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Padartha A term in ancient philosophical systems, literally meaning a category. All early philosophical systems attempted to classify the material and non-material world into a variable number of padarthas or categories. ADVAITA recognizes two padarthas, ATMAN and ANATMAN, the soul and that which is not-soul, while VISHISHTADVAITA has the above two as well as God. SAMKHYA sees PURUSHA and PRAKRITI as padarthas, and MIMAMSA describes five padarthas. NYAYA and later VAISHESHIKA have seven padarthas. The term is also used in Buddhism and Jainism.

The terms tattva and prameya are sometimes used in the same way as padartha. Depending on the context in which it is used, there can be varying classifications of padarthas, even within the same philosophy.

Padinenkilkanakku A collection of eighteen minor works in Tamil which have been variously dated. While some place them between the fifth and eighth centuries CE, others feel they are much earlier. Out of these, the two most famous are the TIRUKURAL and a Jain text, the NALADIYAR, which contain wise or moral sayings on life and religion. Among others that have ethical or moral statements are the Nanmanikkadigai by Vilambi Naganar, a VAISHNAVA poet, and the Palamoli, another Jain work with proverbs illustrated by stories. The Trikadukam, Eladi and Shiru-panchamulam are three similar works that provide advice on curing the diseases of the mind and body. The first is by a Vaishnava, while the other two are by Jains. The Asarakkovai is a SHAIVITE work.

These texts provide an idea of the diverse religious traditions of the times.

Padma A Sanskrit term for a lotus. It is the name of various goddesses, including LAKSHMI and MANASA, as well as of other people. In Jain texts, Padma is a name of RAMA.

Padma Purana (1) A Sanskrit text, one of the eighteen major PURANAS of Hinduism. It has six books or sections, the sixth being a late addition. Book I, the Shrishtikhanda, states that Lomaharshana, the suta, sent his son Ugrashravas to recite this Purana to the RISHIS in the Naimisha forest. The Purana had earlier been recited to Ugra by Pulastya, son of BRAHMA. It is named Padma after the lotus (padma), in which Brahma appeared at the time of creation, and the highest god is said to be Brahma. Nevertheless, the Purana glorifies the god VISHNU. The rest of Book I has creation myths, followed by explanations of PITRI (ancestor) worship, as well as descriptions of dynasties, myths of the conflicts between the gods and the demons, and an account of sacred places.

Book II, the Bhumikhanda, has stories and legends, beginning with that of Somasharma, who was later reborn as PRAHLADA. Book III, Svargakhanda, describes the world of the gods, as well as of the BHUTAS, PISHACHAS, GANDHARVAS, VIDYADHARAS, APSARAS and others. Book IV, the Patalakhanda, describes the subterranean regions in which NAGAS or snake gods live. Stories of RAMA and of KRISHNA are also narrated. Book V, the Uttarakhanda, deals mainly with the myths and rituals of VAISHNAVISM. In one chapter here, RADHA is identified with LAKSHMI. The sixth book, the Kriyayogasara, is also considered an UPAPURANA, and prescribes methods of Vishnu worship. In its final form the Padma Purana is a late work, but has an earlier core.

(2) A Jain Padma Purana provides a version of the RAMAYANA.

Padmanabha Temple A temple of the Hindu god VISHNU, located in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. Originally of the seventeenth century, the shrine was reconstructed in the eighteenth century, in the time of Martanda Varma, ruler of Travancore. The inner shrine has an image of a reclining Vishnu, around which is a passageway and a columned MANDAPA or hall. Other shrines are dedicated to KRISHNA, NARASIMHA and GARUDA. The temple has a double-tiered gabled roof and is notable for its murals on the outer walls. The GOPURAM on the east has a soaring tower.

Padmapani A Buddhist deity, another name of the Bodhisattva AVALOKITESHVARA.

Padmasambhava A Buddhist monk of the eighth century, originally from Kashmir, who laid the foundations of Buddhism in Tibet. He also founded monasteries in Ladakh and in Lahaul and Spiti. Not much is known of the life of Padmasambhava, but he succeeded in spreading Buddhism in Tibet, whereas earlier scholars such as SHANTIRAKSHITA failed because of their philosophical and scholastic approach. At this time the Bon religion was widespread in Tibet, and its deities and priests were thought to have great power. Padmasambhava defeated them using mystical and magical techniques, and at the same time revealed Buddhist teachings. The NYINGMA school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM is based on his teachings.

Padmavati A story in verse written in Hindavi or early Hindi in the sixteenth century by Malik Muhammad Jayasi, which expresses SUFI ideals.

The story is based on a tale from Rajasthan and describes the life of the queen Padmavati. It begins with an invocation to ALLAH and the Prophet MUHAMMAD, mentions the emperor who was ruling at the time, Sher Shah Sur (ruled 1540–45), and pays reverence to the author’s PIRS.

The main story is divided into two parts, beginning with Padmavati’s early life in Simhala Dvipa (Sri Lanka), and her love for her parrot who was stolen from her and somehow reached the court of Ratna Sena, king of Chittor (Rajasthan). There the parrot kept describing the beauty of Padmavati, and leaving his wife Nagmati, the king took the parrot and set off to find Padmavati. On the way he was helped by NATHA YOGIS and the eighty-four SIDDHAS. Finally he brought Padmavati back to Chittor, but the DELHI sultan Alauddin Khalji (ruled 1296–1316) heard of her beauty and captured her husband. Though Ratna Sena was rescued, he later died in battle against another Rajput chief, and Padmavati and Nagmati, his two queens, joined him on the funeral pyre.

Through this story Jayasi brings in Sufi sayings and concepts, and makes innumerable comparisons between the Sufi path and that of the yogis and siddhas, pointing out several similarities. He believed GORAKHNATHA was a counterpart of the MAHDI.

Jayasi, also known as Muhaqqiq-i-Hind (Researcher of Indian Truth), was born in 1494-95, and was originally a Sufi of the CHISTI order, but later became a MAHDAWI. He wrote a number of other works in early Hindi, of which the Padmavati is the best known.

Padroado A Portuguese term meaning ‘patronage’, referring specifically to the right granted by the Pope to kings and nobles of Europe to promote religious activity in areas under their rule. In 1418 Pope Martin V granted the Portuguese these rights in their overseas territories, and it was later used by the Portuguese to promote Christianity in India. The Padroado prevailed in India till 1953, when an agreement was signed between the Holy See in Rome and Portugal, bringing it to an end.

Pahlavi The written language of the Sasanian dynasty (225 to 651) of ancient Iran, in which several ZOROASTRIAN TEXTS were composed. At this time the ancient AVESTA texts were copied, re-edited and translated, and new texts based on ancient traditions were written. The final versions of many of these date to the ninth century.

Paila An ancient RISHI who was a disciple of VYASA, and was one of the five disciples who narrated the MAHABHARATA to others. He visited BHISHMA while he was lying on his bed of arrows, and attended the RAJASUYA sacrifice of YUDHISHTHIRA.

Painnas (Prakirnakas) A series of Jain texts that form part of the SHVETAMBARA canon. The ten Painnas, known in Sanskrit as Prakirnakas, are: Chausarana (Skt: Chatuhsharana) by Virabhadra; Aurap-achchakkhana (Aturapratyakhyana); Bhattaparinna (Bhakta-Parijna); Samthara (Samstara); Tamdulaveyaliya (Tandul-avaitalika); Chamdavijhaya; Devimdathaa (Devenrastava); Ganivijja (Gani Vidya); Mahapachchakkhana (Maha-Pratyakhyana); and Viratthaa (Virastava). These miscellaneous texts deal with various aspects of the Jain religion. The Chausarana discusses the six essentials (AVASHYAKAS) and four refuges (chausarana or chatuhsharanam) of Jainism. The Devimdathaa provides a classification of the kings of gods. Some of the texts describe methods of SALLEKHANA or voluntary death of a sage. Astrology, time, anatomy and physiology are among the other subjects discussed in the texts.

Other texts are sometimes added to the list of Painnas, which then exceed twenty.

Pali Canon A collection of Buddhist texts written in PALI. These are the basic Buddhist texts, particularly important for HINAYANA Buddhism, but also used by other schools. The three groups of texts, also called the Tipitaka or three baskets, are the SUTTA PITAKA, VINAYA PITAKA and ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA. The Sutta Pitaka includes five NIKAYAS, of which the first four contain discourses of the BUDDHA, while the fifth is a collection of miscellaneous texts. The VINAYA PITAKA has rules for the monks and nuns of the SANGHA, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka explains various philosophical concepts. These texts have been variously dated, but the Vinaya Pitaka and the first four Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka were probably composed by the third century BCE, and contain material not far removed from the time of the BUDDHA. According to a tradition in Sri Lanka, all the texts were written down by the first century BCE.

Pali language An early Indian language in which HINAYANA Buddhist texts were written. It was closely related to Sanskrit and is considered a literary form of PRAKRIT, but probably had a mixed origin. The language spread along with the PALI CANON to Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, but died out in India.

Palitana A town in Gujarat sacred to Jains, where the SHATRUNJAYA hill is located. Palitana was granted to SHANTIDAS, a rich Jain banker, for the use of Jain pilgrims, by Murad Baksh, son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, in 1656. Later the grant was confirmed by the emperor AURANGZEB.

Pampa A Kannada poet of the tenth century. Born in 902 or 903, he was the court poet of Arikesari, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, who ruled at Lembalapataka, now called Vemulavada in present Karnataka. He probably grew up in or around Banavasi and had BRAHMANA ancestors, though his father Bhimapayya had become a Jain. Pampa is known for two major works, the ADI PURANA and the Vikramarjuna Vijaya or Pampa Bharata. While the Adi Purana is a Jain text, the Vikramarjuna is a retelling of the MAHABHARATA story, much abridged and with some variations. Pampa makes ARJUNA the hero of the story, and also identifies Arikesari with Arjuna. Pampa inspired other retellings of the Mahabharata in south India.

panch pir A group of five Islamic saints of India, revered by both Hindus and Muslims. The panch pir were worshipped collectively and often not individually identified. Shrines of the five saints were once prominent in northern and eastern India. Sometimes the names of these saints are listed, and usually include Ghazi Miyan or Salar Masud, Zinda Ghazi, Shaikh Farid, Khwaja Khizr and Pir Badr. These PIRS were historical people around whom legends were later woven. SALAR MASUD was a saintly warrior who died in battle; Shaikh Farid refers to Baba FARID, the SUFI saint; Pir Badr-i-Alam, or Shaikh Badruddin, the patron saint of sailors, was prominent in East Bengal and Bihar, and like Khwaja KHIZR, whom he was closely associated with, was said to travel on a floating rock or a fish. He died in 1440, and his grave is in Bihar. WARIS SHAH, the eighteenth-century SUFI poet, provided a different list, identifiying the Panch Pir as Khwaja Khizr, Baba Farid, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Shaikh BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYYA and MAKHDUM-I JAHANIYAN.

pancha shila A term in Buddhism for five moral principles that all Buddhists are meant to observe. They are similar to the YAMAS in YOGA.

pancha-makara A term in TANTRISM. It refers to the five (pancha) makaras or five items beginning with the ‘Ma’ sound or letter. These are maithuna or sex, mamsa or meat, matsya or fish, madya or liquour, and mudra, parched grain or kidney beans. These five makaras are used in Tantric rites and by using or doing that which is often prohibited, Tantrics seek to liberate the mind, eliminate desire, and transcend the material world.

pancharaksha A term in MAHAYANA Buddhism for five protective spells or dharanis. They are the Maha-Pratisara, for protection against sin, disease and various evils; the Maha-Sahasrapramardini, against evil spirits; the Maha-Mayuri, against snake bite, and also against disease; the Maha-Shitavati, against wild animals, insects and the negatively aligned planets; and the Maha. Mantranusari, against diseases. These protective spells were once commonly used.

