable), sir (garlic), sambol (hyacinth), serteah (vinegar), samukh and sumnool (herbs). They represented fertility and prosperity for the coming year. A live fish was placed in a bowl of water, and a lamp lit for each member of the family. All stood around the table to greet each other. Wheat was grown in small pots, and on the thirteenth day after Navroze, the pots were floated in a nearby river or other water source. Thus both water and plants, the givers of life, were revered. Similar ceremonies still take place in Iran, though Parsis in India today usually limit the celebrations to one day.

Navsari A town in Gujarat sacred to PARSIS. The sacred fire was moved here from SANJAN in the twelfth century, and a Dar-e Mehr or AGIARY was constructed, while an ATASH BEHRAM was consecrated in 1765. There is also an institute for training priests.

naya A concept in Jainism, that forms part of the Jain theory of knowledge. Naya deals with different ways of perception. Most commonly, there are seven types of naya, though others are mentioned in various texts. The seven types are: (1) Naigama-naya, in which something is looked on as a whole; for instance, going to gather wood and lighting a fire are parts of what constitutes cooking. According to another view, Naigama-naya consists of looking at general and specific characteristics together; (2) Samgraha-naya looks at the common features of something, thus placing it in a class; (3) Vyavahara-naya is the usual way of perception, based on empirical knowledge; (4) Rijusutra-naya sees things in the moment, without taking into consideration continuity and identity; (5) Shabda-naya bases itself on the name of the item, and the images which come to mind through its name; (6) Samabhirudha-naya is connected with Shabdanaya, and analyzes things through the root meaning of the word; (7) Evambhuta-naya is a refined version of Samabhirudha-naya, looking at only one relevant aspect of the root meaning.

Naigama has the widest application, and Evambhuta the narrowest. Nayas are also divided into the dravyatirthaka, or substance, and the paryatirthaka or modification of the substance. Nishchaya-naya is an integration of all nayas. Some aspects of this categorization of methods of perception also exist in other philosophies, including the NYAYA, VAISHESHIKA, SAMKHYA, ADVAITA and Buddhist systems, but the Jain system is more complete. The naya approach leads to SYADVADA or satbhangi, the seven different approaches to a thing or its attributes. It is also related to the Jain concept of ANEKANTAVADA or relativity.

Nayadhammakahao (Jnatadharmah-katha) A Jain text, the sixth of the twelve ANGAS. It is divided into two sections, called Naya and Dhammakaha, the first with nineteen chapters or suyakkhandas, and the second with ten vaggas. The first has stories or parables, many of which are fairy tales or adventures to which a moral has been added, conveying Jain teachings. The stories include that of MALLI, the female TIRTHANKARA, and of Dovai (DRAUPADI), the wife of the PANDAVAS. The second section consists mainly of legends of Jain saints.

Nayanars/Nayanmars A term for SHAIVITE saints who probably lived between the seventh and tenth centuries, though some scholars assign them an earlier date. They followed the path of BHAKTI and devotion to the Hindu god SHIVA, and some of them composed verses and songs in praise of the god. They were called leaders (Nayanars) because of their knowledge and devotion, though they thought of themselves as servants of the deity. Traditionally, sixty-three Nayanars are recognized. Their songs were collected in the TIRUMURAI, in eleven books. Among these, the Tevaram includes seven books, and contains verses by three of the main saints, APPAR, SAMBANDAR and Sundarar or SUNDARAMURTI, while the Tiruvasagam contains verses by the later saint, MANIKKAVACHAKAR. Among other saints, Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a woman. Kannappar, a hunter, was known for his extreme devotion; he removed one of his eyes and offered it to the lord when he saw that the eye of the Shiva idol was bleeding. Sirutonttar even cooked and served his son to the deity, who later restored the boy to life; others worshipped Shiva in simple ways. The saints were of different ages, castes and professions, but united in their extreme love of, and devotion to the deity. Some of them were ascetics, while others were householders.

