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Rachol Seminary A Catholic seminary located in Rachol fortress in village Raia, GOA. It was initially established at Margao in 1574, with funds provided by the king of Portugal, Dom Sebastiao, but was destroyed by the rulers of Bijapur. It was shifted to Rachol, back to Margao, and finally relocated at the current site where it was constructed in 1606. It functioned as a college under the Jesuits, who conducted classes in theology, Portuguese, and other subjects. In 1762, after the Jesuits were expelled from Portuguese territory, it was turned into a Diocesan seminary for the education of the clergy.

The seminary building has solid granite pillars and houses a treasury of Renaissance art including a large picture of Sebastiao, who was killed in a battle in 1578. According to local legend, the ghost of Dom Sebastio, mounted on a white horse, rides through the seminary at night, and hence a lighted lamp is always placed in the gateway.

A church dedicated to St. Ignatius of Loyola, and a chapel are attached to the seminary.

Radha A Hindu deity who symbolizes love and longing for God. She is the divine lover and consort of the god KRISHNA, though she is not married to him. In early texts describing the life of Krishna, Radha is not specifically mentioned, though Krishna’s affairs with the GOPIS are described. Radha is referred to in texts of the ninth and tenth centuries, and the love between Radha and Krishna is fully described in the twelfth-century GITA GOVINDA and narrated in several later texts. As a young man, Krishna lived in the Vraja region, the area around MATHURA. There he danced and played with the gopis, as the wives and daughters of the cowherds of the region were called. Radha was his favourite among them, and they often met in the forests and glades of VRINDAVAN, amidst spring flowers and natural beauty. Radha was already married, thus her desire for Krishna and their long separations, form a unique part of this relationship. Radha’s longing is said to reflect the yearning of the individual soul for union with god. Radha is worshipped along with Krishna by several VAISHNAVA sects, among them being the followers of VALLABHACHARYA, CHANDIDAS and CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU. In the fifteenth century VIDYAPATI composed beautiful poems on Radha and Krishna. Their love has been depicted in art, music and literature. However, some temples and worshippers of Krishna, particularly in south India, prefer to worship Krishna along with his legitimate wives, particularly RUKMINI.

Radhasoami/Radhaswami sect A religious sect founded by Swami Shiv Dayal Singh in 1861, which today has many offshoots and branches. Originally its headquarters were in a locality near AGRA in present Uttar Pradesh, which came to be known as Swami Bagh. The sect focuses on Surat Shabd Yoga, union with the divine through inner sound, and prescribes meditative practices to lead the individual to higher stages of consciousness and finally to Anami Lok, the nameless world or state. In this sect, the supreme being is known as Radha-soami, and chanting this name brings one close to the divine. Three requirements of the Radhasoami way are: (1) the necessity for a living guide, the Satguru or true guru; (2) the Satshabda or true word, the inner sound revealed to the disciple by the guru; (3) the Satsang or right association or religious order. Related to these is Satanuraga, or true love and obedience to the guru. Followers are to practise Surat Shabd Yoga meditation for two to three hours every day, obey the living guru, and lead a moral life. This includes not consuming meat, fish, eggs, alcohol or drugs, and not having sex outside marriage. All people, regardless of caste or religion, are welcome to join.

Swami Shiv Dayal was recognized as the first Satguru. After his death in 1878, there was confusion about who should succeed him, and soon six different groups were formed. Among these were two in Agra and one at Beas in the Punjab. Today there are about thirty offshoots of the sect, though the two main centres are at Beas and Agra. Among the many notable leaders over the years was Kirpal Singh, who had a large following abroad and started Manav Kendra, with somewhat different principles.

The sect and its branches have thousands of followers of all communities in India and other parts of the world.

raga A musical form that has five, six or seven notes. Each raga has certain fixed notes and some variable themes. Ragas are said to exist naturally, and are not created, but only discovered. Thus they represent the hidden sounds of creation and are linked with mysticism and religion. Both Hindustani and Karnatak (Carnatic) music have a number of ragas. Ragas have also been personified and are represented in art along with their consorts, known as Raginis.

Raghava A name of the Hindu god RAMA, who was a descendant of RAGHU and is therefore known as Raghava.

Raghu A famous king of the Ikshvaku dynasty. He was the grandfather of DASHARATHA and great-grandfather of the Hindu god RAMA. Rama thus belonged to the family of Raghu, or the Raghuvamsha.

Ragniya Temple A temple dedicated to the Hindu goddess Ragniya, located 22 km from Srinagar in Kashmir. The shrine of this local goddess is surrounded by natural springs. The Khir Bhavani festival is held here in the month of Jyaishtha (May–June), when milk, khir (rice cooked with milk and sugar) and flowers are offered to the deity.

Rahim A noted BHAKTI poet. Abdul Rahim Khan-i Khanan, popularly known as Rahim, was a noble at the court of the Mughal emperor AKBAR in the sixteenth century. He took part in several military campaigns, but was also a scholar and poet who knew Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Sanskrit and Hindi.

A number of poems in Hindi, including short couplets or dohas are attributed to him, though scholars doubt whether these were all his. There are legends about Rahim’s devotion to Srinathji, a form of the Hindu god KRISHNA, and his poems include those on love, on Bhakti or devotion to Krishna, along with wise moral sayings. TULASIDASA is said to have been inspired by Rahim’s form of composition when he wrote the RAMACHARITAMANASA.

rahit A code of discipline observed by KHALSA Sikhs. Sources for the rahit include both scriptures and tradition.

Rahit-namas A term for written sources of the RAHIT, or the code of discipline for Sikhs who follow the KHALSA. Kahn Singh of Nabha (1861–1938), a Sikh scholar, listed twenty-eight Rahit-namas, including the GURU GRANTH SAHIB and the JANAM SAKHIS. There are also texts specifically dealing with rahit as laid down by Guru GOBIND SINGH when he founded the Khalsa. Among these are Rahit-namas attributed to his associates NAND LAL, Daya Singh (one of the PANJ PYARES) and others. These texts, however, cannot be dated precisely nor can their authorship be confirmed. In 1915, the SINGH SABHA put together a Rahit-nama based on earlier texts, named Gurmat Prakash Bhag Sanskar, but it did not gain widespread acceptance. The SHIROMANI GURDWARA PRABANDHAK COMMITTEE published a new Rahit-nama in 1950, entitled the Sikh Rahit Maryada, laying down the code of discipline for Sikhs. A Sikh who follows the Khalsa is one who believes in the ten gurus and the GURU GRANTH SAHIB, while different Sikh sects have their own rules. The Namdharis, for instance, have their own Namdhari Rahit-nama.