Pancharatra A Hindu VAISHNAVA sect that believes in the theory of vyuhas or cosmic emanations. According to this theory, Vasudeva-KRISHNA, who is the same as VISHNU, is the source of the universe. Sankarshana or BALARAMA emanates from him and represents PRAKRITI or nature. From Krishna and Sankarshana emerges PRADYUMNA, who in other sources is the son of Krishna. Pradyumna represents Manas or the mind. Aniruddha, who is Krishna’s grandson, comes from Pradyumna, and is identified with Ahamkara, the ego or the conscious self. In the Pancharatra system, each of these deities is worshipped individually, though they emanate from one.

The followers or the pancharatra practice anchakala or five observances every day. These are: abhigaman, that is approaching the god, referring to morning prayer and ablutions; upadana, collecting the materials for worship; ijya, sacrifice, i.e., worship; svadhyaya, study; yoga, meditation. The word Pancharatra is first used in the Taittiriya Samhita, where a man named Babara Pravinhi is said to have used the Pancharatra sacrifice to gain rhetorical power. In the Shatapatha Brahamana, a Pancharatra sacrifice conducted by Narayana, is mentioned. Through this sacrifice Narayana describes the vyuhas to Narada. A vast Pancharatra literature emerged from around the fifth century, and the sect was prominent between the fifth and ninth centuries, though it continued in succeeding centuries.

Some of the texts that describe the sect’s practices are the Ahirbudhnya Samhita and the Ishvara Samhita, as well as various Pancharatra Sutras.

Panchashikha An ancient RISHI. According to the PURANAS, he was also known as Kapila, as his mother’s name was Kapilaa. He lived at the court of JANAKA and was revered as his guru.

Panchatantra A Sanskrit text containing fables and stories, probably written in the fifth century, but with an earlier origin. It was compiled by Vishnusharman to provide guidance to the sons of kings. The text consists of a series of connected stories. Vishnusharman, a BRAHMANA, was asked by a king to teach his sons, and he did this through fables with animal characters. The stories reveal the common human failings of greed, envy, malice, vanity and treachery, and warn against being too trusting. They provide guidelines on living life wisely. By the tenth century or earlier, the book had been translated into Persian, Arabic, Syrian, Greek and Turkish, and was known in European countries. Aesop’s Fables, La Fontaine’s Fables and other similar collections derived many of their stories from the Panchatantra. A later version in India is the Hitopadesha.

panchayatana A Sanskrit term used in different ways, that normally refers to five shrines, or to five aspects or elements. Among the ways in which the term is used are: (1) Panchayatana puja: the worship of five Hindu deities, VISHNU, SHIVA, DURGA, GANESHA and SURYA. Such worship transcends sectarian divisions, and is common among the SMARTAS.

(2) According to the PADMA PURANA, the term Panchayatana refers to an image of the god SHIVA in KASHI (Varanasi), which has five ayatanas or aspects: shanti (peace), atitashanti (that which is beyond peace), paraparavidya (transcendent knowledge), pratishtha (fame) and nivritti (recession).

Panchen Lama A term for a line of lamas within the GELUG sect of TIBETAN BUDDHISM. In the seventeenth century, the fifth DALAI LAMA gave this title to his tutor, who was the head of the Tashi Lhunpo monastery in Tibet. He is considered the fourth Panchen Lama, as three earlier lamas obtained the title retrospectively. Panchen means ‘great scholar’, and the lamas are believed to be incarnations of the Buddha AMITABHA. From the seventeenth century onwards, the Panchen and Dalai Lamas initiated one another in turn, the older serving as a tutor for the younger. When a Panchen Lama died, his incarnation was searched for in the same way as for a Dalai Lama. So far (2005), there have been eleven Panchen Lamas. The tenth, born in China in 1938, was not confirmed till the age of eleven. He died in 1989, and a conflict arose over the eleventh Panchen Lama. In 1995, the Dalai Lama recognized Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, a six-year-old boy, as the Panchen Lama, while the Chinese government chose Gyaltzen Norbu. The latter is the official Panchen Lama, with the religious name of Bainqen Erdini Qoigyijabu.

Some Tibetan Buddhists revere them more highly than the Dalai Lama, because Panchen Lamas are purely spiritual and not involved in government, though they have taken part in political activities. Foreigners called them ‘Tashi Lamas’, from the name of the monastery.

Panchika A name by which the yaksha KUBERA was known in the early centuries CE in the GANDHARA region. Kubera or Panchika had a son named Panchalika who was granted a boon by the Hindu god SHIVA.

Panchika is a Buddhist deity, and in Gandhara art he is depicted both alone and with his consort HARITI.

Pandava rathas Five monolithic rock-cut shrines located at MAMALLAPURAM, dating to the seventh or eighth century. These shrines were later named ‘Pandava rathas’ because there are five of them together, but they have really nothing to do with the PANDAVAS. The Draupadi ratha is a small, hut-shaped shrine with a standing lion in front and an image of the goddess DURGA on the back wall. To the south is the Arjuna ratha, a two-storeyed shrine with images of SHIVA, NANDI, VISHNU, GARUDA and INDRA on the outer walls. The Bhima ratha, shaped like a chariot, has pillars with lion bases. The Dharmaraja ratha has three storeys, with several images on the inner walls, including those of Shiva, BRAHMA and KARTTIKEYA. The Sahadeva ratha is located in front of the others, with a carved elephant behind it.

Pandavas Five brothers, the descendants of PANDU, whose lives are described in the MAHABHARATA. They were YUDHISHTHIRA, BHIMA, ARJUNA, NAKULA and SAHADEVA. They were not actually born from PANDU, who could not have children, but through his first and second wives, KUNTI and MADRI, invoking the gods. Sacred sites associated with the Pandavas are mainly in northern India, though they are depicted in temples both in the north and in the south.

Pandharpur A town in Maharashtra on the river Bhima. It is a centre of pilgrimage, known particularly for its temple of the Hindu god VITTHALA or Vithoba, a form of VISHNU or KRISHNA.

In early texts and inscriptions, Pandharpur is known by various names, including Pandhari, Pandurangpur, Pandarangapalli, Pandarange, Phaganipur and Pundarik Kshetra. The god Vitthala is also known as Pandurang, and Pundarik or Pundalik, who was responsible for the deity staying here. Pandharpur has a number of other temples apart from that of Vitthala, as well as TIRTHAS or holy sites along the Bhima, locally known as the Chandrabhaga. A short distance from the Vitthala Temple is the SAMADHI of Pundalik, while behind the temple is another of Rakhumai (local name of RUKMINI), with shrines nearby of Satyabhama and Rahi (RADHA). The Vishnupada Temple in the middle of the Bhima, which is usually submerged during the monsoon, enshrines footprints said to be of the god Krishna and his cow, as well as images of Krishna and Vishnu. There are numerous other temples and shrines, including those of SHIVA, DEVI, GANESHA and HANUMAN.

In a poem praising Pandharpur, the Maratha saint NAMADEVA says:

Pandhari was created first, only then Vaikunthanagari (heaven of Vishnu).

Pandharpur existed even when there was nothing else, neither life nor non-life.

The Chandrabhaga was there even when the Ganga and Godavari were yet to be born;

Blessed is the auspicious Pandhari that stands on the banks of the Chandrabhaga.

Pandharpur remains undisturbed, even if the rest of the world is destroyed;

Its foundation is the Sudarshana-chakra (of Vishnu).

Oh Shri Hari, I have seen this Pandhari with my own eyes, says Nama.

Pandharpur is the centre of the VARKARI sect, who are followers of the god Vitthala, and of the Maratha saints.

pandit A term for a holy or learned man.

Pandu The brother of DHRITARASHTRA and the father of the PANDAVAS, described in the MAHABHARATA. His name means ‘pale’. Pandu married KUNTI, also known as Pritha, and later married MADRI, daughter of the king of Madra. Wandering in the forest, he saw a pair of mating deer and killed one of them. But the deer were actually the rishi Kindama with his wife, and as he died the rishi cursed Pandu, stating that he would fall dead if he ever mated with his wives.

Pandu went to the Himalayas to do penance, and along with his wives he visited a number of holy places. When Kunti revealed to him that she knew a divine MANTRA by which she could invoke the gods to have children, he was happy. YUDHISHTHIRA, BHIMA and ARJUNA were born to Kunti, who then conveyed the mantra to Madri, to whom NAKULA and SAHADEVA were born.

One fine spring day, despite Madri’s protests, Pandu, carried away by the scent of flowers and the gentle breeze, tried to make love to Madri, and died. Both wives wanted to end their lives with him, but Kunti was asked to live to take care of the children, while Madri joined him on the funeral pyre. Later, they all lived happily together again in Indraloka, the heaven of the gods.

Panhavagaranaim (Prashna-Vyakara-nani) A Jain text, the tenth of the twelve ANGAS. It describes the five mahavratas or great vows and the five virtues that a Jain monk should possess. The information in the THANAMGA, another of the Angas, indicates that its contents were once different.

Panini A Sanskrit grammarian of ancient days. He wrote the Ashtadhyayi, that is said to be most perfect grammar of any part of the ancient world. The grammar has short aphorisms that have been commented on and explained by PATANJALI and others. Not much is known of his life, but Panini is thought to have lived some time between the seventh and fourth centuries BCE. He was possibly born in the village of Shalatura in the north-west region of GANDHARA, but lived mainly in PATALIPUTRA. According to legend he was inspired to write the grammar by the Hindu god SHIVA and by the sound of his damaru or drum, which reveals the true word.

panj pyare A term in Sikhism, literally ‘five beloved ones’, for the first five Sikhs to be initiated into the KHALSA by Guru GOBIND SINGH. They were Daya Ram, Dharam Das, Mukham Chand, Himmat Rai and Sahib Chand, who were then given the title Singh and were closely associated with the guru. Bhai Daya Singh (1669–1708) helped Guru GOBIND SINGH to escape from the battle fought at CHAMKAUR in 1704. He delivered the guru’s letter, titled ZAFAR NAMAH, to the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB, and was with the guru at Nanded, where he died in 1708. Bhai Dharam Singh (1666–1708) was also with the guru at Chamkaur, and it is not clear if he died there or later at Nanded. Bhai Mukham Singh (b.1663), Bhai Sahib Singh (b. 1662) and Bhai Himmat Singh (b. 1661) were all killed in the battle of Chamkaur in 1704.

Panjokra Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Ambala in Haryana, constructed in memory of the eighth guru, HAR KRISHAN. The guru stayed here for a few days and blessed hundreds of people who came to meet him. He then made a sand platform or ridge and said that whoever stood there and prayed with purity would have his desires granted. Later a gurdwara was built over this spot.

panth A path or way; a community observing a particular system of religious belief. The term particularly refers to the Sikh community.

Paonta Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at Paonta on the banks of the Yamuna in Himachal Pradesh, in the foothills of the Himalayas. Here the tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH, spent some happy and peaceful days wandering in the nearby forests, composing poems, reading and writing. The guru also invited a number of poets who recited their poems to him.

A large gurdwara has been built to commemorate his stay here, and thousands of pilgrims come here particularly during the HOLA MOHALLA festival. A Kavi Darbar, or meeting of poets is an annual affair.

Papanatha Temple A temple of the Hindu deity SHIVA, located at Pattadakal in Karnataka. It is a typical Chalukyan temple of the sixth or seventh century. The inner shrine has a coiled NAGA on the ceiling and is connected to a MANDAPA and porch, while a tower rises above it. The mandapa has images of DURGA and GANESHA, while the outer walls have scenes from the RAMAYANA and MAHABHARATA.