Various accounts of the saints have been written, including Sundaramurti’s Tiruttondattogai, NAMBI ANDAR NAMBI’s Tiruvantadi and Sekkilar’s Tiruttondapuranam, also known as the PERIYA PURANAM, and considered the twelfth book of the Tirumurai. Images of the saints, with brief accounts of their deeds, are found in Shiva temples in the Tamil region.

The songs of the Nayanars are still sung in temples in Tamil Nadu, and images of the saints are taken out in procession on special occasions.

The Nayanar texts form the base for the SHAIVA SIDDHANTA philosophy.

Nazir Akbarabadi An Urdu poet who lived from 1735 to 1830. Born in DELHI, his real name was Wali Muhammad. He later moved to AGRA and became a school teacher and tutor, and thus used Hindi and Braj Bhasha (a Hindi dialect of the region) in his poems. His father was a SUNNI, but his mother was a SHIA, and Nazir probably became a Shia too. He was not sectarian in his approach, and some of his poems are on Hindu deities, including one in praise of the god KRISHNA.

Nazranis A term for the early Christians of KERALA, so-called because they were followers of the Nazarene (Jesus). Later they were absorbed in the SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.

Nechung Monastery A Tibetan Buddhist monastery at DHARAMSALA. Here the Tibetan state oracle resides, and predicts the events of the coming year.

Nemichandra A Jain scholar of the DIGAMBARA sect, who lived in the tenth century and was a friend of Chamunda Raya, a minister of the Ganga dynasty, responsible for the construction of the GOMMATESHVARA image at SHRAVANA BELAGOLA. He wrote a number of books, of which three are considered important, Trilokasara, a work on Jain cosmography, and Labdhisara and Gommatasara on Jain philosophy.

Neminatha A name by which the twenty-third Jain Tirthankara, ARISHTANEMINATHA, is popularly known.

Neo-Buddhists A term referring to new Buddhist converts. Neo-Buddhists exist all over the world, but in India the term specifically refers to converts to Buddhism, which began with B.R. AMBEDKAR’s conversion in 1956 along with 2,00,000 people from backward castes. Over the years conversions to Buddhism have continued, leading to a revival of the religion and a considerable rise in numbers. At the conversion ceremony, Neo-Buddhists declare their faith in Buddhism and agree to abide by the twenty-two vows laid down by Ambedkar. The Bharatiya Baudha Mahasabha is an organization of Neo-Buddhists.

Neryosang, Dastur (1) According to oral tradition, the name of the Zoroastrian DASTUR or priest who led the first group of Zoroastrians to SANJAN and conversed with the king, JADI RANA. He is said to have set up the first ATASH BEHRAM and invoked lightning for the atash (sacred fire) through the power of his prayers.

(2) Another dastur of the same name is said to have translated the Avestan texts into Sanskrit in 1200.

Nestorian A term for a Christian doctrine named after Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople (428–31) who held that there were two separate substances or persons in JESUS, the human and the divine, and only the human was crucified. This view was condemned by the orthodox. Nestorian ideas existed among Christians in India and were predominant in Asia up to about the thirteenth century. The Nestorian Patriarch was in Mesopotamia and was recognized by some Muslim rulers. With the Mongol expansion under Chengiz Khan (1206–25), Nestorian centres in Mesopotamia were destroyed and Nestorianism declined in India as well.

Netti-Pakarana A Buddhist text written in Pali, that probably belongs to the first century BCE, though it contains earlier material. It is also known as the Netti-Gandha, or ‘The Book of Guidance’ and is attributed to Mahakachchana, a disciple of the BUDDHA. The text is the first to provide a connected account of the teachings of the Buddha. The Petakopadesa is also attributed to Mahakachchana and is a continuation of the Netti.

New Apostolic Church A PROTESTANT Christian church that began in Europe in the nineteenth century, and was introduced in India in the 1970s. It now has twenty-seven centres. The ‘Chief Apostle’ is the name of the head of the church, below whom there are Apostles, bishops, district elders and others. Its headquarters is at Bangalore, Karnataka.