Rahu One of the NAVAGRAHA, or nine planets in Hindu mythology. Rahu does not correspond to a real planet, but is called a shadow planet. In astrology, Rahu represents the ascending node. Rahu is also said to be the king of meteors, the cause of eclipses, and even the word used for an eclipse. He is a DAITYA or a DANAVA the son of Viprachitti and Simhika. According to myths in texts, at the time of the churning of the ocean for AMRITA, Rahu came in disguise and stole some of the divine drink. The sun and moon saw him and told the god VISHNU, who cut off his head and two of his arms, but as he had drunk amrita, he was immortal. His body was placed in the spheres, the upper part with a dragon’s head and the lower (KETU) with a dragon’s tail. Rahu takes revenge on the sun and moon by swallowing them now and then, causing an eclipse. His chariot moves across the sky, drawn by eight black horses. Rahu is depicted in Navagraha panels in temples. In astrological charts or horoscopes, Rahu is usually not considered an auspicious planet.

Rahula The son of Siddhartha Gautama, the BUDDHA. Rahula was born shortly before Siddhartha left his home in search of truth. His name literally means ‘rope’ or ‘fetter’, one more tie binding Siddhartha to the world. Despite this, Siddhartha left and achieved enlightenment after six years. Later, persuaded by Shariputra, a close disciple of the Buddha, Rahula joined the SANGHA at a young age, without the knowledge of his mother YASHODHARA. Upset by this she requested that no child should be allowed to become a monk without the permission of his parents. The Buddha agreed that this would be followed in future.

Raidas A Hindu saint, who was also known as RAVIDASA.

Raikot Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in Ludhiana, Punjab, associated with the life of Guru GOBIND SINGH. It marks the spot where the guru stayed with his Pathan disciple Rai Kalla, and where he heard the sad news of the death of his sons, Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh. In response to the news, the guru said that his sons had been a gift of God and had now returned to God.

Rajagriha The ancient name of the town of Rajgir in Bihar. It is associated with Buddhism and Jainism, and has several sacred sites within the town, and nearby in the Rajgir hills. In the sixth century BCE, it was the capital of the kingdom of MAGADHA, and the first BUDDHIST COUNCIL is said to have been held here. The BUDDHA spent many years here, living in a shelter on Gridhrakuta peak. When King AJATASHATRU ruled Magadha there were at least two Buddhist monasteries here. There are also Jain caves and temples in the hills. The Maniyar Matha, dating back to the time of the Gupta dynasty (fourth to sixth century), has a shrine of a Naga deity, MANI NAGA, while rock-cut shrines nearby dated to the third or fourth century are associated with Jainism and Buddhism.

rajarishi A term for a RISHI or sage who was originally a king or raja, or who was of the KSHATRIYA caste. Though sages of all kinds are described in the UPANISHADS, traditionally, Kshatriyas could not be rishis. Rishis in the olden days are supposed to have had great powers. Some exceptional Kshatriyas practised intensive austerities until their purity and ascetism enabled them to become rishis. VISHVAMITRA was one such rajarishi, described in ancient texts.

rajasuya One of the four main consecration rituals for kings in Vedic days. The Rajasuya sacrifice (YAJNA) is described in detail in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The rituals began with presents to the chief queen and court officials, followed by the abhisheka or sprinkling with consecrated water. This was a mixture of seventeen different types of water, including water from the river SARASVATI, from a pond, a well, a whirlpool, sea-water and dew. After invoking the gods and sprinkling the water, the king walked towards the different directions, indicating that his rule extended everywhere. Next he trod on a tiger-skin to gain the strength of a tiger. After this the hotr or priest recited the story of SHUNAHSHEPA, following which a mock battle or cattle raid was enacted. The king was then enthroned and played a game of dice, which he was made to win. These rituals blessed the king and were symbolic of his rule over the four quarters, and the strength and luck he required for his successful rule. Other consecration rituals or SACRIFICES included the vajapeya, punar abhisheka, and aindra abhisheka.

Rajgir The modern name of RAJAGRIHA, a town in Bihar associated with Buddhism.

Rajneesh A philosopher and religious guru, now known as OSHO.

Raka (1) A Hindu goddess first mentioned in the RIG VEDA. She is associated with fertility, and in the PURANAS she is one of the daughters of the rishi ANGIRAS by his wife Smriti. According to the VISHNU PURANA, she is the presiding deity on the day of the full moon.

(2) The name of a rakshasi, the wife of Vishrava and mother of Shurpanakha, the half-sister of RAVANA.

Rakabganj Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in DELHI. It was first constructed in 1783, to commemorate the martyrdom of the ninth guru, TEGH BAHADUR, who was executed by order of the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB in 1675. The execution took place on 11 November in Chandni Chowk, and a great dust storm is said to have arisen at this time. The resulting poor visibility enabled his son and one of his disciples, to remove the headless body and cremate it, by placing it in their own house in Raisina and setting fire to the whole building. The ashes were then collected in an urn and buried there. Sardar BHAGEL SINGH had a small shrine built over them when he invaded Delhi in 1783, dismantling a mosque in the area. After Bhagel Singh explained the sacred nature of the site, the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) himself granted the land to the Sikhs for the construction of the gurdwara, and the Sikh army withdrew from Delhi.

The Rakabganj Gurdwara, later reconstructed in white marble, remains an important Sikh shrine and a place of pilgrimage.

Raksha Bandhan A Hindu festival that celebrates the bonds between brothers and sisters. It occurs on the full-moon day of Shravana (July/August). On this day, girls and women tie a rakhi, a decorated strand of thread, on the wrists of their brothers. They worship the family deity and pray for the protection of their brothers. In return, the brothers give them gifts and promise to protect them in all situations. Rakhis can be tied even on those who are not related, who are then considered brothers. According to the legend associated with it, a rakhi was first tied by the consort of the god INDRA on his wrist, to give him protection and strength in his fight against the demons.

Raksha Bandhan means ‘bond of protection’. Another brother-sister festival is BHAI DUJ.

rakshasas A term generally used for demons, but which also refers to other beings. Broadly, three types of rakshasas are mentioned in texts:

(1) Semi-divine beings, similar to YAKSHAS, and on the whole, benevolent.

(2) Giants or enemies of the gods.

(3) Demonic beings.

This last class harasses people, particularly those who are pious, disturbs sacred rites, eats human beings, and enters the bodies of the dead, apparently giving them life. They can take on any shape and form, and have magical powers. In the Hindu tradition, RAVANA belonged to this category. One view is that rakshasas represented indigenous groups, different from the so-called Aryans, and their representation as demons reflects the conflict between the two groups.