Paramahansa Yogananda A spiritual leader who set up organizations in India and the West. Born in 1893 in a Bengali family in Gorakhpur in present Uttar Pradesh, his original name was Mukunda Lal Ghosh. His parents were disciples of Lahiri Mahasaya (Shyama Charan Lahiri, 1828–95) and Mukunda had spiritual aspirations from childhood. In 1910 he met his guru, Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri (originally Priya Nath Karar, 1855–1936), was initiated into his religious order and given the name Swami Paramahansa Yogananda. After completing a BA degree from Calcutta University at the insistence of his guru, Yogananda began to spread his teachings, with a particular emphasis on KRIYA YOGA. He set up the Yogoda Satsanga Society of India at Ranchi, Jharkhand, and an international organization, the Self-Realization Fellowship, at Los Angeles, USA. Both these continue to have a large following and to spread and teach Kriya Yoga. Yogananda died on 7 March 1952.

paramita A Sanskrit term used in Buddhism, meaning ‘perfections’. These perfections are essential on the Buddhist path, particularly in MAHAYANA Buddhism. Six paramitas or perfections are described in early PRAJNAPARAMITA literature. They are dana (giving), shila (morality), kshanti (patience), virya (vigour), dhyana (meditation) and prajna (wisdom). Four more were added later: upaya (skill in action), pranidhana (vow of surrender or renunciation), bala (strength or power), and jnana (knowledge). The ten paramitas are essential for all those who aspire to become BUDDHAS, and for those on the BODHISATTVA path. They were an integral part of Gautama Siddhartha, which is why he could defeat MARA and attain enlightenment.

Parashurama A Hindu deity, one of the ten main incarnations of the god VISHNU. Vishnu took the form of Parashurama in order to defeat all the KSHATRIYAS, the caste to which kings and warriors belonged. According to the BRAHMANDA PURANA, the earth, in the form of a cow, appealed to Vishnu to save her from the atrocities of kshatriya kings, and therefore he was born as Parashurama. (There is a similar story regarding Vishnu’s incarnation as VARAHA). According to another story, it was actually the curse of a RISHI that led to Parashurama’s birth and the destruction of the kshatriyas. Once the god AGNI went to a king, KARTAVIRYA, and asked for food. The king gave him food, but Agni (fire) began to consume everything around him, including the hermitage of a sage, who then cursed him, and along with him all kshatriyas.

Parashurama was born as a BRAHMANA to the rishi JAMADAGNI, and thus was also known as Jamadagnya. One of his ancestors was the rishi BHRIGU, and therefore he was known as Bhrigupati or Bhargava. When he was born his name was RAMA, but after pleasing the god SHIVA he received from him a divine weapon, a parashu or axe. He was never without his axe, and so he was called Parashurama.

There are several stories about Parashurama. As a young man, his father Jamadagni asked his sons to cut off their mother RENUKA’s head, because she had for a moment harboured a desire for someone else. Parashurama’s four brothers refused to do so, but he complied with his father’s wishes. Pleased, his father granted him a boon, and he asked for her to be restored to life.

Parashurama was a renowned archer and taught archery to a few select pupils, among them being DRONA and KARNA. In his long life he had many exploits, but the most important was his destruction of the Kshatriyas, which of course was pre-ordained. The immediate provocation was when Jamadagni’s ashram was raided by King Kartavirya. Later, Parashurama killed this king, who had a thousand arms. Kartavirya’s sons then killed Jamadagni, and Parashurama vowed to exterminate all kshatriyas. He fought and killed most of them, but some always remained alive, and when they became strong again, Parasharuma began another attack. Thus, he rid the earth of kshatriyas twenty-one times. He stored their blood in five lakes known as Samantapanchaka in KURUKSHETRA, and performed a YAJNA (sacrifice), praying that the lakes become holy and he be freed of the sin of killing.

According to one story, the rishi KASHYAPA then asked him to go and live somewhere else, and Parashurama settled on the western coast, reclaiming a strip of land from the sea. This area is known even today as Parashurama Kshetra.

Parashurama lived at the same time as another incarnation of Vishnu, the god RAMA, and they met when Rama won SITA’s hand in marriage by stringing Shiva’s bow. Parashurama objected to this, but later blessed Rama. According to the MAHABHARATA and the BHAGAVATA PURANA, Parashurama also met KRISHNA and blessed him.

Scholars believe there is a historical basis for some of these legends, which may record the memory of a major conflict. Some try to equate the name Parashurama with Pars or Persia, and with early Zoroastrians, or other settlers from Iran on the western coast.

Parashurameshvara A name of the Hindu god SHIVA, who received this name when he was worshipped by PARASHURAMA. There are a number of temples dedicated to Shiva as Parshurameshvara, among the early temples being those at Bhubaneswar (Orissa) of the seventh century and at Gudimallam in Andhra Pradesh. The latter temple was originally constructed in the ninth century, with later additions. The inner shrine is apsidal-ended, and has an ancient LINGA said to date back to the second or first century BCE. This 1.5-m-high linga, with a figure of Shiva carved on the shaft, is one of the earliest representations of the linga in art. The shrine and attached ardha-mandapa are from the ninth century, while the adjoining MANDAPA and passageway are from the Chola period, around the twelfth century. The gateway and outer mandapa are in Vijayanagara style.

Parasnath A hill in Jharkhand sacred to Jains, known in texts as Samet Shikhara. The twenty-third TIRTHANKARA, PARSHVANATHA, is said to have attained MOKSHA or liberation here, when he was a hundred years old. Eighteen other Tirthankaras also attained moksha here. The hill has a number of Jain temples, including one of Parshvanatha at the summit, and is one of the most sacred Jain sites.

pardah Literally, a term that means a curtain or veil. It refers to the custom of veiling women, or keeping them in seclusion, which was once common in Islam and in some Hindu castes. In India some Muslim women still wear a burqah, while the custom of covering the head with the sari and veiling the face with one end of it, is prevalent among Hindus in rural areas.

Parida, Sidheswar An Oriya poet who worshipped the goddess Sarala Devi and took the name SARALA DASA.

parijata A divine tree in Hindu mythology. It was one of the five trees that emerged out of the ocean when it was churned for AMRITA, and it was kept in the heaven of the god INDRA but was later taken by the god KRISHNA to his city of DVARAKA. After Krishna departed from the world, the tree returned to Indra’s heaven. This tree had a wonderful fragrance, and the scent of its blossoms perfumed the world. It has been identified with a real tree, the Indian coral.

Parjanya A deity described in the RIG VEDA. He is the god of rain clouds and sheds rain. He brings thunder and lightning, and is rich in clouds and water. His chariot is watery, and he nourishes vegetation. More important rain gods in the VEDAS are the MARUTS and INDRA.

Parshvanatha The twenty-third Jain TIRTHANKARA, who probably lived in the ninth or eighth century BCE. According to Jain tradition he preceded MAHAVIRA (b. 599 BCE) by 250 years and was the son of King Ashvasena and Queen Vama of KASHI (Varanasi). SHVETAMBARA texts state that he married Prabhavati, daughter of King Prasenajit, but left home to become an ascetic at the age of thirty. After practising austerities for eighty-three days, he reached Omniscience on the eighty-fourth day, and then wandered for seventy years, preaching his doctrines. Finally he attained MOKSHA or liberation at Samet Shikhara (PARASNATH hill in Jharkhand). He founded the Nirgrantha (‘free from bonds’) sect. He explained some of the Jain beliefs and laid down the four basic vows of not killing, not lying, not stealing, and not owning more than necessary. At the time of Mahavira, his followers were headed by one Keshi Kumara. Mahavira, according to some accounts, at first joined the sect, but then left it, having developed his ideas further. Keshi Kumara and others then became disciples of Mahavira.

Parshvanatha’s symbol is a serpent, and he is usually depicted with a serpent hood above his head.

Parshvanatha Temple, Khajuraho A Jain temple dedicated to PARSHVANATHA, the twenty-third TIRTHANKARA. It was constructed in 954 by Pahila, during the reign of King Dhanga of the Chandella dynasty. The temple has a rectangular ground plan, with axial projections on the shorter sides. It is richly carved, and the main hall has sculptured bands and latticed windows. The present image of Parshvanatha, made of black marble, was installed in 1860. The temple also has some Hindu images, including a head of SHIVA on the outer walls.

Parsis A term for Indian Zoroastrians. According to traditional history, supported by the KISSAH-I-SANJAN, a document of 1600, the Parsis are descendants of a group of Zoroastrians who came to the western coast of India in the eighth century, fleeing persecution in Iran. This is the traditionally accepted date, though scholars have pointed out that there is little evidence of religious persecution at this time, and therefore a tenth-century date is more likely. An account written in 1826 provides a date of 716 (Samvat 772), though some read this as Samvat 972, thus again providing support to both theories.

Most Parsis accept the story of this migration, though some feel the traditional history is wrong and Parsis had settled here from ancient days. While there is evidence of Zoroastrians having been in India from ancient times, they seem to have been absorbed into the local culture and were not distinguished as a separate group; the Parsis as a distinctive group are probably later migrants.

Some time after reaching SANJAN, the Parsis settled in different parts of Gujarat, and an account of their life there, the establishment of a fire temple, and their early problems are narrated in the Kissah-i-Sanjan. At this time they were mainly farmers, toddy-planters, weavers and carpenters. They began to speak Gujarati and adopted some local customs. With the coming of the British they became more prosperous, as lack of caste and food restrictions enabled them to mix more easily with Westerners. Many moved to MUMBAI (Bombay) and became merchants, traders and professionals. By the nineteenth century they had adopted liberal Western ideas, and also attempted to reform Parsi society, which had incorporated several Hindu customs. Later, prominent Parsis joined in the freedom struggle against the British.

The number of Parsis in India reached a height in 1941, when the census recorded a figure of 1,14,890. This, of course, was for undivided India. In 1951 there were 1,11,791, after which there has been a decline. According to the 2001 census, there are now 69, 601.

Who is a Parsi?: Parsi are governed by the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936. Yet the question of who or what is a Parsi is still being debated.

This question had been raised in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in response to some prominent Parsis marrying non-Parsis, and the subsequent conversion of the non-Parsi spouse to Zoroastrianism. In general, Parsis today agree with the definition provided by the Daver-Beaman judgement, 1908. According to this, Parsis are: (1) the descendants of the original emigrants into India from Persia, who profess the Zoroastrian religion; (2) descendants of Zoroastrians in Persia who were not among the original emigrants, but who are of the same stock, and have since that date, from time to time, come to India and settled here, either permanently and temporarily, and who profess the Zoroastrian religion. (3) the children of a Parsi father by an alien mother, if such children are admitted into the faith of the father and profess the Zoroastrian religion.

In 2003 the Parsi high priests, with one exception, stated that in their view the children of a Parsi father and non-Parsi mother are not Parsis, and that such a marriage has no religious sanctity. Their views have not been accepted by most. As for children of a Parsi mother, only a few north Indian Anjumans accept them as Parsis and allow their NAVJOTE or thread ceremony to be performed.

Some issues: There are several issues that concern this small community. The decline in numbers is the most important issue and is related to the question of conversion, and whether conversion of any kind should be allowed. In other countries, conversion does take place, but in India it is hotly debated. Other issues include the means of disposal of the dead and whether an acceptable alternative can be found to the DAKHMA system, which is not operating well due to the paucity of vultures; the necessity or not of rituals; joining in or cooperating with a world body of Zoroastrians; whether adoption should be allowed. Even questions on religion bring forth different responses, with some stating that Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion, and others that it is dualistic. There are also some who believe the GATHAS is the only authentic text, while others include all the later texts. Which calendar to follow (see Zoroastrian calendar) is another matter of debate.