New Testament A sacred text of Christians, based on the teachings of JESUS. It forms the second part of the Christian BIBLE.

Nidana-Katha A Buddhist text that is an introduction to the fifth-century JATAKA commentary, the Jatakatthavanana. It provides a biographical background of the BUDDHA in the THERAVADA tradition. Nidana-Katha means ‘Story of Beginnings’ and consists of three sections: Durenidana, referring to the remote past, when the Buddha Shakyamuni was a person named Sumedha and was guided by the Buddha Dipankara and finally reborn in the Tushita heaven; Avidurenidana, the life of the Buddha after his descent from the Tushita heaven, up to his attaining Buddhahood; Santikenidana, the beginnings of the present from the Buddha’s enlightenment to the construction of the Jetavana monastery by ANATHA-PINDAKA.

The text thus presents an account of the life of the Buddha in a connected sequence, and includes passages from the BUDDHAVAMSHA and CHARIYA PITAKA.

Niddesa A Buddhist text that forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON. It consists of a commentary on some sections of the SUTTA NIPATA in two parts, the Maha-Niddesa and Chulla-Niddesa. The Niddesa includes explanations for technical terms, words and phrases, and synonyms. It is much earlier than other Pali commentaries.

Nihang A Sikh warrior group said to have been founded by Guru GOBIND SINGH. They wear dark blue clothes and a peaked turban, sometimes affixed with a steel disc, and carry steel weapons. This group of special soldiers was important in the time of RANJIT SINGH under the leadership of Phula Singh.

Nihangs still exist and observe all the principles of the KHALSA, though they are no longer warriors.

Nijjuttis (Niryuktis) A category of Jain texts consisting of commentaries on the canonical texts of the SHVETAMBARAS. Some of the early Nijjuttis form part of the canon, and the Ogha Nijjutti was said to be based on one of the lost PURVAS. They are written in Jain Maharashtri and later in Prakrit.

nikaya A Pali and Sanskrit term, commonly used in BUDDHISM, where it can mean a collection or group of texts, or a school or sect.

Nilakantha A name of the Hindu god SHIVA, literally meaning ‘blue-throat’. According to the myth connected with the churning of the ocean for AMRITA or divine nectar, at this time poison also emerged from the ocean and was swallowed by Shiva and kept in the region of his neck, so that it would not injure anyone. This turned his neck blue.

Nilamata Purana A Sanskrit text, a minor PURANA or Upapurana. It describes the wise sayings of a NAGA king who lived at a place called Nila in Kashmir. It is important for the study of Kashmir, as it narrates its early history, festivals and ceremonies.

Nimbarka A philosopher and mystic who probably lived in the twelfth century.

Nimbarka was born in a Telugu BRAHMANA family at Nimbapuri in present Karnataka, but spent most of his life in VRINDAVANA near MATHURA. He advocated the worship of RADHA and KRISHNA, as he believed BRAHMAN or the Absolute was also a personal god who transcended all limits. He felt that Radha was the eternal consort of Krishna, and lived with him in GOLOKA, or the highest heaven. He stated that god, the soul and the world were identical yet distinct.

His philosophy is called DVAITADVAITA and is considered one of the schools of VEDANTA.

nirakara/nirankara A term used to describe god or BRAHMAN. It means ‘without form’.

nirang A term in Zoroastrianism used in different ways, for something that is sacred.

(1) Gomez, the urine of a special white bull, is known as nirang after its consecration and purification, and is used in rituals.

(2) Nirang are also sacred formulae or chants. They can be inscribed on amulets, or recited to ward off disease and evil.

niranjana A term used to describe god or BRAHMAN. It means stainless, untainted, or pure.