According to the RAMAYANA, rakshasas were created by the god BRAHMA to protect the waters (raksha = protection). The VISHNU PURANA has a similar story, and also states that they were the descendants of KASHYAPA and Khasa, one of the daughters of DAKSHA, through their son Rakshas.

Ram Das, Guru The fourth Sikh guru. Ram Das was born at Lahore in 1534 to Hari Das and Anup Devi, and was known as Jetha, meaning the ‘first-born’. He always associated with religious people and ascetics; one day he went to meet Guru AMAR DAS at Goindwal and became his disciple. Jetha was chosen by Amar Das to explain the Sikh religion to the Mughal emperor AKBAR, who then waived the land revenue of the Punjab for one year. Jetha married Guru Amar Das’s younger daughter, known as Bibi Bhani, and they had three sons, Prithi Chand, Mahadev and ARJAN DEV. Amar Das chose him as his successor and renamed him Ram Das.

After becoming guru, Ram Das continued building Ramdaspur, the city now known as AMRITSAR, and constructed two sacred tanks there. He composed a number of hymns, among them being the LAVAN, verses still used in the Sikh marriage ceremony. He used MASANDS to collect funds and spread the Sikh faith.

Ram Rai, Guru The eldest son of the seventh Sikh guru, HAR RAI. Though by this time the line of succession had become hereditary, Ram Rai did not succeed his father as guru, as Har Rai was displeased by his interaction with the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB. Aurangzeb had asked Har Rai to come to his court, but the guru sent Ram Rai instead. Ram Rai is said to have agreed to delete a verse of the GURU GRANTH SAHIB that was unfavourable to Muslims, and to have performed a miracle of walking across a sheet spread over an open well, to prove the powers of his faith. Aurangzeb was impressed by him, but Har Rai was upset by his behaviour in the court and disowned him, appointing his infant son, HAR KRISHAN, as the guru.

Ram Rai was then given a grant of land by Aurangzeb in the area of Dehra Dun, in present Uttarakhand, and attracted many followers. However, while he was seated in meditation, in deep SAMADHI, he was cremated by some of his enemies who claimed he had died.

Ram Rai still has followers, and the Ram Rai Gurdwara in Dehra Dun is a popular place of pilgrimage.

Rama A Hindu deity, one of the ten main incarnations of the god VISHNU. The story of Rama is briefly told in the MAHABHARATA and at great length in the RAMAYANA of VALMIKI, followed by innumerable other versions of the Ramayana. According to Valmiki’s Ramayana, Rama was the eldest of the four sons of King DASHARATHA of AYODHYA, the other three being BHARATA, LAKSHMANA and SHATRUGHNA. Dasharatha had three wives: Kaushalya, the mother of Rama; Kaikeyi, the mother of Bharata; and Sumitra, mother of Lakshmana and Shatrughna. All four boys grew up together, but from the beginning Rama and Lakshmana were specially close. While they were still young, the rishi VISHVAMITRA asked Dasharatha to allow Rama to go with him to help him eliminate the RAKSHASAS, who were growing more powerful. Reluctantly, Dasharatha agreed and Rama and Lakshmana went to Vishvamitra’s ashram and helped him to kill the rakshasi Tataka. Vishvamitra later took all four brothers to Mithila, to the court of King JANAKA, where, by breaking the god SHIVA’s bow, Rama won the hand of Janaka’s daughter, SITA. Rama’s three brothers were married to Sita’s sister Urmila and her two cousins.

As preparations were made at Ayodhya for Rama’s coronation as successor to Dasharatha, Kaikeyi, inspired by her female servant Manthara, tried to win the throne for Bharata instead. She reminded Dasharatha that he had promised her a boon and asked him to redeem the promise. When Dasharatha agreed, she asked that he banish Rama to the forest for fourteen years. Despite his grief, Dasharatha was unable to go back on his word, and Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana and Sita, left for the Dandaka forest. Crossing the YAMUNA river, they reached Chitrakuta, where they lived for a while in the rishi VASISHTHA’s ashram. Meanwhile Dasharatha died in despair at the loss of Rama, and Bharata refused to ascend the throne, instead placing Rama’s sandals on it and acting as regent. For ten years Rama wandered through forests, staying at different ashrams, and then reached Panchavati on the banks of the river GODAVARI. This region was infested with RAKSHASAS. Shurpanakha, a rakshasi, was attracted to Rama, but when he rejected her, she threatened Sita, upon which Lakshmana cut off her ears and nose. Her brother Khara, along with Duhsana came to avenge her, but were killed themselves. Shurpanakha then appealed to her half-brother RAVANA, who came from LANKA in his aerial car and charmed by Sita, managed to abduct her and take her to Lanka. In despair and grief, Rama and Lakshmana went in search of her and were helped by Sugriva and his group of monkeys, and particularly by his minister, HANUMAN. After a prolonged struggle and fierce battles, Sita was rescued. Rama asked her to undergo an ordeal by fire to prove her purity, and Sita did so, emerging unscathed. Rama then ruled at Ayodhya, with Sita by his side. The seventh part of the Ramayana, the Uttara Kanda, believed to be a later addition, continues the story. When aspersions were cast on Sita, Rama banished her, and Lakshmana left her at Valmiki’s ashram. There she had twin sons, LAVA and KUSHA. They grew up and met Rama, who recognized them as his sons. He then asked Sita to publicly prove her purity once again, so that she could return to him, but Sita instead appealed to the earth goddess to take her back into the earth. The goddess MADHAVI appeared, and Sita, seated on a throne, descended into the earth. Rama was disconsolate, but was assured that they would be reunited in heaven.

In much of the text, Rama is represented as an ideal king rather than a deity, but in the first and seventh kandas, he is clearly depicted as an incarnation of Vishnu. Innumerable later texts describe the story of his life, with many variations. The most popular of these in north india is the sixteenth-century RAMACHARITAMANASA.

Rama temples: Rama temples exist all over India, but among the more prominent are: the Raghunatha Temple, Jammu, constructed in 1835 at a traditionally sacred site, where Rama is seen with his brothers, along with Sita and Hanuman; several Rama temples in Ayodhya, the traditional capital of Rama in Faizabad district in Uttar Pradesh, among which is the Kanak Bhavan, where the non-stop recitation of the Ramacharitamanasa takes place; Ram Raja Temple, Orchha, Madhya Pradesh, where Rama is worshipped in his form as a king; Raghunathji Temple, Devaprayag, Uttarakhand: here Rama is said to have done penance for killing Ravana, who was a BRAHMANA; several shrines in Nashik, which is believed to represent the ancient Panchavati; shrines at Rameshvaram in Tamil Nadu. Among historic Rama temples are those at Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu, constructed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries during the time of the Vijayanagara and Nayaka rulers, and the RAMACHANDRA TEMPLE at Vijayanagara.