Despite these internal controversies, Parsis are recognized as having enriched India in various ways, and apart for a few early local conflicts, have lived peacefully in India.

Parthasarthy Temple A temple of the Hindu god KRISHNA, located in Chennai in Tamil Nadu. It is not known when the temple was first constructed, but it was revered by the ALVAR saints and renovated at the time of the Pallava dynasty, with further additions made later.

The image of Parthasarthy, or Krishna as the charioteer of ARJUNA, (Partha = Arjuna, sarthy = charioteer), discoursing on the BHAGAVAD GITA, is made of black granite, and according to legend, was brought here by the rishi Atreya. The presiding deity of the temple is Krishna, known here as Sri Venkatakrishna Swami or Gitacharya. Krishna’s wife RUKMINI and younger brother Satyaki are to his right and left, his elder brother BALARAMA is to the right of Rukmini, while images of his son PRADYUMNA and grandson Aniruddha are also in the inner shrine or GARBHA-GRIHA.

There are additional shrines of RANGANATHA (VISHNU), Sri Tellia Singha-Perumal (NARASIMHA), Sri Chakravarti Tirumagan (RAMA), HANUMAN, ANDAL, and some other deities and saints.

A tank in front of the temple, known as Karveni, is said to provide prosperity and happiness to all who bathe there.

The philosopher RAMANUJA was particularly fond of this temple, and according to legend, he was an incarnation of Parthasarthy.

Parvati A Hindu deity, the wife of the god SHIVA. Parvat means ‘mountain’, and she was named Parvati because she was the daughter of the Himalaya mountain, personified as HIMAVAN, and of his wife Mena. There are several myths and legends in ancient texts regarding Parvati, but many of these developed only after the fifth century.

Parvati is not mentioned in the VEDAS, though there are references to AMBIKA, one of her later names. In some Vedic passages SHIVA’S wife is referred to as Rudrani. The KENA UPANISHAD mentions a goddess named Uma Haimavati, which is possibly a reference to Parvati. The MAHABHARATA and RAMAYANA tell the story of Parvati and her previous incarnation as SATI, and this is further elaborated on in the PURANAS.

The central story regarding this goddess states that in her previous birth she was Sati, daughter of DAKSHA, who killed herself when her father insulted her husband Shiva. After a period of grief, Shiva retreated into ascetic meditation; meanwhile, an ASURA known as TARAKA was threatening the world. Taraka, it was said, could not be killed except by an offspring of Shiva, but how was Shiva to be persuaded to start a family? Sati was reborn again as Parvati, to unite with her beloved once again, and to enable a child to be born who would kill Taraka.

Shiva was deep in meditation and initially was not attracted by the beautiful Parvati. KAMA, the god of love, attempted to awaken his desire but Kama was burnt to ashes by a flash of Shiva’s third eye. Parvati then decided that the only way to attract Shiva was to become an ascetic herself. She meditated and practised TAPAS or austerities for thousands of years on Mt KAILASHA. Finally Shiva noticed her and fell in love, and they married and lived together on the mountain, making love and playing dice, and produced two children, KARTTIKEYA and GANESHA.

Parvati’s role is usually as the wife and counterpart of Shiva, providing a domestic aspect to his asceticism and wildness, but she is also worshipped in different ways. She is part of him, and thus Shiva is worshipped as ARDHANARISHVARA, half-man and-half woman. She is his feminine aspect, his SHAKTI or power. In some Tantric texts she transcends Shiva and is worshipped as the supreme deity. In the SHAIVA SIDDHANTA system, she is Shiva’s grace (arul). In a number of texts, she is Shiva’s disciple, asking Shiva questions and learning divine truths from him. Some devotees of Shiva identify with Parvati, just as devotees of KRISHNA identify with RADHA. By the medieval period, all these aspects of Parvati had developed, reflected in her various names. Parvati also has different forms and can manifest herself as MAHADEVI, the MAHAVIDYAS, and other deities. In her fierce form she is DURGA or KALI.

Parvati is also worshipped in her essential feminity, as the YONI. Once the RISHIS caused Shiva’s LINGA to fall to earth, and by its power it burnt everything before it. It could only be held in Parvati’s yoni, thus the linga and yoni are worshipped together. Parvati tames Shiva and brings his sexuality within acceptable limits, and also reduces his asceticism.

The AMARAKOSHA, a Sanskrit text, has the following synonyms for Parvati: UMA, Katyayani, GAURI, KALI, Haimavati, Ishvari, Shivaa, Bhavani, Rudrani, Sarvani, Sarvamangala, Aparna, DURGA, Mridani, Chandika, AMBIKA, Arya, Dakshayani, Girija, Menakatmaja, Chamunda, Karnamoti, Charchchika, Bhairavi. She is also called ANNAPURNA (giver of food) or Mata (mother). In the south she has other names, including MINAKSHI.

Paryushan A Jain festival held in Bhadrapada (August–September), which begins on the twelfth day of the fortnight of the waning moon. The festival lasts for eight or ten days and Jains at this time fast or eat a restricted diet. Shvetambaras celebrate it for eight days, while Digambaras celebrate it for ten days, beginning on the last day of the Shvetambara festival. Digambaras refer to it as Dash-Lakshana Parva. During these days, Jain texts are read out and explained, particularly the KALPA SUTRA for SHVETAMBARAS. Jains recollect and rededicate themselves to the basic virtues of Jainism, including truthfulness, non-violence, self-restraint and simplicity. There is a special emphasis on forgiveness, and the last day is one of atonement, dropping all feelings of enmity, forgiving others and mentally asking others for forgiveness. A prayer recited at this time says:

I forgive all living beings;

May all living beings forgive me.

All in this world are my friends,

I have no enemies.

An effort is also made to actively prevent the slaughter of animals, and free those in captivity.

Pashupata A Hindu SHAIVITE sect, probably founded in the second century by LAKULISHA, who is said to have been an incarnation of the god SHIVA. The Pashupata Sutra and the Ganakarika describe the principles of this sect. Three aspects of creation were Pashu, the individual soul, Pati, god or the lord, and Pasha, which indicates bondage or the world. These three were separate and distinct. The path to enlightenment had five stages, the first two being external, and the next three involving meditative and other internal practices. Despite all one’s efforts, enlightenment finally could be achieved only by the grace of God. The sect existed until the end of the fifteenth century.

Pashupati A name of the Hindu god SHIVA. Pashupats has two aspects. In the Pashupata sect, he is the supreme deity. As a form of Shiva, he is the protector of animals, particularly of domestic herds. He is also the patron of reproduction in all forms of life. In south India he is represented in this form as a four-armed man, holding an axe and a small deer.

Passover A Jewish festival known in Hebrew as Pesach. It commemorates the Exodus from Egypt and the liberation of the Jews from slavery, which took place around the thirteenth century BCE, when Moses led them to Canaan. It is known as the Passover because God passed over their houses when he unleashed a plague that killed the first-born of the Egyptians after the Pharaoh had refused to release the Jews. He asked them to mark their houses by sprinkling the blood of a lamb on their doorposts. The lamb should then be roasted and eaten. God Himself is said to have redeemed the people from bondage, and they left Egypt so quickly, that their dough for baking bread had no time to rise, and they ate unleavened bread (matzoth). Therefore, at this time Jews eat matzoth for seven days, as well as bitter herbs (maror), as the Egyptians embittered the lives of their forefathers, and a roasted lamb drained of blood. The Passover is also a harvest festival.

The festival takes place in the Jewish month of Nisan (March–April), and the main Passover festival is between the 14th and 15th of Nisan. The Passover begins with a service in the synagogue, followed by the Seder (literally, order), a ritual meal, and readings or a retelling of the Exodus story. On this night four questions are asked about the symbolism of the meal by the youngest child present, and four cups of wine, symbolizing four aspects of divine redemption, are drunk. A special cup filled with wine, the Kos-shel Eliyahu, the cup of the Prophet Elijah, is kept because, according to tradition, the Prophet visits every Seder.

Patala The seventh LOKA of the netherworld in Hindu mythology. The Nagalokadhipatis, or lords of the NAGAS, live here. Among them are VASUKI, Shankha, Dhananjaya, and others. Their hoods vary in number from five to one hundred, and the shining jewels on them keep Patala brightly illuminated. Patala is described in texts as a beautiful place. After visiting it, the rishi NARADA stated that it was better than the heavens of the gods. Patala is also used as a generic term for all the seven lower Lokas or worlds, which are: Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala and Patala. Below Patala is Adishesha or ANANTA, the serpent on which the god VISHNU rests. These worlds are 10,000 yojanas below the earth.

Pataliputra The ancient name of Patna, today the capital of Bihar. Earlier a village, it was an important centre from about the sixth century BCE, and the capital of the kingdom of MAGADHA. By the third century BCE became it was a prosperous city, the capital of the Mauryan empire. It was associated with Buddhism, and the Third BUDDHIST COUNCIL was held here in the time of ASHOKA Maurya. Archaeological excavations indicate that the site was occupied from around the sixth century BCE to the third century CE, and some parts of it until the sixth century CE. It was then deserted and reoccupied in the medieval period.

Patanjali A philosopher who wrote the YOGA SUTRA, the basic Sanskrit text describing the system of YOGA. Another Patanjali composed the Mahabhashya, a commentary on PANINI’s grammar known as the Ashtadhyayi. According to tradition, both texts were written by the same person, but scholars believe they were composed by two different Patanjalis, for while the Mahabhashya can be dated to the second century BCE, the Yoga Sutra in its present form, is somewhat later.

pathashala A traditional school. Literally it means ‘house of recitation’, and in the past students had to memorize long passages from Sanskrit texts and recite them. The system is still followed in religious schools attached to temples or MATHAS.

Patimokha A term in Buddhism for a list of actions forbidden to Buddhist monks. The Patimokha (Sanskrit: Pratimoksha) forms part of the VINAYA PITAKA and is also used as a separate text. A good monk is said to be ‘restrained by the restraints of the Patimokha.’ The Patimokha list was recited twice a month in the SANGHA (the community of monks and nuns), at which time they had to confess their transgressions. This was known as the Uposatha ceremony, and probably started at the time of the BUDDHA.

Patisambhida-Magga A HINAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA, the fifth NIKAYA of the SUTTA PITAKA of the PALI CANON. Literally ‘the path of analysis’, it has three sections, each divided into ten treatises on various aspects of Buddhist principles and ideals. Among its topics are the seventy-three kinds of knowledge, the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, and the merit of friendliness towards all creatures.

Pattadakal A place in Karnataka that has several temples from the time of the Chalukya dynasty of the sixth to eighth centuries. Among these are the Sanameshvara, Virupaksha, Mallikarjuna and PAPANATHA temples, as well as a later Jain temple.

Patthana-Pakarana A HINAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA of the PALI CANON. It has two parts, the Tika Patthana and the Duka Patthana, and analyzes twenty-four kinds of relationships. Except for NIRVANA, which is absolute and therefore unrelated, everything else has a relationship of some kind that can be classified into the twenty-four types mentioned here. Thus there are relationships between cause and effect, subject and object, ruler and ruled, etc. This book is important for understanding Buddhist ideas and for philosophical concepts.

Pattupattu Literally, ‘The Ten Idylls’, a series of Tamil texts that form part of SANGAM LITERATURE. They date from about the third to sixth centuries CE, and are slightly later than the eight texts of the ETTUTOGAI. Similar in style to the former, they consist of ten longer poems and provide information on the Tamil country and early kings. One of the poems, the Tirumuruka-narrupatai, describes the god MURUGAN and his shrines.