Nirankari A Sikh sect which began as a purificatory movement within Sikhism. It was started by Baba Dyal (1783–1855), who though a Sikh, was not one of the KHALSA. Baba Dyal was against the Hindu customs that had crept into Sikhism, and particularly against idol worship, including the existing practice of worshipping the gurus through idols or pictures. He believed this went against the basic tenet of Sikhism, that God was beyond form, or Nirankar. He settled at Rawalpindi (present Pakistan) and built a temple there, but because of opposition from other Sikhs, he later moved to the outskirts of the town. Maharaja RANJIT SINGH is said to have appreciated his teachings. Baba Dyal’s son, Bhai Dhara or Darbara Singh (d. 1870), succeeded him and collected his father’s teachings in a book known as Hukam Nama. He set up over forty centres to spread these teachings, and was responsible for eliminating several Hindu customs. Sikh birth, marriage and death ceremonies, as practised today, are based on his reforms. Bhai Dhara was succeeded by his brother Rattan Chand (d. 1908), followed by the latter’s son Gurdit Singh (d. 1947). A succession of gurus followed, and Nirankaris still have a large following. They do not accept militant Sikhism and greet each other with the words ‘Dhun Nirankar’. Orthodox Sikhs oppose them because of their different views, and because they follow other gurus in addition to the traditional ten. Their headquarters is now at Chandigarh. The SANT NIRANKARI, despite their similar name, is a different sect.

nirguna A term that means ‘beyond attributes’ and applies to the Absolute, the deity that transcends all qualities. In Hinduism, BRAHMAN is said to be nirguna; the concept of god in Sikhism is similar. Nirguna, or that which is beyond form or specific qualities, can also take on attributes and become SAGUNA.

nirjara A term in Jainism, for the process through which KARMA is removed. It includes fasting, meditation and various auterities and penances. Two types of nirjara are recognized, akam and sakam, passive and active. Akam is the shedding of karma by passive suffering, for instance, fasting when there is no food to eat, while sakam is taking active steps to end karma, such as fasting even when food is available.

Nirmala A Sikh sect that, according to tradition, came into existence at the time of Guru GOBIND SINGH. It is said to have developed through the views of five Sikhs who were sent by the guru to VARANASI to study Hindu theology. Some scholars, however, feel that the sect originated later. Nirmalas follow the GURU GRANTH SAHIB but have their own ideology and GURDWARAS, and their tenets include celibacy. They were particularly important in the nineteenth century, and Baba Nand Singh was one of their noted gurus

Nirmala Devi The founder of the system of SAHAJA YOGA.

Nirmala Devi was born on 21 March 1923 in Chhindwara, in present Madhya Pradesh, to Prasad and Cornelia Salve, a Christian couple. Her father was a renowned scholar, who is said to have known fourteen languages. Always spiritually inclined, Nirmala married C.P. Srivastava, a civil servant, shortly before Independence in 1947, and had two daughters.

Though she was aware of her own spirituality, it was only in 1970 that through a divine vision, she discovered a simple method by which she could enable people to reach self-realization. Thus she started teaching and propagating Sahaja Yoga (spontaneous union with the divine), which soon became a worldwide movement.

Nirmala Devi has also set up hospitals to help in curing serious diseases including cancer, through Sahaja Yoga, as well as other charitable institutions.

Nirmala Jhara temples A complex of four Hindu temples located at Khallikote in Orissa. Here a stream of pure water from a natural spring flows through stone channels into a pond, around which the temples are located. The Patitpavan Temple is dedicated to Patitpavan, a form of the god VISHNU worshipped in Orissa. The flowing water from the spring is said to be the sacred river GANGA, flowing from the foot of Vishnu. The Vimala Temple has a beautiful image of a four-handed DURGA holding a conch and chakra. The Radha–Krishna Temple depicts RADHA and KRISHNA, as well as the Dashavataras and scenes from Krishna’s life. The Shiva Temple is the smallest of the four. There are other images near the pond, notable being those of Vishnu, a meditating ascetic, and a huge crocodile. Sculptures carved in black granite decorate the walls of the temples.

nirmanakaya The first of the TRIKAYA or the concept of the three bodies of the BUDDHA, in MAHAYANA Buddhism.