Rama devotees: Among the innumerable devotees of Rama known in history, some of those who stand out are BHADRACHALAM RAMDAS, RAMADAS of the seventeenth century, and RAMANANDA.

Rama and history Historians question Rama’s existence as a historical king, and also the story of his journey to Lanka. According to tradition Rama ruled at Ayodhya in the distant past, millennia ago, but excavations at Ayodhya indicate that occupation does not go back beyond the seventh century BCE. Others believe there was another Ayodhya, which existed long ago in the region of Afghanistan, and that Rama ruled there. Afghanistan was once part of the Indo-Iranian homeland and in Zoroastrianism, Rama is the deity of the twenty-first day of the calendar, his name signifying ‘abounding peace’. This gives credence to the theory that Rama ruled in Afghanistan. All these theories are perhaps irrelevant, as each deity represents a real or essential truth, even if not a historical truth.

Rama today: The story of Rama is a part of the popular imagination, particularly in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Rama temples are found across the length and breadth of India; places mentioned in the Ramayana have their own traditional location and are pointed out even today. Of course, Rama is not the only popular deity. KRISHNA, SHIVA and DEVI temples are also found all over the country.

Rama, however, differs from these in being monogamous, righteous and ethical. Though today he is a deity who appeals to all castes, there was earlier opposition to him, particularly in south India. In one passage in the Ramayana, he cut off a shudra’s head for practising austerities. Rama has also been criticized for his treatment of Sita. However, all these aspects of the Ramayana cannot be judged through modern concepts of right and wrong. Times were different and for those days Rama was an exemplary king. ‘Rama Rajya’ is a commonly used term even today, signifying an ideal system of government.

Rama and other kings: Other cultures too have stories of semi-mythical exemplary kings. For instance, a perfect king in Western mythology was King Arthur, and there are some similarities in the development of the mythology around him and Rama, though Arthur legends originate later. Arthur, too, captured the popular imagination, and variations of stories on his life are numerous. Arthur, too, was forced to condemn his wife, though he did not wish to do so. Ayodhya and Camelot, Arthur’s city, are similarly described, as perfect cities, perfectly ruled.

Rama in other countries: The story of Rama is popular in a number of other countries, and is described in local Ramayanas.

Rama Gita A Sanskrit text, a section of the ADHYATMA RAMAYANA, which is used as a separate text in the worship of the Hindu god RAMA.

Rama Lila A term for the enactment of scenes from the life of the Hindu god RAMA. Literally it means ‘Rama’s sport or play’. While such enactments can take place at any time, they are an essential feature of the nine days before the DASAHRA festival in September/October. At this time episodes from Rama’s childhood, marriage, stay in the forest, rescue of SITA and other events of his life, are portrayed in cities, towns, villages and localities, particularly in north India. Some are grand productions with elaborate costumes, sets and effects, while others are simple affairs. All evoke BHAKTI, or devotion to Rama, HANUMAN, and Sita. On the tenth day of Dasahra, effigies of RAVANA are burnt, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil.

Rama Setu Another name for ADAM’S BRIDGE, the stretch of shoals connecting India and Sri Lanka, said to have been crossed by RAMA in order to rescue SITA from captivity.

Rama Tirtha, Swami A guru who spread VEDANTA in the West. He was born in 1873 in village Murariwala in Punjab. A brilliant student, he studied mathematics, and after completing his degree he became professor of mathematics at Forman Christian College. At this time he began to read the BHAGAVAD GITA. He was also inspired by the teachings of the SHANKARACHARYA of DVARAKA and of Swami VIVEKANANADA. In 1901 he took sannyasa, and then went to Japan and the USA to spread Vedantic teachings. Returning to India, he died in 1906 at the young age of thirty-three. His speeches and writings have been collected in seven volumes, entitled, In the Woods of God Realization.

Ramachandra Temple A temple of the Hindu god RAMA, also known as the Hazara Rama Temple, located at the medieval city of Vijayanagara in Karnataka. It was constructed in the fifteenth century as the royal temple of the Vijayanagara dynasty. The inner shrine is attached to the ante-chamber and MANDAPA. The brick tower rising above, as well as the mandapa walls, have scenes from the RAMAYANA. Among the episodes depicted are the battle between Rama and RAVANA, HANUMAN accepting a ring from Rama, and then taking it to SITA. The temple is enclosed in a rectangular compound. The inner walls have more Ramayana scenes, while the outer walls have friezes of elephants, horses, soldiers and dancing girls. Another small temple is located to the north-west, with two shrines and carved panels with scenes from the life of Rama and of KRISHNA.

Ramacharitamanasa A text in Hindi verse on the life of the Hindu god RAMA, composed between 1574 and 1577. The text was written by TULASIDASA and is a work of BHAKTI or devotion. Using VALMIKI’s RAMAYANA as the base, Tulasidasa recreates the epic, making Rama the representation of VISHNU on earth. He says, ‘For the sake of his worshippers, Rama, the Blessed Lord, assumed the form of a king, and played his most holy part as an ordinary man.’ The text begins with invocations to deities, gurus, saints and holy people, and to all living beings, since everything is permeated by Rama and SITA. It speaks of the glory of the name of Rama, tells the story of his life, and intersperses it with philosophical and devotional verses. Tulasidasa says, ‘The story of Rama is like the moonbeams, and the saints are the partridges that drink from them.’ The verses are still popular all over north India, and are sung and chanted not only in Rama temples, but by ordinary villagers.

Ramadasa A Maratha saint of the seventeenth century who was the guru of the Maratha ruler, Shivaji. Born in 1608 at Jamb on the river Godavari in a BRAHMANA family, he was named Narayan. At the time of his marriage, as the priest was chanting prayers, one word of the Sanskrit chants stood out and seemed to him like a divine command. It was ‘svadhan’ or ‘be constant’, and Narayan felt God was telling him to be constant and serve him. He became a devotee of the Hindu god RAMA and began wandering through the region as a SANNYASI, establishing MATHAS, erecting temples, and preaching love and devotion to Rama. His book, Dasbodh, teaches ethics, morality and love of all. He wrote a number of other books, as well as songs and poems. He was revered throughout the Maratha kingdom and still has a number of followers. He died in 1681.