Paumchariyam A Jain version of the RAMAYANA, composed by Vimalasuri. It is said to have been written 530 years after the death of MAHAVIRA and is composed in a Prakrit dialect, Jain Maharashtri. Despite the date given in it, scholars date it between the first and third centuries CE. Pauma, or Padma in Sanskrit, is another name of RAMA. The epic depicts a world full of Jains and begins with the time when King Seniya (BIMBISARA) was ruling at MAGADHA. The king doubts some of the fantastic stories contained in the Ramayana, and asks GOYAMA, disciple of Mahavira, to tell him the truth. Goyama then narrates this story, which was revealed to him by Mahavira.

The story begins with the history of RISHABHA, the first TIRTHANKARA. An account of the second Tirthankara is followed by a description of Kishkindhapura (KISHKINDHA), the capital city of the monkeys. These monkeys are really VIDYADHARAS (here meaning a community of people), but are called vanaras (monkeys) because they have monkeys depicted on their gates and banners. The RAKSHASAS, among whom RAVANA is born, are also vidyadharas. There was a great vidyadhara hero named Rakshasa, after whom they were named. The vidyadharas were not demonic; they followed the principles of AHIMSA or non-violence, and did not even kill animals. Ravana was a devotee of the Jinas who propagated the Jain faith and restored Jain shrines. He was a great ascetic with magic powers, and accounts of his heroic deeds are given. The god INDRA, when defeated by Ravana, became a Jain monk. HANUMAN also became a Jain, helped Ravana in his exploits, and received a thousand wives in return.

After all this, King DASHARATHA is mentioned, and the main Ramayana story begins, which in its essentials follows Valmiki’s Ramayana, though the details are different. SITA is born in a natural way, the daughter of JANAKA and his wife Videha. Padma (Rama) helps Janaka in his fight against his enemies and hence is betrothed to Sita. The later episodes are largely the same: Sita is abducted by Ravana, Hanuman helps Padma in rescuing her, after her return she is banished and her twin sons are born. In between are several secondary stories. Finally Padma (Rama) enters NIRVANA. Ravana is sympathetically portrayed, his only weakness being his desire for Sita.

There are also other Jain RAMAYANAS (See Ramayana, in Jainism).

Pausha Dashami A Jain festival that celebrates the birthday of the twenty-third TIRTHANKARA, PARSHVANATHA. The festival starts on the twelfth day of the month of Pausha and involves pilgrimages, fasting, and the recitation of scriptures.

Pavaka The name of a son of the Hindu god AGNI. Agni and his wife Svaha had three sons, Pavaka, Pavamana and Shuchi. These three had forty-five sons, and they were all also known as Agni. Thus there were forty-nine Agnis.

Pentecostal Church of God, Indian The Indian Pentecostal Church of God was founded in 1924 by Pastor K.E. Abraham at Mulakuzha, Chengannur. Later it spread to several parts of India and shifted its base to Kumbanad, Kerala. It now has 3500 churches and over five lakh members.

Pentecostal Churches A group of Protestant Churches. The Pentecostal movement in Christianity began in Los Angeles (USA) in 1906, and spread to other countries. The movement takes its inspiration from the descent of the Holy Spirit on the APOSTLES on the day of the Pentecost, when they began to speak in many tongues. It is based on approaching God through simplicity and invoking the divine spirit of God, which can lead to spontaneous speech and spiritual healing.

Pentecostal Churches in India include the Indian PENTECOSTAL CHURCH OF GOD, Assemblies of God; the CHURCH OF GOD (FULL GOSPEL); the Church of God, founded 1914; The New India Church of God, an indigenous church established in 1976; the New India Bible Church, founded in 1973; the Sharon Fellowship Church, founded in 1953; Church of God in South India, founded 1910; and the World Missionary Evangelism of India, originally founded in 1940 and established in India in 1969.

Periya Puranam The popular name of the Tiruttondapuranam, a Tamil SHAIVITE work, composed by Sekkilar in the twelfth century. It provides an account of the lives of the sixty-three NAYANAR saints. It is considered a literary and religious masterpiece.

Persian-speaking Jews A number of Persian-speaking Jews from Afghanistan, Khorasan and Iran came to India from the eleventh century onwards and were associated with the DELHI sultans and the Mughals. Some Jews came along with Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These Jews were both traders and courtiers, and scattered references to them occur in texts. The Mughal emperor AKBAR had discussions with Jews, and during his time a SYNAGOGUE was constructed at Agra. DARA SHIKOH, son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, had a Jewish tutor. Both Dara and his tutor were executed by the emperor AURANGZEB. Other Jews were traders in various parts of the Mughal empire, and there were Jewish settlements in northern India, including in Kashmir.

Perumal A term usually used for the god VISHNU in Tamil. It is also applied to other deities, as well as to kings in south India.

Petavatthu A Buddhist text that forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA, the fifth NIKAYA of the SUTTA PITAKA, of the PALI CANON. It deals with the negative results of wrong actions. A peta (Sanskrit: preta) is the spirit of a dead person, roaming the world as a ghost. This text is mainly in the form of dialogues, where NARADA or another sage asks a peta the reasons for its misfortunes, and the peta recounts its wrong deeds.

Phalakaksha The name of a YAKSHA or divine being, who was a member of the court of KUBERA.

Phul Walon ki Sair A festival representing harmony between communities, also known as SAIR-E-GUL FAROSHAN.

Pillai Lokacharya See Lokacharya.

pinda A term for offerings made to the PITRIS or ancestors, usually consisting of balls of rice or flour.

Pingala An attendant of the Hindu god SURYA.

Pingala Nadi A hidden passage of energy in the human body. The Pingala Nadi is said to exist to the right of the KUNDALINI, while to the left is the Ida Nadi. Pingala represents heat, fire or the sun, while IDA is cool, representing the moon.

Pippalada An ancient RISHI who founded a school of the ATHARVA VEDA, which was named after him. In the PRASHNA UPANISHAD he guides other rishis on the path to enlightenment. According to a story in the PADMA PURANA, he sat in meditation without moving for 3000 years, though an ant-hill grew around him and cobras circled him. Then BRAHMA gave him a boon, the SIDDHI or power of obtaining all he desired, and he became extremely proud, until Brahma again appeared to him in the form of a swan and told him that there was a person named Sukarma who possessed more knowledge than he. Pippalada met Sukarma and acknowledged his greatness, which was due to the merit he had gained by taking care of his parents.

pir A term in Islam for a SUFI master or spiritual teacher. Other terms used are Shaikh or Murshid.

pishachas A class of lower spirits in Hindu mythology. They are associated with RAKSHASAS, and sometimes with YAKSHAS and ASURAS. In early texts, they are said to have been created by BRAHMA, or to have emerged from the PRAJAPATIS. In different passages of the MAHABHARATA, they are said to worship KUBERA, SHIVA, or Brahma; another passage in the Mahabharata states that their food is flesh and their drink is blood. A number of pishachas were also incarnated as kings. In the PURANAS, they are described as descended from the rishi KASHYAPA through one of his wives, either Krodhavasha or Pishacha, or Kapisha. While earlier their nature was ambivalent, in later texts they are bloodthirsty and aggressive beings.

Pitamaha A name of the Hindu god BRAHMA, in the sense of father of all. Literally it means paternal grandfather.

Pitra Paksh A Hindu festival to pray for the souls of ancestors or PITRIS, held during the dark fortnight of the month of Ashvina (September/October). These fifteen days are also known as SHRADDHA. At this time, ceremonies are performed in which the eldest son and other male relatives have an important role. Food, including PINDA (rice balls), and khir is fed to BRAHMANAS, in the belief that this reaches the departed soul. In some areas, food is also offered to a cow, a dog and a crow. The ceremonies are performed for both males and females. Offerings to ancestors were common among ancient Egyptians, Sumerians and Jews, as well as in China and Japan. In Zoroastrianism, the MUKTAD is a similar ritual.

pitris (1) A term in Hinduism usually used for ancestors or manes. Pitris are human ancestors who have died and for whom ceremonies have been performed with proper rites. YAMA, the god of the dead, is the lord of the pitris and performing sacrifices for the pitris, brings blessings. The period of SHRADDHA or PITRA PAKSH is when ancestors are formally revered.

(2) There are also other types of pitris, including the ten PRAJAPATIS. According to one story, pitris include the sons of the gods. When the gods offended BRAHMA, he cursed them, and they became fools, but then he allowed them to be re-instructed by their sons, who were therefore called Pitris.

(3) Other pitris are minor deities, or sages who reached a high level and transcended ordinary life. In the RIG VEDA, there are two classes of pitris, while according to the PURANAS there are seven classes of pitris, three without form, though they can assume any form they like, and four with form. According to one text, those without form are the Vairajas, the Agnishvattas and the Barhishads, while those with form are the Sukalas, Angirasas, Susvadhas and Somapas. Variant names are also given for all these.

Ponda Mosque A mosque located in Ponda, Goa, also known as the Safa Shahouri Masjid. It was constructed in 1560 by Ibrahim Adil Shah, sultan of Bijapur. It was once the largest of the twenty-seven mosques in Ponda Taluk, and the only one that still survives. Next to it was a masonry tank and an extensive garden decorated with fountains, which was destroyed at the time of the Portuguese. The mosque gradually crumbled and decayed, but it has been partially restored. The renovated mosque is still in use and attracts crowds, particularly on the ID festivals. It is the oldest standing mosque in Goa.

Pongal A Hindu festival celebrated in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in January. The main festival is on 14 January, but ceremonies extend over three days. Pongal, a dish of sweetened rice and dal, is made at this harvest festival, to celebrate the bounty of the harvest. On the first day, a feast is prepared for family and relatives; on the second day, SURYA is worshipped. The third day is known as Mattu Pongal, and is dedicated to cattle, in thanksgiving for the work they have done during the year. Cattle are bathed, their hooves are oiled, and their horns polished and painted. Garlands of flowers are placed around their necks and they are given special food and a day of rest. In some areas, they are made to run races after the rest day. In parts of Tamil Nadu, the game of jallikattu is played, in which bundles of money are tied to the horns of bulls, who are forced to run while young men chase them and attempt to retrieve the bundles.

SANKRANTI, a similar festival, is celebrated on 14 January in other states, while LOHRI is celebrated on 13 January in Punjab and some other parts of north India.

Ponna A Jain poet who lived in the tenth century and wrote in Kannada. His main work is the Shanti Purana, an account of the sixteenth TIRTHANKARA, Shantinatha. He also wrote the Jinaksharamala, a poem praising Jains, and the Bhuvanai-Karamabhyudaya, which no longer exists, but is known through quotes in other texts.

Pooram A Hindu festival named after the Pooram constellation. It takes place in April/May and lasts for thirty-six hours. The grandest Pooram festival is celebrated at Thrissur in Kerala, in honour of the deities of two temples, Paramakkavu Devi (Bhagavati) and Thiruvambadi Devi. Elephants are adorned and decorated with gold and jewels, mantras are chanted, and processions are taken out from the two temples, accompanied by musicians playing panchavadyam (five instruments). The two processions meet in an open space near the VADAKKUNATHAN TEMPLE, where the ceremony of unfurling silk parasols takes place. Three hundred brightly-coloured parasols are unfurled by the two groups in quick succession. At night there are fireworks, and the following morning the festival ends after another musical recital. Thousands of pilgrims come from all over to join in the festival, in which all castes and communities participate.