Nirriti (1) A Hindu deity first mentioned in the RIG VEDA, in association with YAMA, god of death. He later became one of the DIKAPALAS, the guardian of the south-west. He is also described as one of the eleven RUDRAS and is said to be the son of Sthanu and grandson of BRAHMA. According to the AGNI PURANA, he is depicted holding a sword in his hand and is seated on an ass.

(2) Nirriti is also a goddess who signifies destruction.

Nirukta A Sanskrit text that explains and comments on the words used in the VEDAS. Nirukta, in the sense of etymology or glossary, is one of the VEDANGAS. There must have been several Niruktas, but the one that is still extant is that of Yaska, who probably lived before PANINI. The Nirukta based itself on the Nighantus or lists which have three parts: the Naighantuka, which consists of words with synonyms; Naigama, words found only in the Vedas; Daivata, names of deities, and words connected with them and with sacrifices. There are several other lists of words, followed by a commentary, in which Yaska explains the words with illustrative passages of how they were used.

nirvana A term normally used in Buddhism, indicating the blissful state of liberation from rebirth and the cycle of lives, achieved by transcending desires and passions. Literally it means ‘blowing out’. It is also used in Hindu texts, though the more common term there is MOKSHA. In Hinduism it signifies union with, or realization of, the divine.

Nisargadatta Maharaja A realized soul who lived a simple life in MUMBAI (Bombay) and preached his philosophy to all who came to see him. He is considered a modern exponent of ADVAITA.

Born in Mumbai in 1897, he was named Maruti and was the son of Shivaram Pant, who had come from the village of Kandalgaon in Maharashtra and worked for some time as a domestic servant. Shivaram returned to his village to cultivate his land, and was helped by Maruti and his other children. Maruti did not have a formal education but took an interest in spirituality and imbibed religious ideas from a BRAHMANA friend of his father. His father died when he was eighteen and Maruti again went to Mumbai and opened a shop selling children’s clothes, tobacco and bidis. He married and had four children. At the age of thirty-four he met Siddharameshwar Maharaj, a NATHA YOGI, who instructed him and gave him a MANTRA. After his guru’s death in 1936, Nisargadatta, as he was now known, left his home and became an ascetic, but was convinced by another Natha yogi that renunciation in the midst of life was a better option. Nisargadatta returned to Mumbai and continued to run his shop until his death from cancer in 1981, meeting people in search of spiritual answers, in his simple home. The discussions that took place reflect his self-realization. He spoke only in Marathi, but his followers included a number of foreigners, and other disciples helped to translate his words.

Nisargadatta said that his guru told him he was the Supreme Reality, and as he thought about this, he realized its truth and understood the True Self, free of all desires and beyond the body and mind. He recommended the same practice to his followers. He said ‘Just keep in mind the feeling “I am”, merge in it till your mind and feeling become one.’ The first collection of his talks translated into English, I Am That, gave him international fame. Other collections include The Nectar of Immortality, The Ultimate Medicine, and The Quintessence of My Teaching.

Nishpannayogavali A VAJRAYANA Buddhist text in Sanskrit. It describes more than 500 Buddhist deities and assigns them to various BUDDHA families.

Nityananda, Swami or Bhagwan A renowned guru, Swami Nityananada was born some time before 1900. He was abandoned in a forest as a baby, but was found and cared for by a local woman, Uniamma, and after her death by her employer, Ishwar Iyer, who lived in Kozhikode (Calicut). The child was named Ram and was always spiritually inclined. He lived for some time at Udupi and Mangalore in Karnataka, and was recognized as a realized soul, and took the name Swami Nityananada. He then set up his own ashram at Ganeshpuri in Maharashtra in the 1930s.

