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Qadiri A SUFI order founded by Abdul Qadir al-Jilani (d. 1166), who was also known as Ghaus-ul Azam. The Qadiriyas revered their founder as an embodiment of the divine, as he was a direct descendant of the Prophet MUHAMMAD, through the Prophet’s daughter Fatima. The order follows the WAHDAT AL-WUJUD doctrine, as IBN AL-ARABI, its greatest exponent, had once joined them.

The Qadiri order was introduced in India by Mir Nurullah bin Shah, a grandson of Shah Nuruddin Nimatullah, a noted Sufi who had settled in Iran. Nurullah came to the Deccan soon after 1424 at the request of Sultan Ahmad Shah I of the Bahmani kingdom, who even built a town called Nimatabad near Bidar in his honour, and gave him his daughter in marriage. The Qadiriyas were thus very influential in the Deccan. In the north, a Qadiri KHANQAH was established at Uch near Multan in the second half of the fifteenth century, by Shaikh Muhammad al-Husaini al-Jilani. Among other noted Qadiriyas in northern India were Shaikh Dawud (d. 1574–75), who was known for his miraculous powers and spread Qadiri influence in the north, Shaikh Abul Maali (1553–1615), who was a renowned poet, and Shaikh Mahdo (d. 1646–47), who was a BRAHMANA converted to Islam. Shaikh ABDUL HAQQ MUHADDIS and his disciples formed a line of Qadiriyas who tried to find a middle path between the SHARIA and Sufi ideals. Miyan Mir (1535–1635) and his disciples were mystics and ascetics. Among them Mulla Shah (1564–1628/29) was the PIR of DARA SHIKOH and JAHANARA, the son and daughter of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. Qadiriyas also spread to Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal and Avadh, and remained important until the eighteenth century.

A prominent Sufi of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was Saiyid Shah Abdul Razzaq Bansawi, who lived at Bansa near Lucknow and was said to be a friend of Hindus as well as Muslims, both SHIAS and SUNNIS. Though he remained a devout Muslim, he had visions of KRISHNA, RAMA and LAKSHMANA, and believed that the same truth could be perceived in different ways, and that others’ beliefs must be respected. Thus there were several different trends in the order.

Qala-i-Kuhna Mosque A mosque located in DELHI, constructed in 1541 by the Afghan emperor Sher Shah. Its prayer hall measures 51 m by 15 m and has five arched entrances. The tall central arch is recessed within another archway, set in a rectangular frame, and decorated with an inlay of coloured stones.

There are octagonal double-storeyed turrets at the rear, with arches and galleries at each level. The mosque represents a transitional style between Lodi and Mughal monuments.

Qalandars A term for wandering SUFI saints who rejected the organization and discipline of most Sufi orders, as well as Islamic laws. Their origin is unclear, but they are known from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when they existed in Syria, eastern Iran and Transoxiana.

An eleventh-century Sufi, Baba Tahir, wrote a verse describing them. Written in the first person, it says:

I am the mystic gypsy called Qalandar;

I have neither fire, home nor monastery.

By day I wander about the world;

At night, I sleep with a brick under my head.

The Qalandars belonged to different groups. Some shaved their heads and discarded their clothes, while others wore blankets. They were known for the use of intoxicants and for their wild behaviour, and in India they borrowed some of the customs of the NATHA YOGIS and NAGA SADHUS. Early Qalandars were against the KHANQAH form of life of other orders, and against the veneration given to a SHAIKH or PIR. In their wanderings they often visited khanqahs, creating problems for the residents. Qalandars were both feared and revered, as though they had rejected all norms, many were known to have miraculous powers. By the thirteenth century, some Qalandars began to live settled lives, though others continued to wander and despise established pirs. Among the Qalandar groups were the Haidaris, who originated in Iran. Shaikh Abu Bakr Tusi Haidari lived in DELHI on the banks of the Yamuna in the thirteenth century. He was visited by the Delhi sultan and various Sufis, and was said to have great powers.

Some Qalandars joined the CHISTI and SUHRAWARDI orders, and thus Qalandar-Chisti and Qalandar-Suhrawardi orders developed. Among the noted Qalandar-Chistis was ABU (BU) ALI SHAH of Panipat. Qalandars remained prominent in India, at least till the sixteenth century.

qazi A term in Islam for an Islamic judge or author of law books. Qazis were judicial officials in the time of the sultans and Mughals, and in other Islamic states in India. Qazis still have a role today.

qibla A term for the direction of the KABA at Mecca. Wherever they are, Muslims turn towards this direction while praying. In India, the direction is west.

Quran The sacred text of Islam, composed in Arabic. It is believed to be a divine revelation that supersedes previous revelations in the Hebrew and Christian BIBLES. The words of God in the Quran were revealed to the Prophet MUHAMMAD over a period of twenty-three years while Muhammad was in Mecca and Medina. In the first revelation, the Angel Jibril (Gabriel) came to Muhammad in 610 in the month of RAMZAN, and subsequent revelations followed. According to some sources, however, the first revelations were through dreams.