Potana A poet who lived from 1400 to 1475. He wrote the Bhagavatam, a translation of the BHAGAVATA PURANA, with some modifications and elaborations. Potana lived in the Andhra country and is said to have been an agriculturalist who refused the patronage of kings. He was a SHAIVITE who later became a follower of the ADVAITA philosophy. In the Bhagavatam, a work of BHAKTI, he uses Sanskritized Telugu, and shows equal devotion to RAMA, VISHNU and SHIVA. Another work by him is Virabhadra Vijayam, which is based on the story of DAKSHA’s sacrifice, as narrated in the VAYU PURANA. His Bhagavatam is popular even today.

Prabhas Patan A town in Gujarat that has several temples, among which the SOMANATHA TEMPLE of the Hindu god SHIVA is particularly famous. Prabhas Patan has been a sacred place and centre of pilgrimage since ancient times and is the site of one of the jyotir LINGAS of SHIVA. There are other old and new shrines, sacred wells, and tanks. The town is mentioned in the MAHABHARATA and the PURANAS. Those who bathe in the holy pond here are taken up to heaven in divine vehicles (vimanas), where with their songs they awaken the celestial maidens. The YADAVAS fought against one another and destroyed themselves here, and KRISHNA and BALARAMA merged in the supreme here. YUDHISHTHIRA, the eldest of the PANDAVAS, practised austerities in this place. As the god AGNI is said to reside here, those who bathe here enjoy the benefit of the Agnishtoma (fire) sacrifice.

Prabhupada, Swami A devotee of the god KRISHNA and the founder of the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KRISHNA CONSCIOUSNESS (ISKCON). Born in Kolkata (Calcutta) in 1896, he was initially known as Abhay Charan De. After his initiation, he came to be called Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta, and later Swami Prabhupada. He had a degree in chemistry, ran a pharmacy business, was married and had one son. He became a devotee of the god Krishna, and left his business and family in 1954, devoting himself to the worship of the deity. In 1959 he was initiated into a SANNYASI sect and became a Swami. He set up ISKCON at New York in 1965 with the aim of spreading the message of the BHAGAVAD GITA and the worship of Krishna. He wrote over fifty books, including commentaries on the BHAGAVAD GITA, Srimad Bhagavatam (29 volumes), and Sri Chaitanya Charitamrita (17 volumes). His organization soon spread throughout the world, and though he died in 1977, the movement he started has continued to grow and expand.

Pradyumna A son of the Hindu god KRISHNA by his wife RUKMINI. According to one legend in the BHAGAVATA PURANA, he was the incarnation of the god KAMA, who had been burnt to ashes by the god SHIVA. When Kama was killed, his wife RATI was filled with grief, but was informed by the goddess MAHADEVI that Kama would be reborn, and that she, Rati, would again be his wife. Meanwhile Rukmini was longing for a child, and Krishna, after being blessed by the rishis NARA-NARAYANA, went to Mt KAILASHA and asked Shiva for a child. Thus Pradyumna was born, and when he was six or seven days old, he was stolen by the ASURA Shambara, who had been told that the child would grow up to kill him. Shambara threw him into the ocean, where he was swallowed by a fish. The fish was caught and by a coincidence sold to Shambara. The child was found inside the fish and reared by Shambara’s wife Mayadevi or Mayavati, who was actually an incarnation of Rati. The rishi NARADA told her the truth about the child’s birth, and when he grew up, she fell in love with him and told him how he had come to her house. Pradyumna then killed Shambara in battle and married Mayavati. Both then flew through the air to see his parents. Later, Pradyumna also married Kakudmati, and had a son, Aniruddha. In addition, he married Prabhavati, daughter of the asura Vajranabha. Along with other YADAVAS, he died during the conflicts that took place at DVARAKA. According to another story, he was the son of Kama and Rati, while according to the MAHABHARATA, he was a partial incarnation (AMSHA-AVATARA) of SANAT KUMARA, the son of BRAHMA, and after his death he merged with Sanat Kumara. He is one of the deities worshipped in the PANCHARATRA system.

Prahlada A DAITYA who was a great devotee of the Hindu god VISHNU. His story is narrated in the PURANAS and other texts. His father was the daitya HIRANYAKASHIPU and his mother was Kayadhu. Vishnu had killed the brother of Hiranyakashipu and there was a deep enmity between them. While Hiranyakashipu was fighting against the devas, Kayadhu, who was pregnant, was captured by INDRA, but she was rescued by the rishi NARADA. Narada kept Kayadhu with him for some time and his spiritual discourses were heard by Prahlada, while still in the womb, and he was born with a devotion to Vishnu. As he grew up, this devotion angered his father. Unable to persuade Prahlada to give it up, Hiranyakashipu called on various powers to torment and torture the boy. He was thrown from mountains, trampled by elephants and placed in a pit of fire, but he remained constant in his devotion and emerged unharmed. After Prahlada survived being left in the ocean with mountains pressing down above him, Hiranyakashipu was for some time reconciled to his son’s devotion to Vishnu, but later began his persecution again, and was finally killed by Vishnu in the form of NARASIMHA.

Prahlada then became the king of the daityas and danavas in PATALA, but soon had further adventures. According to the VAMANA PURANA, he went to Naimisharanya, the forest of Naimisha, one of the most sacred sites, where he met the rishis NARA-NARAYANA. Thinking they were fake SANNYASIS, he began a battle with them, but they remained undefeated. Learning of their true nature from Vishnu, he went to Badarikashrama in the Himalayas and began to propitiate them, leaving his cousin Andhaka on the throne. Even after returning to Patala, he remained an advisor to Andhaka and did not take over the throne again.

In battles between the DEVAS and ASURAS, Prahlada tried to make peace, but finally was forced into combat with the devas.

Prahlada is also connected with the festival of HOLI. His grandson was the emperor MAHABALI.

Prajapati A deity in the VEDAS. In the RIG VEDA, he is described in a hymn in the tenth or latest book, where he is praised as the creator of heaven and earth, of the waters and of all that lives, of the one god above all other gods. In some later Vedic texts, he is recognized as the chief god, or father of the gods, the creator of the DEVAS and ASURAS, and the first sacrificer. He is also known as ‘KA’ or ‘who’, as the verse praising him in the Rig Veda uses this pronoun to ask who the greatest god is. Later BRAHMA took the place of Prajapati, and in the SUTRAS he is identified with him.

Prajapatis In Hindu mytholgy, RISHIS or sages descended from the god BRAHMA, from whom all people are descended. Different texts state that there were seven, ten or twenty-one Prajapatis. The names of the ten Prajapatis that are usually listed are: MARICHI, ANGIRAS, ATRI, PULASTYA, Pulaha, Kratu, VASISHTHA, DAKSHA or Prachetas, BHRIGU and NARADA.

Prajnaparamita, goddess A Buddhist goddess representing wisdom. She is the mother of all BUDDHAS, who awakens the mind; she is also present in the wisdom texts, the PRAJNAPARAMITA SUTRAS.

Prajnaparamita Sutras A category of Buddhist MAHAYANA texts. Literally, the term means ‘perfection of wisdom’. These form the earliest MAHAYANA texts, which explain that to attain the Buddhist goal, one must realize the PARAMITAS or perfections, and particularly the perfection of wisdom (prajna). True prajna shows that nothing exists and that the only reality is SHUNYATA (emptiness). All else is MAYA, or illusion. All things exist because of causal factors, through the law of dependent arising (PRATITYA-SAMUTPADA), but have no permanent Self or nature of their own (svabhava). The goal is not NIRVANA, but an understanding of shunyata, and of the real nature of things as dharmata or tathata (suchness), i.e., things as they are. Perfect wisdom thus frees one of all concepts and attachments.

These texts also describe ten stages through which enlightenment can be reached. Prajnaparamita ideas existed from the first century BCE, but the earliest text, the Ashtasahasrika-Prajnaparamita Sutra (The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Verses) was composed in the first century CE. The Panchavimshatisahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra (The Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Verses) was composed by the early third century. The Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra, an even larger text, was translated into Chinese in the seventh century by the Chinese pilgrim XUANZANG. Sections of it were compressed into separate books, such as the PRAJNAPARAMITA-HRIDAYA SUTRA. The philosopher NAGARJUNA systematized Prajnaparamita thought, which was further developed in the MADHYAMIKA school.

Prajnaparamita-Hridaya Sutra A MAHAYANA Buddhist text in Sanskrit, popularly known as the Heart Sutra. It is one of the many PRAJNAPARAMITA texts, and consists of a summary of the key Prajnaparamita concepts. This short text consists of a dialogue between Shariputra and the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, said to have taken place on the Gridhrakuta hill in RAJAGRIHA. AVALOKITESHVARA explains how to attain ‘perfection of wisdom’ by viewing even the five SKANDHAS or aggregates as empty of inherent existence. He states, ‘Form is emptiness, emptiness is form’. Further he says: ‘In emptiness (SHUNYATA) there are no sufferings, sources, cessations and paths; no exalted wisdom, no attainment, and also no non-attainment.’ Relying on this profound wisdom, minds are without obstruction and without fear. Commentaries explain that ‘form is emptiness’, i.e., all things are empty, is a notion based on the concept of ‘dependent arising’ (PRATITYA SAMUTPADA), which indicates that things have no inherent existence of their own. Avalokiteshvara’s discourse ends with a MANTRA of perfection of wisdom: ‘Tadyate gate gate paragate parasamgate bodhi svaha’, which has been translated as ‘Proceed, proceed, proceed beyond, thoroughly proceed beyond, be founded in enlightenment’, (trans. by DALAI LAMA). This Sutra has been extensively analysed and commented upon, as it contains the essence of MADHYAMIKA philosophy. It is recited and meditated upon daily by monks who follow the Mahayana path.

Prakrit A term for a number of local dialects and languages that developed from Sanskrit. Among them were Sauraseni, Magadhi, Jain Maharashtri, Paishachi and Apabhramsa. The present regional languages of India originated from the various Prakrit languages.

Prakriti A term for nature or matter. Prakriti and PURUSHA, the twin principles of creation, are extensively described in SAMKHYA philosophy. Prakriti represents feminine energy, and is the active principle of creation, as opposed to Purusha, the passive principle. The PURANAS provide various explanations of the term. Pra, it is said, means ‘principal’, and kriti, ‘creation’, thus it is the principal cause of creation. Alternatively pra = sattva, kr = rajas, and ta = tamas, thus all the three GUNAS or qualities are reflected in the word. In another interpretation, pra = before, and kriti = creation, therefore Prakriti is that which existed before creation.

According to the DEVI BHAGAVATA PURANA, the supreme spirit consists of Purusha and Prakriti, which separated to bring about creation. Prakriti then took the form of the goddesses DURGA, LAKSHMI, SARASVATI, SAVITRI and RADHA. To RAMANUJA, Prakriti is one of the non-conscious substances of the world, the others being Kala or time, and Shuddhatattva or pure matter. To SHANKARA Prakriti belongs to the world of experience, and thus is essentially unreal. Other philosophies have subtly different interpretations of the term.

pralaya A Sanskrit term that refers to the dissolution or ending of objects. Most commonly, pralaya refers to the end of the world after a KALPA or a cycle of YUGAS, also known as Brahma-pralaya, but there are other types of pralaya as well. Nitya-pralaya is the destruction of living and non-living things that happens on a daily basis. Prakrita-pralaya is the great deluge or flood caused by nature (PRAKRITI) that ends creation. Atyantika-pralaya is the dissolution of the individual through union with the divine.

pramana A philosophical term that has been translated as the ‘means of attaining reliable knowledge’. Among the various types of pramanas, are pratyaksha or perception, anumana or inference, upamana or inference through analogy or comparison, and shabda or the word, indicating the words of an authoritative text. According to VEDANTA, other means of knowledge are arthapati, which can be translated as intuition or presumption, and anupalabdhi, or non-perception.

prana The life-force or breath. It denotes the vital force of every living being, or the spirit of life. In the ATHARVA VEDA there is a hymn to prana, who is personified. In yogic texts, the pranic body, known as the Pranamaya KOSHA, is said to surround the material or visible body. Ten forms of prana are described: prana, apana, vyana, samana, udana, naga, kurma, krikara, devadatta and dhananjaya. Of these, prana is the vital function through which air is drawn into the body; apana is the force controlling ejection or elimination; vyana is concerned with the distribution of the force; samana with assimilation; udana is related to the voice and sound. The other five are subsidiary pranas, that control belching, eyelid movement, hunger and thirst, yawning and hiccups.