Swami Nityananda was known to be a simple man who did not teach any particular philosophy, but guided all towards the realization of the True Self. His presence was said to bring peace to all who were near him, and miracles of healing were reported. He died on 7 August 1961, and his conversations and teachings, compiled from the notes of his disciples, are collected in the Chidakash Gita. The best-known of his disciples was Swami Muktananda Paramahamsa, who popularized the system of SIDDHA YOGA, a simple method of self-realization, in India and abroad. Swami Muktananda was succeeded after his death in 1982, by Swami Chidvilasananda.

Nivedita, Sister An Irish woman named Margaret Noble who became a disciple of Swami VIVEKANANDA and took the name Sister Nivedita.

Born in Ireland in 1867, she was an educationist who followed the then-new ideas of Froebel and Pestallozzi. After meeting Swami Vivekananda in London in 1890, she came to India, joined the RAMAKRISHNA MISSION as a nun, and dedicated her life to the service of India. She started a girls’ school in Kolkata (Calcutta), wrote against British policies in India, and was associated with Sri AUROBINDO. She left the Mission after Vivekananda died, but continued to work selflessly for India. She died in 1911 at the age of forty-six. She wrote about Vivekananda in The Master as I saw Him, while among her other writings are The Cradle Tales of Hinduism.

niyama Five positive principles that form part of the practice of YOGA. They are shaucha (purity), santosha (contentment), tapasya (ascetic practices), svadhyaya (self-study), and Ishvara pranidhana (surrender to God). The Hatha Yoga Pradipika and some later texts list ten niyamas.

Nizamuddin Auliya, Shaikh A SUFI saint of the CHISTI order, who was a disciple of Baba FARID. Nizamuddin was born in 1238 in Budaun in present Uttar Pradesh, and was saintly even as a child. At the age of sixteen, he came to DELHI along with his mother in order to complete his education, and studied both HADIS and FIQH. He lived in poverty, and though he qualified for a post as QAZI, he decided to follow the Sufi path. He visited Baba Farid at Ajodhan, who prescribed various ascetic practices for him. On his third visit to the KHANQAH of Baba Farid in 1265, Nizamuddin was appointed his khalifah (deputy), and the Baba blessed him and said, ‘You will be a tree under whose shadow people find rest.’

Shaikh Nizamuddin settled in Delhi and became one of the most renowned Sufis. Around 1286 he moved to Ghiyaspur on the outskirts of the city. He lived simply and ate only before dawn and in the evening. Countless people came to him with their problems, and he helped them all. His LANGAR, or free kitchen, was open to both Hindus and Muslims. Nizamuddin laid down six conditions for a SUFI to reach the goal of realizing God. These were: retiring to a lonely cell, and remaining there; always existing in a state of performing wuzu (ablutions); perpetual fasting; maintaining silence except for the practice of ZIKR; continuosly reciting zikr while remembering one’s PIR in one’s heart; expelling all thoughts except those of God.

Among his noted disciples were AMIR KHUSRAU and Ziauddin Barani. Nizamuddin appointed a number of Khalifahs, but his chief successor in Delhi was Shaikh NASIRUDDIN MAHMUD, who came to be known as Chiragh-i Dilli, or the lamp of Delhi.

Nizammuddin died in 1325, and his DARGAH in Delhi is still a popular place of pilgrimage.

Nizamuddin, Mulla A theologian of the eighteenth century (d. 1784), who formulated a MADRASA curriculum known as Dars-i-Nizamiya. This, based on the QURAN and HADIS, became the standard syllabus for madrasas, including the DAR-UL-ULOOM, DEOBAND.

Nizari Ismailis An Islamic SHIA sect, a branch of the ISMAILIS. They were followers of Nizar, one of the sons of the Fatimid Kaliph Mustansir (d. 1094). Imam Nizar escaped from prison after being deposed by supporters of his brother Imam Mustali. Most KHOJAS form a part of the Nizari Ismaili sect.