Muhammad himself is said to have arranged the text into suras or chapters, and chosen their titles. The whole was memorized by his companions while he was still alive, and thus has the authenticity of teachings as revealed to him. According to a HADIS, Abu Bakr, the Caliph from 632–34, arranged and wrote down the Quran, though a final version is said to have been compiled at the time of the third Caliph, Usman (ruled 644–56). The Quran has 114 suras and 6236 verses, according to the Kufah method of numbering, generally followed in India, though there are also different methods of counting the verses, leading to different results. The term Quran comes from the Arabic qara, similar to the Hebrew kara, meaning to read or recite. One commentator has listed fifty-five alternate titles of the Quran, among them being Al-Kitab (The Book); Al-Quran (The Reading); Al-Mubin (The Enlightener); Al-Mubarak (The Blessed) and Al-Hikmah (The Wisdom). The first chapter of the Quran has the FATIHA, a prayer recited at every new beginning. The Fatiha begins with an invocation to God, and asks for guidance on the right path, which is blessed by God.

The Quran provides a guide to an ethical life, where God is remembered, and deals with a number of different aspects of life, both religious and social. It states that there is one God, ALLAH, who formulated the laws of the universe, and Muhammad is his Prophet. As God is One, no idols should be worshipped, nor should people or other created beings be deified. There are angels who are helpers or messengers of God, as well as a judgement day, heaven and hell. There are passages dealing with the basic duties of a Muslim—prayer, fasting, charity and pilgrimage—as well as the main principles a Muslim should follow. It also deals with civil and criminal laws relating to marriage, inheritance, adultery, theft and murder.

A number of its traditions can be traced to Talmudic Judaism, prevalent in Arabia at the time of Muhammad; stories of the Biblical Prophets Abraham, Moses and others are also narrated in the Quran. It has references to JESUS, MARY and Christian beliefs, though the concepts associated with them are reinterpreted. Some trace these interpretations to Gnostic sources, or to Eastern or Syrian Christianity.

The Quran, along with the SUNNAH, forms the basis for Islam. There are numerous commentaries and different interpretations of the text, and though it is normally studied in its original Arabic, it has been translated into a number of languages.

A Hadis of al-Bukhari states: ‘The best person amongst you is he who has learnt the Quran and teaches it.’

Qutb Minar A tall tower located in DELHI, built in the thirteenth century and later. It probably served as a MINARET for the QUWWATUL ISLAM MOSQUE constructed nearby, but it may have also been a tower of victory. The tapering tower, begun by Sultan Qutbuddin Aibak (ruled 1206–10) was completed by Sultan Iltutmish (1211–36). It reaches a height of 73.7 m with a diameter of approximately 14 m at the base and somewhat less than 3 m at the top, and has five storeys. It was struck by lightning twice, and was repaired by Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq in 1368 and later by Sultan Sikandar Lodi in 1503. Further repairs were carried out by the British in the nineteenth century. A winding staircase with 379 steps leads to the top. The Minar is built in Saracenic style; the first three stories are made of red sandstone and are fluted, the next two are made of marble with belts of sandstone and are plain. There are four projecting balconies, the fourth at a height of 66 m. The whole is beautifully carved and embellished, and is considered one of the grandest towers in the world.

Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Khwaja A SUFI saint of the CHISTI order, the chief disciple of Shaikh MUINUDDIN CHISTI. Born in Ush in the province of Jaxartes, he met Muinuddin Chisti when he was in Baghdad and became his disciple. Later he came through Multan to DELHI, arriving there soon after 1221, and was welcomed by Sultan Iltutmish (ruled 1211–36). When Muinuddin visited DELHI, Qutbuddin went with him to Ajmer, but returned to Delhi because of the people’s affection for him. Iltutmish was said to be devoted to him and often came to him for advice. According to tradition, the spot for the HAUZ-I SHAMSI water tank was chosen after consulting him. The ULAMA, however, were opposed to him, and did not appreciate the Chisti practice of SAMA (music).

Qutbuddin lived in simplicity and poverty, and advised his disciples to assist the needy. He is said to have never had enough money for his own family’s needs, but one day after sitting in deep meditation, bread began to miraculously appear in his house, and thus he was known as Kaki, or ‘man of bread.’ He died in 1235 in a state of ecstasy aroused by Sama. Among his chief disciples was Shaikh Fariduddin, popularly known as Baba FARID, whose successor was NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA.

Qutbuddin’s DARGAH is located in the Mehrauli area of Delhi, and is a place of pilgrimage. In the festival of SAIR-E-GUL FAROSHAN or Phul Walon ki Sair, a procession starts from his tomb and proceeds to the YOGA MAYA TEMPLE.

Quwwatul Islam Mosque A mosque located in DELHI, which is the earliest mosque of the Delhi sultans. It was constructed by Qutbuddin Aibak before he became the sultan, between 1191 and 1196, on the orders of Muhammad Ghori. Later it was extended by Iltutmish, who ruled from DELHI between 1211 and 1236, with further additions made by Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316). The mosque, built in orthodox plan, has a large court, 43 m by 33 m, enclosed by pillars. Some materials from earlier Hindu structures were used in the mosque, including carved pillars. To the west is the prayer hall. In front is an arched screen, carved with passages from religious texts and floral patterns. Nearby is the QUTB MINAR.