Ramakrishna Mission A religious organization founded by Swami VIVEKANANDA to spread the teachings of Sri RAMAKRISHNA PARAMAHANSA. On 1 May 1897 Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission Association. In 1899 he started a MATHA, a religious centre and monastery at BELUR near Kolkata (Calcutta). The matha has spiritual leaders as well as monks and nuns. It is controlled by a number of trustees, initially set up by a Deed of Trust in 1901. In 1909 the Society of the Ramakrishna Mission was set up for charitable and educational works. The Mission runs hospitals, health centres, orphanages, schools and colleges, and members work to spread health and education among the poorer sections of society. They also provide relief at times of natural disasters and epidemics. The Society has branches all over India and abroad, and has set up temples where all castes and religions are welcome. The Ramakrishna Mission is based on the thoughts of Ramakrishna, who, though he was devoted to the Hindu goddess KALI all his life, recognized her as one form of the Supreme, encompassing all religions and forms. The Ramakrishna Matha and Mission are two separate but related organizations.

Ramakrishna Paramahansa A saint and religious leader of the nineteenth century. Born in 1836 in a BRAHMANA family at village Kamarpukar in present West Bengal, his original name was Gadadhar Chatterji, but he was later known as Ramakrishna. His father died when he was seven years old, and he was looked after by his mother and his brother, Ramkumar. From a young age Gadadhar went into spiritual trances, enacted stories from the life of KRISHNA, and associated with wandering mendicants. He soon abandoned all concepts of caste and saw everyone as the same.

After his brother became a priest of the DAKSHINESHVARA TEMPLE, he assisted him with his duties and took over as priest on his brother’s death, when he was twenty years old. He was devoted to the worship of KALI, the temple deity, seeing her as a living, breathing being, and not an image. He began to have visions of Kali, and said he could even feel her breath on his hands. His ecstatic and emotional behaviour affected his health, and in 1859 he was persuaded to return to his village for a while. Attempts were made to get him married, but Ramakrishna had a vision of his divine consort, then a child of five named Sarada Devi. At the age of fourteen, she began to stay with him, initially for short periods, and later, permanently. They lived as spiritual partners without a physical relationship.

Returning to Dakshineshvara, he met a brahmana Bhairavi (female tantric) in 1861–62, who taught him the intricacies of TANTRA. Later, through a VAISHNAVA monk, Jatadhari, he had visions of Rama Lala, the child form of RAMA. The secrets of ADVAITA Vedanta, meditation on the formless, were revealed to him by a Vedantist, Tota Puri. Thus he attained a state of supreme illumination and identity with BRAHMAN.

Seeking to understand other religions, he contemplated SUFISM and Islam, and in 1866 through a Muslim PIR, he had a vision and realization of the formless God of Islam. In 1874, after listening to the readings of the BIBLE, he understood Christianity, and had a vision of JESUS.

Ramakrishna attracted many disciples, the most important of whom was Narendranath Dutta, known as Swami VIVEKANANDA, who established the RAMAKRISHNA MISSION. Worn out by his ecstacies and his constant fervour in helping others, Ramakrishna died of throat cancer in 1886. His wife Sarada Devi, revered in her own right, passed away in 1920.

Ramakrishna had understood the truth behind all religions and said: ‘I have practised all religions—Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and I have also followed the paths of the different Hindu sects. I have found that it is the same God towards whom all are directing their steps, though along different paths.’ He did not advocate any particular rituals but believed in communicating the divine truth and serving and helping others.

Ramana Maharshi, Sri A spiritual guru of the twentieth century. Born in 1879 in a village near MADURAI in present Tamil Nadu, in a Shaivite BRAHMANA family, his original name was Venkataraman Ayyar. After losing his father when he was twelve, he and his family moved to Madurai. At the age of sixteen, when alone in his uncle’s house, he was transformed through an intense spiritual experience that occurred spontaneously. A few weeks after this he left his family and went to Tiruvannamalai, at the foot of the sacred hill, Arunachala or Arucachalam. Traditionally, Arunachala was associated with the Hindu god SHIVA, and Ramana felt that the hill represented god. Initially he lived in the ancient Shiva temple there, and then in various shrines and caves on the hillsides. A radiance emanated from him and he soon attracted followers, one of whom renamed him Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi. An ASHRAM was set up at Tiruvannamalai at the base of Arunachala, and his inner light and simplicity brought followers from all over the world.

He lived in a communal hall and was available to all visitors. According to David Godman, who was associated with him for several years, ‘When visitors came to see him—it made no difference whether they were VIPs, peasants or animals—they would all be treated with equal respect and consideration. His egalitarian concern even extended to the local trees; he discouraged his followers from plucking leaves or flowers off them and he tried to ensure that whenever fruit was taken from the ashram trees it was always done in such a way that the tree only suffered a minimum amount of pain.’

Usually he communicated in silence, with a powerful silent presence, but at times he answered the questions of those who insisted on answers. He spoke in Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam, and his replies to questions were noted down and also translated into English.

His words reveal the Advaitic nature of his thought, that ultimately only the Self is real, beyond birth and death. He had not studied ADVAITA but realized the truth by constantly enquiring into the nature of the individual, particularly using the question, ‘Who am I?’ At the request of his disciples, he also translated a number of Sanskrit texts, mainly into Tamil.

Ramana died in 1950. His ashram at Tiruvannamalai is still popular, and brings out a journal, Mountain Path. His answers to questions and translations of texts have been compiled into several volumes of his Collected Works.

Ramananda A fifteenth-century saint and devotee of the Hindu god RAMA. According to some accounts he was born in 1299, and according to others in 1390 probably at Allahabad in present Uttar Pradesh. He became a disciple of Raghavananda, in the lineage of RAMANUJA, the VAISHNAVA philosopher who founded the system of VISHISHTADVAITA, but later preferred to devote himself to the worship of Rama. After wandering through north India and visiting sacred places, he went to the south and settled there. Alternatively, he is believed to have settled in Kashi. He advocated BHAKTI or devotion to Rama as a representative of the One Supreme God. His sect was open to people of all castes and religions, as he believed god loved all people equally. Among his disciples were a woman, Padmavati, KABIR, a Muslim, and RAVIDAS, of a low caste. The Ramananda Sampradaya is still popular today. Followers worship Rama with love and devotion and wear on their bodies the sacred marks of the god VISHNU, of whom Rama is one of the main incarnations. The Rasikas, a branch of the Ramanandis, visualize the ancient city of AYODHYA, and Rama as he lived in those days, just as worshippers of KRISHNA visualize him and the scenes of his life.