Nobili, Roberto de A Christian missionary in India, who was one of the first to Indianize Christian rituals, in order to attract more people to Christianity. Born in 1576, he came to south India and studied the customs of the area, as well as Sanskrit and Tamil. He felt the best way to convert Indians to Christianity was to make himself less alien to them, and therefore began to dress like an Indian SANNYASI, with a saffron robe, sacred thread, and sandal paste on his forehead. He referred to himself as a ‘Roman brahmana’ and managed to convert a number of high-caste Hindus. He also laid the foundations for a community of Christian sannyasis who lived and worked like him. He was opposed by his own colleagues, but was revered and respected by Indians. He died at Mylapore, Chennai, in 1656.

North-east, Christianity in Christianity predominates in three states of the north-east—Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram. These areas, occupied by tribal groups, had their own beliefs, and had not been particularly influenced by religions in other parts of India. Some Christians settled here in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries but did not have much impact. The first Christian missionary in the region was Krishna Chandra Pal (1764–1822), an Indian from the Serampore mission, while more PROTESTANT missionaries arrived in the 1820s and 30s. The Baptist Missionary Society, dominated by American Baptists, had considerable success in spreading Christianity in Nagaland, while the Welsh Presbyterian Mission worked with the Mizos and Khasis. Later, ROMAN CATHOLIC missions also preached in the area.

Despite large-scale conversion to Christianity, most of these groups retain many of their traditional customs, festivals and modes of dress. (See also MEGHALAYA, TRADITIONAL RELIGION; MIZO, TRADITIONAL RELIGION; NAGAS, RELIGION OF.)

Nuruddin Mubarak Ghaznawi, Syed An Islamic scholar who lived in DELHI in the thirteenth century, and was against the philosophical school of Islam, represented by AVICENNA and others. He stated that kings could not attain salvation, unless the philosophers were banished from the kingdom.

Nuruddin Rishi A SUFI saint of Kashmir, popularly known as Nund Rishi, who started a Sufi order of RISHIS.

Born in 1377–78, Nuruddin did not have a formal education. He became a mystic, living in a cave at Kaimuh near Srinagar, eating only wild leaves. Some accounts state that he was initiated into the HAMADANI Sufi order, a branch of the KUBRAWIYA, or that he was an UWAISI. Nuruddin composed verses on the mystical union with God, reached through the heart of love. Some of his verses are similar to those of LALESHVARI, the SHAIVITE saint of Kashmir. He was a vegetarian, as he believed cruelty to animals should be avoided. He advocated simplicity, asceticism and celibacy, and had both Hindu and Muslim disciples, though some of the former converted to Islam. His disciples carried on the order after his death in 1439, but about a century later they began to live in KHANQAHS, acquiring wealth and property.

The Rishi order is considered a reflection of the syncretic nature of Islam in Kashmir. Nuruddin’s verses in Kashmiri have been collected in two volumes, the Rishinama and Nurnama. His tomb, known as CHARAR-E-SHARIF, is located at Charar, 32 km from Srinagar.

Nur-ul-Muhammadiya A Persian term in Islam for the divine light of the Prophet MUHAMMAD, known in Arabic as the Haqiqa-ul-Muhammadiya. The realization of this light is a concept in several SUFI orders. According to a HADIS, the Prophet said, ‘The first thing created was the light of your Prophet, which was created by the light of God.’ ISNA ASHARI Shias believe that Nur, or this divine light, was inherent in the twelve Imams.

nyaesh A term for certain Zoroastrian prayers, usually to individual YAZATAS (divine beings). For instance, the Khorshed Nyaesh praises the light of the sun. The Atash Nyaesh praising fire is one of the most popular nyaeshes.

nyasa An ancient technique that involves activating power in one’s own or another’s body through touch, accompanied by MANTRA and meditation or concentration. Nyasa is used by the PANCHARATRAS, SHAIVITES, and various Tantric sects.

There are several different types of nyasa. One type involves assigning parts of the body to various deities and activating them by touching the body. Anga nyasa consists of touching different parts of the body with the hands or fingers, while reciting a MANTRA to stabilize the body, before starting meditation. In Kara nyasa the hands and fingers are touched by those of the other hand. Nyasa is also done to activate the CHAKRAS or energy centres. There are texts dealing with nyasa, but the actual process has to be learnt from a guru.