Pranami Panth A syncretic sect that has both Hindu and Muslim practices. Its foundation was laid by Shri Devchandra in the seventeenth century, while his disciple Mahamati Prannath (1618–94) of Jamnagar, Gujarat, further explained its concepts and spread its teachings. The sect is based on the worship of the Hindu god KRISHNA, as revealed in the BHAGAVATA PURANA, but also contains ideas and concepts from Islam. Mahamati Prannath, whose original name was Mehraj Thakur, composed the Qulzam Swarup, the basic text of the sect, which runs into fourteen volumes and has 18,758 verses. It explains the unity of religions and the universality of religious teachings, conveyed through quotes from the VEDAS, other Hindu texts, and the QURAN. It believes in the worship of the Uttam Purush, the supreme lord identified with Krishna, to attain divine bliss. The text with its quotes uses five languages: Hindi, Gujarati, Kachhi, Sindhi and Arabic, as well as some Persian words. The sect promotes basic ethical principles, the avoidance of meat, fish and alcohol, and honour and respect for all religions. Prannath aimed to establish a universal religion, which he named Nijanand Dharma. He had both Hindu and Muslim disciples, and his most prominent disciple was Maharaja Chhatrasal of the Bundela dynasty at Panna in present Madhya Pradesh. Panna remains the main centre of the faith while Pranami temples also exist in DELHI, Chandigarh, Gujarat, other states of India, Nepal, and Western countries. All Pranami temples contain the Qulzam Swarup. The sect has a series of gurus who continue to promote its ideals.

pranayama A term often translated as ‘breath-control’, (prana = breath, yama = control), though according to the AMARAKOSHA, it means ‘breath-lengthening’ (prana = breath, ayama = length, or expansion). Pranayama are breathing techniques that form part of the practice of YOGA, particularly HATHA YOGA. Pranayama implies gaining control over the natural process of breathing. By understanding different types of PRANA and controlling the breath in prescribed ways, health is maintained, diseases are cured, energy and vitality are increased, and at higher levels, various SIDDHIS or powers are achieved. In Kundalini Yoga, prana awakens the KUNDALINI and causes it to rise. Breathing techniques are also prescribed in SUFI systems.

Prarthana Samaj A religious society that worked for social reform in Hinduism. It was founded in MUMBAI (Bombay) in 1867, by a group of people led by Atmaram Pandurang, with the inspiration of Keshab Chandra Sen of the BRAHMO SAMAJ. The members of the Prarthana Samaj, literally the ‘Society of Prayer’, worshipped the Maratha BHAKTI saints. Like these saints, they were against caste distinctions. They started educational institutions and worked to improve the position of women and to remove untouchability. The Deccan Education Society was among the notable institutions they founded.

prasada A Sanskrit word that literally means ‘grace’. It refers to consecrated food, offered to the deities in temples and then distributed among worshippers.

Prasangika A branch of the MADHYAMIKA school of MAHAYANA Buddhism. BUDDHAPALITA (c. 470–540) and later CHANDRAKIRTI (c. 600–650) put forward the views of this school, stating that a Madhyamika exponent should point out the errors in another’s argument, but not present positive views. BHAVAVIVEKA (490–570) opposed this and advocated a positive rather than a negative approach, thus founding the SVATANTRIKA school.

Prashna Upanishad An UPANISHAD that can be dated to before the third century BCE, and has a commentary by SHANKARA. It consists of questions (prashna) asked of the rishi PIPPALADA about the methods to reach the supreme BRAHMAN. In response to the first question, Pippalada describes two paths, that of those who undertake pious works but have a family life, and the greater path of those who follow the inner spirit with steadfastness and purity. Through the first path, the pale regions of the moon are reached, and through the second, the radiant regions of the sun. Pippalada then answers other questions, describing how the individual spirit merges into the Supreme Spirit, where name and form disappear.

pratimas A term in Jainism for the stages in the life of a householder. Eleven stages are described in texts. In the first stage, the individual should understand and believe in Jainism, and follow its basic principles. Gradually, the person follows the principles more strictly, and takes a number of vows. By the eleventh stage he abandons all property and worldly activity, and begs for his food, refusing anything specially prepared for him.

Pratishakhyas Sanskrit texts that describe how the verses in the VEDAS are to be pronounced. They were composed later than the Vedas. Those available today include the Rig Veda Pratishakhya, ascribed to Shaunaka; the Taittiriya Pratishakhya of the Black YAJUR VEDA; the Vajaseniya Pratishakya of the White Yajur Veda, said to be written by KATYAYANA; and the Shaunakiya Chaturadhyayika of the ATHARVA VEDA, attributed to Shaunaka.

pratitya-samutpada A doctrine of Buddhism, the principle of ‘dependent arising’. According to this, what we see as the Self is something conditioned, and everything conditioned arises from certain circumstances or causes. Understanding the cause from which something arises, in other words, the origin of all things, brings freedom from sorrow.

Pratyabhijna A philosophical concept in SHAIVISM, implying a recognition of the world as a manifestation of SHIVA. ABHINAVAGUPTA, Somananda and Utpaladeva were among those who propagated this philosophy.

Prayaga A sacred city for Hindus, the ancient name of the city of ALLAHABAD in Uttar Pradesh. Prayaga marks the confluence of the GANGA and its main tributary, the YAMUNA. According to legend, a third river, the SARASVATI, which cannot be seen, joins the two rivers here. Thus Prayaga is also known as Triveni, the meeting place of three rivers. The site of the confluence, known as the sangam, is especially sacred. The city has several temples. Metaphysically, the three rivers represent the KUNDALINI and the two main NADIS, IDA and PINGALA, which lead to enlightenment when united with the SUSHUMNA.

According to ancient texts, ending one’s life at Prayaga by jumping into the river was a sacred act, bringing merit in the next world or life. The Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva, along with a hundred wives, as well as many others, are said to have done this. Alternatively it was also meritorious to enter a fire of cow dung cakes here.

These religious sacrifices are described by the seventh-century Chinese traveller XUANZANG, as well as in the PURANAS, and in several inscriptions.

prema A word that means love. In some Hindu BHAKTI sects, prema refers to the pure love felt by an individual for the divine.

Presbyterian Church A Protestant Church that arose out of the Reformed Church of the 1500s. Presbyterian Churches are administered by ministers and presbyters or elders, and have Synods or associations in which both priests and lay people participate.

The Presbyterian Church of India developed out of the Presbyterian Church of Wales. The Rev. Thomas Jones and his wife, of the Welsh Calvinist Methodist or Presbyterian Church of Wales, came to India as missionaries in 1914 and settled in the Khasi–Jaintia area of present Meghalaya. Their missionary work soon spread to the Cachar hills of Assam, Mizoram and Manipur, and in 1926 the Synod of the Presbyterian Church in Assam was formed. In 1935 the Synod was renamed the Assembly, and in 1992 it came to be known as the Presbyterian Church of India. The Presbyterian Assembly, under which there are six Synods, is the supreme body, with authority over all the churches under it. The Church is prominent in the north-east, in the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh, but it also has churches in other parts of the country. According to 1998 statistics, it has 8,23,456 members and 2568 local churches.

preta (1) In Hindu mythology, a term for a ghost or evil spirit, which is said to be able to enter dead bodies and animate them. Graveyards are among its favourite haunts.

(2) It is also said to be the temporary state of a dead person, for whom ancestral rites have not yet been performed.

Prithvi A Hindu deity, the goddess of the earth. She is first described in the RIG VEDA, and later in the ATHARVA VEDA. She is paired with DYAUS (heaven), and Dyaus-Prithvi is thus the deity of heaven and earth. She is the kindly earth mother who bears the weight of the mountains, supports the trees of the forest, and scatters the rain. In later texts, Prithvi is an alternative name for BHUDEVI.

Propaganda, Congregation of A Roman Catholic missionary organization founded in 1662 by Pope Gregory XV to spread Christianity abroad. The Portuguese, through the PADROADO, had the authority to convert people in their overseas territories, but were themselves in decline, and the Propaganda was created when Portugal was under the Spanish crown. More Catholic missionaries gradually arrived in India, and initially the two missionary organizations cooperated, but later tensions arose. The Pope began to appoint ‘Vicars Apostolic’, church officials similar to, but with not quite the same power as Bishops, even in areas that were under the Padroado. Conflicts took place between the two groups, particularly in MUMBAI (Bombay), but also in other areas. In 1886, Pope Leo XIII constituted the Catholic Hierarchy of India, with seventeen ecclesiastical units under the Propaganda, and two under the Padroado, thus to some extent resolving the conflicts.

Protestantism A form of Christianity with hundreds of different denominations or sects, that developed after the REFORMATION, which took place in the sixteenth century. The term is derived from the Latin word ‘protestans’, or ‘one who protests’, and was first used in Germany in 1529, when in a Diet (assembly) German leaders protested against the Roman Catholic attempts to stop the spread of Lutheranism. Gradually the word came to be used for all Western Christian groups who separated from the Roman Catholic Church. While Protestants have some common beliefs with Roman Catholics, certain beliefs differ. Like Catholics they believe in One God, and most accept the concept of the TRINITY. However, they oppose the Roman Catholic doctrine of salvation, which gives importance to both God’s grace and good works, and stress the importance of faith instead of good deeds. They emphasize the BIBLE rather than the traditions of the Church that developed over time, do not adhere to all the SACRAMENTS, have less elaborate forms of worship, and less dependence on priests, with a greater involvement of lay people. While some Protestant denominations are very liberal, others can be puritanical.

Broadly, Protestant denominations have been divided into five main groups: (1) the conservative reform movements that broke away in the 1500s, including the LUTHERAN, the Reformed or PRESBYTERIAN, and the ANGLICAN; (2) the radical reform movements of the 1500s and 1600s, including Anabaptists, Quakers, Separatists and Shakers; (3) the Free Church movement of the 1500s and 1600s, which developed into the CONGREGATIONAL and BAPTIST Churches; (4) the METHODIST movement of the 1700s, which was related to evangelical movements, and the Holiness Movement, from which PENTECOSTAL Churches developed; (5) the unity movement of the 1800s and 1900s, which is still continuing, where groups of churches made attempts to resolve differences and join together in various types of unions.

Protestants in India Protestantism is widespread in India. The first Protestant church in India, ST. MARY’S CHURCH in Chennai, was built in 1680, though Protestant missions were established only in the eighteenth century. In 1706 Frederick IV, king of Denmark, sent two Lutherans from Halle in Germany, Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plutschau to set up a Protestant mission in Tranquebar in present Tamil Nadu. They were supported by British associations, including the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge and the Society for the Propagation of Gospel. The British East India Company, which had begun taking over territory in India, had initially banned missionaries. William CAREY, an Englishman who came to India in 1793, started the Baptist Mission in 1799 at Serampore, which was under the Danes. He was assisted by Joshua Marshman and William Ward. Another missionary movement was started by Alexander DUFF in Kolkata (Calcutta) soon after the removal of the Missionary Clause of the East India Company in 1814. Missions of a wide variety of Protestant denominations followed, mainly from Europe and America, and today almost all Protestant denominations are represented in India. Protestants exist all over India, but are more prevalent in the north and east.