Ramananda Tirtha, Swami A twentieth-century guru who was also a nationalist. Born in 1903 at Chirmalli in the then state of Hyderabad, but now in Karnataka, in a Maharashtrian family, his original name was Venkatesh Bhavan Rao Khedikar.

In 1921 he joined the Non-Cooperation Movement, part of the freedom struggle against British rule, and later became involved in trade union activities. In 1929 he was imprisoned after organizing a textile-workers’ strike.

In 1931 he joined the Swami RAMA TIRTHA sect and received the name of Swami Ramananda Tirtha. Even after this, however, he continued his political activities, working to spread Congress ideas and policies in Hyderabad. He remained involved in politics till 1962. His other activities included founding educational institutions and establishing Marathwada University at Aurangabad. He also worked for lower castes, presided over the Adamjati Sevak Sangh, and helped Vinoba Bhave in the Bhudan Movement. He thus combined social and political activities with his spiritual and religious beliefs. He died in 1973.

Ramanathaswamy Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA in his form as Ramanatha, located on the island of Rameshvaram at the southern tip of India. The temple, said to have first been constructed in the twelfth century, was reconstructed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. According to tradition, it was built by the god RAMA. After slaying RAVANA in LANKA, Rama came here to worship Shiva in order to expiate the sin of killing a BRAHMANA. SITA made one LINGA from sand, while HANUMAN brought another from KAILASHA. The first is enshrined in the main sanctuary, as the linga of Sri Ramanatha. The second, known as Vishvalinga, or the linga of Vishvanatha, is also worshipped in the temple. Apart from these two shrines there are others dedicated to Vishalakshi, consort of Vishvanatha, PARVATI, consort of Ramanatha, and VISHNU, known here as Setumadhava. There are also twenty-two sacred wells or tirthas here. The huge temple extends over 264 m from east to west, and 200 m from north to south. The main GOPURAM reaches a height of 54 m. Three corridors surround the shrine, and along the third there are over 1200 granite columns. Sculptures within the temple include a large NANDI, 6.7 m long and 5 m high, as well as portraits of the Nayaka rulers, under whom the major part of this temple was built. It remains a popular pilgrimage site.

Ramanavami A Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of the god RAMA, the king of AYODHYA. The festival takes place on the ninth day of the bright fortnight of the month of Chaitra (March–April). The nine preceding days are known as the NAVARATRAS, and fasts and rituals are practised on these days, particularly on the first and eighth days. On the ninth day, or Navami, processions depicting aspects of Rama’s life are taken out, and special worship is offered to Rama in temples, and to SITA, LAKSHMANA and HANUMAN. It is an important festival in north India, particularly at Ayodhya.

Ramanuja The founder of the philosophical system of VISHISHTADAVAITA, a school of Vedantic thought. Ramanuja advocated the worship of VISHNU, and Vishishtadvaita can be translated as qualified monism. According to tradition, he was born in 1027 in Sriperumbudur in present Tamil Nadu. Spiritually inclined from childhood, he went to KANCHI, where he studied ADVAITA with the philosopher Yadavaprakasha, but gradually diverged from classical Advaita and came to his own conclusions. After travelling all over India, including to Kashmir, and visiting innumerable sacred sites, he settled at Srirangam in Tamil Nadu, then under the Chola dynasty. The Cholas were known for their devotion to the god SHIVA, and facing hostility there, Ramanuja moved to Hoysala territory. The king of the Hoysalas, Bittiga, was a Jain. Ramanuja successfully converted him to VAISHNAVISM. Bittiga took the name Vishnuvardhana and constructed grand Vishnu temples at Belur and Halebid. Ramanuja converted others to Vaishnavism, and restored several Vishnu temples. Later he returned to Srirangam and lived there until his death in 1137.

Ramanuja stated that the individual soul emerges from BRAHMAN or god, and is therefore eternal and the same in essence. Yet even when recognizing the truth of its eternal nature, it retains its self-consciousness and separateness, while enjoying a close communion with god. He based his philosophy on the UPANISHADS, BHAGAVAD GITA and BRAHMA SUTRA, and was also influenced by the VISHNU and BHAGAVATA PURANA and the devotional hymns of the ALVARS. He believed that god, in his form as Vishnu, his AVATARAS and his consort LAKSHMI, should be worshipped with love and devotion. All castes could become his followers, known as Ramanujas or Sampradaji, but had to follow certain rules and principles. For instance, food had to be prepared and eaten in privacy.

According to tradition, he founded seven hundred MATHAS, of which one still functions at Melkota in Karnataka. He also initiated seventy-four gurus, whose descendants would inherit the mantle from them. His philosophy is described in his writings, which include Vedantasara, written together with his disciple Kuruttalvara, Vedarthasamgraha, Vedantadipa, and Shribhashya, a commentary on the Brahma Sutra, as well as Gitabhashya, a commentary on the BHAGAVAD GITA.

Ramappa Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located at Palampet in District Warangal of Andhra Pradesh. It was constructed in 1213 by Rudra Samani, a general of King Ganapatideva of the Kakatiya dynasty. It stands on a star-shaped platform, 1.8 m high. The inner shrine has a LINGA, nearly 3 m high. There are several other subsidiary shrines, as well as a MANDAPA, all enclosed in a compound wall. The temple has both Dravidian and Nagara shikharas or towers, and is known for its intricate and profuse carving. There are scenes from the RAMAYANA and MAHABHARATA, processions of dancers, elephants and warriors, and stories from the PURANAS. Outside is a NANDI image, 2.7 m high. Nearby are two other Shiva temples in dilapidated condition. A large tank dates back to the same period, created by making an earthen dam connected to a semi-circular hill range. The temple is named after the sculptor, Ramappa. Pilgrims visit the temple particularly on Maha Shivaratri, celebrated here for three days.

Ramayana A Sanskrit epic that tells the story of RAMA. There are several versions of the Ramayana, but the earliest is that of VALMIKI.

Valmiki’s Ramayana has 24,000 shlokas or verses, divided into seven kandas or sections. The kandas are: (1) Bala Kanda, the childhood of Rama and his brothers; (2) Ayodhya Kanda, life in AYODHYA and the banishment of Rama; (3) Aranya Kanda, the life of Rama, SITA and LAKSHMANA in the forest, and the abduction of Sita by RAVANA; (4) Kishkindha Kanda, Rama at KISHKINDHA, the capital of Sugriva, the monkey king; (5) Sundara Kanda, the crossing of the ocean by Rama and his allies to reach LANKA; (6) Yuddha Kanda, the fight against Ravana, his defeat and death, the rescue of Sita, the return to Ayodhya and coronation of Rama; (7) Uttara Kanda, Rama as king of Ayodhya, Sita’s banishment, the birth of their sons, their reunion, and Sita’s departure into the earth; Rama goes to heaven. The last and the first are often considered to have been added later.