Nyaya One of the six classical schools of philosophy. Nyaya literally means ‘that by which the mind reaches a conclusion’, and is based on logic and analysis.

According to tradition, it was founded by Akshapada Gautama, who probably lived between the third century BCE and first century CE, though some hold that Akshapada and Gautama were two different people, who both contributed to Nyaya philosophy. The basic text is Gautama’s Nyaya Sutra. It deals with sixteen topics and analyses religious concepts and means of knowledge. Its five main subjects are: pramana, the means to right knowledge; prameya, the object; vada, dialogue or discussion; avayava, parts of the syllogism; and anyamata-pariksha, a comparison with different systems. Nyaya also distinguishes between nine DRAVYAS or substances that comprise the world.

The Nyaya Bhashya of Vatsyayana, probably of the fourth century, is an important commentary on the Nyaya Sutra. The Nyaya philosophy continued to develop over the years, and among other notable works are Uddyotakara’s Nyayavarttika of the sixth century, Vachaka’s Nyayavarttika-tatparyatika of the ninth century, and Udayana’s Nyaya-tatparyatika-parishuddhi of the tenth century. Gangesha’s Tattvachintamani (eleventh century) is the standard text of the modern school. Nyaya developed further at Navadvipa, a centre of learning in Bengal, in the sixteenth century and later. Both Nyaya and Vaisheshika put forward the theory that the natural world is composed of atoms, which are eternal, unalterable, and have an independent existence. In its explanation of creation and matter, Nyaya seems to be a forerunner of modern physics. Regarding the soul, Nyaya states that there are eternal souls attached to a body from time to time, but each soul is individual and independent. Neither knowledge nor intellect forms the soul. The individual is neither the soul nor the body, but the result of their union.

Later Nyaya became similar to VAISHESHIKA and also became theistic, with SHIVA as the chief deity and the cause or origin of the universe. The rigorous analytical methods of Nyaya contributed to other philosophical systems, and its categories are still used in philosophical debate and discussion.

Nyingma A school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM, which literally means ‘the Ancient Ones’. Though the school is known only from the eleventh century, it traces its origin to PADMASAMBHAVA of the eighth century. At a time of persecution in Tibet, sacred texts and teachings of Padmasambhava were concealed, and these secret texts were known as gterma (treasures). The texts were revealed later, and form the basis for this school. Gterma can also refer to wisdom attained through insight and intuition. The school divides Buddhist teachings into nine vehicles or categories, the first six of which are common to other schools of Tibetan Buddhism. The three additional categories are classifed as the innermost Tantras, known as Mahayoga, Annuyoga and Atiyoga. In Mahayoga, the ordinary level of perception and attachment is transcended; through Annuyoga, primordial awareness is aroused; finally, in Atiyoga, also known as Dzogcheng, the practitioner transcends ordinary time, activity and experience. These special teachings are said to have been conveyed by the Buddha SAMANTABHADRA. Among the hundreds of teachers who revealed the gterma or sacred treasures, five are specially revered. These are: Nyangral Nyima Ozer (1124–92): Guru Chowang (1212–70); Dorje Lingpa (1346–1405); Padma Lingpa (b. 1405); and Jamyang Khyentse (1820–1892). Nyingma texts, preserved in their monasteries, consist of thousands of TANTRAS that are not included in the KANGYUR and TANGYUR COLLECTIONS.

Among the new Nyingma monasteries established in India after 1959 are: Thekchok Shedrub Dargye Ling, in Bylakuppe, Karnataka; Ngedon Gatsal Ling in Clementown, Dehra Dun; Palyul Chkher Ling, and E-Vam Gyurmed Ling in Bir, Himachal; Nechung Drayang Ling at Dharamsala, Himachal; Thubten E-Vam Dorje Drag at Shimla, Himachal.

The Nyingma tradition is headed by a Rinpoche.