Among the Protestant Churches in India are the two groups of the CHURCH OF NORTH INDIA and the CHURCH OF SOUTH INDIA, the BAPTIST CHURCH, the EVANGELICAL CHURCHES, the LUTHERAN CHURCH, the METHODIST CHURCH, the MENNONITE CHURCH, the NEW APOSTOLIC CHURCH, the PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, the SEVENTH DAY ADVENTIST CHURCH and the PENTECOSTAL CHURCHES.

pudgala (1) A concept in some schools of HINAYANA Buddhism. According to this, in each individual there is a permanent entity called pudgala, which transmigrates from life to life. The VATSIPUTRIYA and their subdivisions followed this concept, which was strongly opposed by other schools that did not believe in any permanent entity.

(2) In Jainism, one of the six DRAVYAS or substances of the world. Pudgala is matter, the physical substance of the world. It includes everything that can be experienced through the senses and the mind. According to the DASAVELIYA SUTTA, ‘sound, union, fineness, grossness, shape, division, darkness, and image, with lustre and heat, are modifications of the substance known as pudgala.’ Undifferentiated pudgala consists of atoms or paramanus, and these combine in various ways to form skandhas, which are aggregates or compounds. The whole world is a maha-skandha. Atoms are infinite and eternal. They are formless, but can be perceived by the enlightened. AKASHA or space, DHARMA or movement, and ADHARMA or the principle of rest, enable them to combine.

(3) Pudgala also has other meanings, and is a name of SHIVA.

Puggalapanati A Buddhist HINAYANA text that forms part of the ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA of the PALI CANON. Literally a ‘description of human individuals’, it has some passages similar to the texts of the SUTTA PITAKA. Most of it describes in detail the nature of different types of people, such as an angry person, a crafty person or a good person. For instance, ‘What sort of person is angry? What then is anger? That which is anger, being angry, and the state of being angry, hatred, hating, hatefulness, malice, the act of being malicious, maliciousness, hostility, enmity, rudeness, abruptness, resentment of heart—this is called anger. He who has not got rid of this anger is said to be an angry person.’ (Trans. B.C. Law)

puja The act of worship in Hinduism, which may take place in a temple or at home. Prayers, along with offerings such as fruit, flowers or incense, are made to the image of a deity, or to a symbol of the divine. Puja may be done either according to prescribed rituals, or in a spontaneous way.

Pulastya A mind-born son of the Hindu god BRAHMA, one of the PRAJAPATIS or great RISHIS. Some of the PURANAS were revealed to him by Brahma. He was the father of Vishravas, who in turn was the father of KUBERA and RAVANA.

Puranas Sanskrit texts sacred to Hindus that include myths, legends, methods of worship, geographical and historical details and a lot more. They probably originated before the first century CE, but in the form available today they date from the second to fourth centuries and later. According to tradition, they have five main topics: sarga or creation; pratisarga, or re-creation, after the periodic destruction of the worlds; (alternatively, ‘secondary cretaion’) vamsha or genealogy, here referring to the genealogies of gods and RISHIS; manvantarani, an account of the MANVANTARAS or great periods of time, each headed by a MANU, the ancestor of all humans; vamshanucharita, the history of dynasties, whose mythical origins are traced back to the sun or the moon (SURYAVAMSHA and CHANDRAVAMSHA dynasties, respectively).

The Puranas vary in nature. Some of them contain aspects of the five topics listed above, while others do not. Many are associated with a particular deity or sect.

Eighteen Puranas are listed as Mahapuranas or great Puranas, and they are the most important. These are: (1) BRAHMA PURANA; (2) PADMA PURANA; (3) VISHNU PURANA; (4) VAYU or SHIVA PURANA; (5) BHAGAVATA PURANA; (6) BRIHANNARADIYA or NARADIYA PURANA; (7) MARKANDEYA PURANA; (8) AGNI PURANA; (9) BHAVISHYA PURANA; (10) BRAHMAVAIVARTA PURANA; (11) LINGA PURANA; (12) VARAHA PURANA; (13) SKANDA PURANA; (14) VAMANA PURANA; (15) KURMA PURANA; (16) MATSYA PURANA; (17) GARUDA PURANA; (18) BRAHMANDA PURANA.

Apart from these, there are said to be eighteen Upapuranas or minor Puranas, as well as several other works called Puranas. Lists of Upapuranas vary, but most commonly consist of the following: (1) Sanatkumara Purana; (2) Narasimha Purana; (3) NARADIYA PURANA; (4) SHIVA PURANA; (5) Durvasas Purana; (6) Kapila Purana; (7) Manava Purana; (8) Ushanas Purana; (9) Varuna Purana; (10) KALIKA PURANA; (11) Samba Purana; (12) SAURA PURANA; (13) Aditya Purana; (14) Maheshvara Purana; (15) Devi Bhagavata Purana; (16) Vasishtha Purana; (17) VISHNUDHARMOTTARA PURANA; (18) NILAMATA PURANA. Out of these the Shiva Purana and Devi-Bhagavata Purana, are often considered Mahapuranas or major Puranas. Some other Puranas listed as Upapuranas are the Kalki Purana, Chandi Purana, Ganesha Purana, and Brihaddharma Purana. Various later accounts and temple records also use the name Purana, but are different from the traditional Puranas.

Puranas, Jain A number of texts composed by Jains are known as Puranas. Among these Puranas are the Padma Purana (a version of the RAMAYANA), the Jain HARIVAMSHA PURANA, and the TRISHASHTI-LAKSHANA MAHAPURANA.

Purandaradasa A sixteenth-century singer who composed devotional songs in Kannada, to the Hindu god VITTHALA, a form of VISHNU.

Born in 1484 in Purandargarh near the city of Vijayanagara in present Karnataka, Purandara was married to a saintly woman, Sarasvati Bai, when he was sixteen years old. Initially Purandara lived a life of luxury, but influenced by the piety of his wife, he became a disciple of Vyasaraya, a guru of the HARIDASA sect, and a devotee of Vitthala. Purandara believed in the grace of god, a god who would understand all frailties and never condemn a devotee, no matter what his or her faults. In one song he compares himself to an insect who has fallen into the fire. It is only god who can save him. He asks god why he sent him to the earth, why he could not love and care for him in heaven. In a similar song he says, ‘Having assumed the title of protector of devotees, should you not be on hand for them?’

In later songs he seems more at peace, sure of the protection of the Lord, and sings, ‘When I am dwelling in thought of you, what can the wicked do to me?’

He asked people to do their best in the world, to provide food and charity to the poor, help others and give up attachments. He was against the caste system and believed true caste was based on character, not on birth. Sacrifice did not imply the slaughter of animals, but the slaying of one’s own bad qualities.

Purandaradasa is the best known of the Haridasas. His songs of BHAKTI and devotion, composed in classical RAGAS, are still sung today.

Puri A town in Orissa, with more than a hundred early temples, including the celebrated JAGANNATHA TEMPLE. Puri is also the site of one of the four mathas founded by SHANKARA.

purohita A BRAHMANA priest. In ancient times the purohita was often the royal priest, an official who influenced the policies of the king.

Puru A king of the CHANDRAVAMSHA or lunar dynasty mentioned in the MAHABHARATA and other texts. He and YADU were among the sons of YAYATI, and were the founders of two main branches of the Chandravamsha: the Pauravas, who were descendants of Puru, and the Yadus or YADAVAS. Both the KAURAVAS and PANDAVAS were Pauravas.

Pururavas/Pururava A person mentioned in Hindu texts and known in myths and stories for his association with the APSARA Urvashi. According to the VEDAS, he was connected with the sun and dawn, while the MAHABHARATA states that he was the son of BUDHA (Mercury) by ILA, daughter of MANU. There are other versions of his parentage as well. The story of Pururavas and Urvashi is first described in the RIG VEDA and elaborated on in several later texts. The fifth-century playwright KALIDASA made it the subject of his play Vikramorvashi. The story recounts how Pururavas fell in love with Urvashi, who had descended from heaven. She agreed to stay with him but laid down certain conditions, one of which was that he never see her undressed, or she would have to depart. By a trick of the GANDHARVAS, Pururavas did see her, and Urvashi vanished. Finally, however, the Gandharvas granted his wish to live with her. The story is said to be based on a myth, with Pururavas representing the sun and Urvashi the morning mist, or Urvashi as the dawn and Pururavas as twilight. It has some parallels with the Greek myth of Psyche.

Purusha A Sanskrit term meaning ‘man’, soul, or Self. It represents the eternal male principle, the passive or fixed aspect of creation. Purusha is the eternal Truth that sets creation in motion. It is beyond form and shape, the subtle essence of creation.

Its counterpart is PRAKRITI, nature or matter, the active principle. Purusha and Prakriti are extensively described in SAMKHYA philosophy. In the RIG VEDA, Purusha represents primeval man, from whom creation emerged.

Purva Mimamsa Another name of MIMAMSA, one of the six ancient systems of philosophy.

Purvas/Puvvas A term for the original Jain texts containing the teachings of MAHAVIRA, which were lost long ago. Purva means ‘previous’ or ‘former’, and there were fourteen such texts. The twelve ANGAS, of which one is lost, sacred to the SHVETAMBARA sect, were compiled based on what was remembered of the Purvas. The DIGAMBARA sect, however, believe the Angas are not authentic.

According to the Shvetambara tradition, the Purvas were known up to the time of STHULABHADRA, the fourteenth Jain leader after Mahavira.

Pushan A deity in the RIG VEDA, who later declined in importance. Pushan is described as the lord of all things, and the guardian of all. He has braided hair and a beard, and carries a golden spear, along with an awl or a goad. His chariot is drawn by goats and he eats gruel. He was married to Surya (Suryaa), daughter of the sun god, SURYA. He is described as ‘glowing’ and is the guardian of roads, leading the dead to the distant abode of the fathers. He makes hidden things easy to find and protects cattle. He is one of the ADITYAS.

Pushkar A sacred place in Rajasthan that has several shrines, including a temple of the Hindu god BRAHMA, and a holy lake. Here Brahma is said to have performed a sacrifice after killing a demon. Pushkaranya, the forest of Pushkar, is described in the PURANAS and other ancient texts. According to the texts, the full benefits of visiting other places of pilgrimage is obtained only by bathing in the lake here. In modern times Pushkar is also known for its annual camel and cattle fair.

Pushpaka A vimana or aerial chariot described in the RAMAYANA. It was very large and could contain a whole palace or even a city. It was a gift from the Hindu god BRAHMA to KUBERA, but was appropriated by Kubera’s half-brother RAVANA. After RAMA killed Ravana, he used the chariot to carry SITA, LAKSHMANA and all his allies back to AYODHYA, and then returned it to Kubera. VALMIKI’s Ramayana has the following description of the Pushpaka: ‘The aerial car was furnished with pillars made of gold; its portals were of cat’s-eye gems; it was hung with nets of pearls and planted with fruit-bearing trees; it was swift as the mind, could go anywhere one wanted, and assume any form; its stairways were of gems and gold; it was a celestial vehicle and not subject to wear and tear.’ It had been constructed by the divine architect VISHVAKARMA.

Pushtimarga A Hindu sect based on the teachings of VALLABHACHARYA. The sect worships the god KRISHNA with love and devotion. It believes that since Krishna created the world, worldly pleasures should be enjoyed and not avoided.

Puttaparthi A place in Andhra Pradesh where the ashram of Sri Sathya SAI BABA is located. Prasanthi Nilayam, the abode of peace at Puttaparthi, has developed as a vast complex consisting of prayer halls, temples, and secular institutions. Here all religions are respected, reflecting the philosophy of Sai Baba.