Date: The date of the text is controversial. Some date it as far back as 3000 BCE, while others place it in the first century CE. The core of the story is narrated in the MAHABHARATA, the other great north Indian epic, which has led some to believe it was earlier than the Mahabharata. Other scholars point out that there are numerous interpolations in both texts, and therefore its mention in the Mahabharata is no evidence of an early date. The type of society described in the Ramayana also represents a later stage than that of the Mahabharata. C. Rajagopalachari was probably right when he said, ‘It would appear that the story of Rama had been in existence long before Valmiki wrote his epic and gave form to a story that had been handed down from generation to generation.’

Location: The controversial date is linked with controversies about the location of places in the text. Traditionally Ayodhya is identified with the place of the same name in Faizabad district of Uttar Pradesh, and Ravana’s Lanka with Sri Lanka. All other places are located along the way. Archaeology, however, does not date Ayodhya earlier than the seventh century BCE. H.D. Sankalia, a renowned archaeologist, believed that all the places could be located between Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, while others have identified the sites in Afghanistan.

As religion: In the religious context, only the traditional locations are important, with myths, legends and sacred sites having grown up around them over centuries. The Ramayana has been retold innumerable times, and in its later versions it remains a popular religious text today.

Other versions: By the time of TULASIDASA’s RAMACHARITAMANASA, devotion to Rama as a god had reached a height.

Some other major narratives of Rama in the Hindu tradition are the ADHYATMARAMAYANA, KAMBANRamayana, and sections in the PURANAS. The story of Rama has been narrated with variations in every regional language of India and has been translated into several other languages. In Jainism, the PAUMCHARIYAM tells the story of Rama somewhat differently. In Buddhism, there is a version in the Dasharatha Jataka as well as in other texts. The Ramayana also reached other countries, and Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos and Cambodia are among those that have their own versions of the story.

The Ramayana has been compared to the great heroic epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey.

Ramayana in Jainism The RAMAYANA had an important place in Jain literature and was retold several times. The earliest Jain version of the Ramayana, is the Paumchariya or PAUMCHARIYAM of Vimala-suri, written between the first and third centuries. Among others are the Padma Purana of Ravishena of the seventh century, which, though written in Sanskrit, is similar to the Paumchariyam. The Paumachariu of Svayambhu was composed in the eighth century. The UTTARA PURANA also contains within it the story of Rama, in Parvan 68, while Parvan 7 of the Trishashti-shalakapurusha Charitra of Hemachandra is popularly known as the Jain Ramayana. Another notable version is the Rama-Charita, written in Sanskrit prose by Devavijayaganin in 1596. Several other Jain texts include the Ramayana story, indicating its widespread popularity.

Rameshvara Temple, Nashik A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located at NASHIK in Maharashtra, constructed in the eighteenth century. It has one of the twelve great jyotir LINGAS, which according to tradition was installed at this site by RAMA. The temple is within an enclosure. Next to the linga shrine is a MANDAPA with carvings on the walls. Near the temple is a tank where Rama is said to have performed funerary rites for his father.

Rameshvaram An island considered sacred by Hindus, located at the southern tip of India in the Gulf of Mannar. Rameshvaram is connected to the mainland by a 1 km bridge. RAMA is said to have worshipped the god SHIVA here after recovering SITA from LANKA, and the island has a number of sacred shrines. The main temple here is the RAMANATHASWAMY TEMPLE, with one of the jyotir LINGAS of SHIVA. Originally constructed at the time of the Cholas, the present temple is mainly of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries. One hundred metres away is the Agni Tirtham, where Rama worshipped Shiva to remove the sin of killing RAVANA, who was a BRAHMANA. Further north is the Gandhamadana hill, where a footprint of Rama is enshrined in a small temple. To the south-east of the island is the spot where Rama is said to have bathed, known as Dhanushkodi after Rama’s bow. It was destroyed in a cyclone in 1964, but the Kothandaraswamy Temple marking the spot where Vibhishana, brother of Ravana, declared his allegiance to Rama, is still standing. Rameshvaram is an important centre of pilgrimage for both SHAIVITES and VAISHNAVITES. Twenty-four kilometres away at Erwadi is the tomb of a SUFI saint and a centre of Muslim pilgrimage.

Ramsar Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located at AMRITSAR, near the Ramsar pool to the northeast of the HAR MANDIR or Golden Temple. It marks the spot where the fifth guru, ARJAN DEV, lived along with Bhai Gurdas when he was compiling the Granth Sahib. The sacred book was then installed in the Har Mandir Sahib in 1604. The tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH, made some additions to the Granth, and stated that henceforth this book would be the guru.

The gurdwara was later expanded, and now has five storeys. It retains its importance regarding the sacred text, as all authorized versions of the Guru Granth Sahib are printed and distributed from here.

Ramtek A town in Maharashtra that has several temples of the Hindu god VISHNU. On a hill to the east is a Maratha fort, where some shrines are located, while others are at the foot of the hill, near a lake. Most of the temples date from the eighteenth century, the time of the Marathas, while some are as early as the fifth century. Others are more recent. The ancient temples consist of small GARBHA-GRIHAS or sanctuaries, and open MANDAPAS that were later enclosed. They are made mainly of red sandstone. Images include those of NARASIMHA and VARAHA. Three recent shrines are dedicated to RAMA and LAKSHMANA. Ramtek was earlier known as Ramagiri and is described in the writings of Kalidasa.

Ramzan A month of fasting and self-purification in Islam. Ramzan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, considered the holiest of all the months. Muslims fast from dawn to sunset for the thirty days of the month, in remembrance of the time the Prophet MUHAMMAD spent in the desert.

Food can be consumed before sunrise, after which not even a sip of water is taken until the evening, when the fast is broken. The main meal is eaten after offering prayers. On certain nights during the month of Ramzan, special prayers are offered. The twenty-sixth night commemorates the martyrdom of Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet. Between the twenty-first and twenty-seventh nights is SHAB-E-QADR, a time considered particularly holy, when prayers have great efficacy. The twenty-ninth day is the last Friday of the lunar month. After the sighting of the new moon, ID-UL-FITR is celebrated, and the holy month of Ramzan comes to an end.

Ranakpur A town in Rajasthan, with a number of Jain temples built in Solanki style. The temples are richly decorated with beautiful sculptures and intricately carved ceilings and pillars. The most notable is the Chaumukha Temple constructed in 1438.

Randhir Singh, Bhai A Sikh teacher who gathered a group of followers around him, and can be considered to have started a sub-sect of the KHALSA Sikhs. Born in 1878 in Narangwal village near Ludhiana, Punjab, Randhir Singh was a Jat who fought against the British and spent long periods in jail. He strictly observed Khalsa discipline, was a vegetarian, and would only eat food cooked in an iron vessel and prepared by an orthodox Sikh. The story of his life in prison is told in his Jehl Chitthian (literally, ‘Letters from Prison’). Randhir Singh’s followers have their own Rahit Maryada or rules, and emphasize Kirtan or the singing of religious songs. NAM SIMARAN for them consists of recitation of the term ‘Waheguru’; the Khalsa initiation is also done in a special way. Meat is forbidden, and Keshki, a small under-turban, is to be worn by both men and women. Randhir Singh died in 1961, but his followers still exist. The Akhand Kirtani Jatha, founded by Amarjit Kaur, hold all-night singing sessions of Kirtans (hymns) and are inspired by him.

Ranganatha A name of the god VISHNU in south India.

Ranganatha Temple A temple of the Hindu god VISHNU, known here as Ranganatha, located at Srirangam in Tamil Nadu. The goddess here is known as Ranganyaki. It was constructed mainly between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries. This huge temple complex covers an area of sixty-three hectares and has seven concentric rectangular enclosures. There are GOPURAMS along the four sides, decreasing in size towards the inner enclosures. Roads lead through the gateways towards the centre. The southern outer gateway, enlarged in 1987, now reaches a height of 72 m, probably the largest in south India. Each enclosure has a number of structures. In the fourth enclosure is the interesting Rangavilasa Mandapa, with carvings all over the walls, as well as a Venugopala (KRISHNA) temple of the sixteenth century. The same enclosure also has a museum, with stone and bronze sculptures, and ivory plaques.

Legends and stories regarding the temple are collected in the Sriranga Mahatmya.

rangjung A term in TIBETAN BUDDHISM for sacred objects that occur naturally. Rangjung means ‘self-arising’ and can consist of rocks on which a Buddhist image occurs miraculously, or other similar phenomena.

Rani Sabri’s Mosque A mosque in Ahmadabad, Gujarat, one of the most notable monuments in the city. This small mosque, measuring just 14.6 m by 6.1 m, was, according to an inscription on the central MIHRAB, constructed in 1514 by Rani Sabri, during the reign of Sultan Muzaffar II of Gujarat. She is said to have been the mother of Abu Bakr Khan, who was the son of Sultan Mahmud Begarha, and who, according to other sources, was poisoned. The mosque is only two bays deep, with a row of double pillars in front and ornate decoration on the stone tracery windows. The prayer hall has an open façade, with slender minarets in four sections, three above roof level. Because of the delicate and jewel-like carvings and the fine detail of the traceries, it has been referred to as a ‘gem’ of a mosque. According to J. Fergusson, who wrote on the architecture of Ahmadabad, it is ‘one of the most exquisite buildings in the world’. The tomb of the queen is located in front of the mosque.

Ranjit Singh A Sikh leader who organized the Sikhs into a kingdom in the Punjab. Born in 1780, in 1792 he succeeded his father, Maha Singh, as the head of a group of Sikh MISLS with a small territory, and by 1798 had occupied Lahore. He was recognized by Zaman Shah, the Afghan ruler, as governor of Lahore, but soon became independent and expanded his territory, using a series of alliances and conquests to consolidate his hold on the Punjab. By the time of his death in 1839, the Sikh state was at the height of its power. Its decline, particularly after 1850, gave rise to a number of new Sikh movements, including attempts to purify and revive Sikhism.

Ranjit Singh is revered as a hero by Sikhs.

Ranna A Jain poet of the tenth century who wrote in Kannada. Born in 949, he lived at the court of the Chalukya king Taila II, and of his successor. Ranna wrote the Ajita Purana in verse on the life of the second TIRTHANKARA Ajitanatha, and the Sahasabhimavijaya or Gadayuddha, which tells part of the story of the MAHABHARATA, focusing on the fight between BHIMA and DURYODHANA during the great war. In addition he describes the wars of a local king, whom he compares with Bhima. His other works, including the Parashurama Charita on PARASHURAMA, have not survived, though a lexicon, Ranna Kanda, is sometimes attributed to him. PAMPA, PONNA and Ranna are considered the three ‘gems’ of Kannada poetry.

Ras Khan A poet and devotee of the Hindu god KRISHNA in his form as Srinathji. Not much is known about Ras Khan, who is said to have been a Muslim from a village near Hardoi, in present Uttar Pradesh, and to have been born sometime between 1528 and 1558. He later moved to DELHI and then to the MATHURA region, where he became a devotee of Srinathji, at that time enshrined in a temple at GOVARDHANA. The Vaishnavon-ki-varta, a VAISHNAVA text, provides some legends about him, whereas his own work, Prem-Vatika, has fifty-three dohas or couplets, describing the life of Krishna and the GOPIS, and the love which is the essence of BHAKTI.

Ras Khan is thought to have died some time in the first quarter of the seventeenth century.

Rasatala The sixth of the seven divisions or LOKAS of the nether world or PATALA, in Hindu mythology. Here the Nivatakavacha-Kalakeyas live, who were enemies of the DEVAS.

Rati A Hindu deity, the wife of KAMA, the god of love. She is sometimes worshipped along with him. Among her other names are Reva, Kamapriya and Priti.

Ratnakuta Sutra A MAHAYANA Buddhist text that is a collection of forty-nine sutras.

Ratnasambhava A celestial BUDDHA, also known as a DHYANI BUDDHA. Literally, the name means ‘jewel-born’. Ratnasambhava is associated with the southern direction. His colour is yellow, and his right hand is in varada mudra, the boon-granting gesture. His BODHISATTVA is Ratnapani, and his SHAKTI or consort is Mamaki. Among the deities that emanate from him are Jambhala, Ucchushma-Jambhala, Mahapratisara, Vasudhara, Gandhavajra, Gandahasti, Gaganaganja, Jambuki, Jnanaketu, Khagarbha, Khandaroha, Lasya, Lama, Prajnantka, Patalavasini, Pushpa, Pratibhanakuta, and the twelve Paramitas. All deities that are yellow, placed in the south or in the south-west are also associated with him.

ratnatraya The three ideals (literally, ‘jewels’) of Jainism, also known as the triratna, which consist of right belief (samyak darshana), right knowledge (samyak jnana) and right conduct (samyak charitra). All three, practised together, are essential on the path to enlightenment.

Ratri A deity mentioned in the RIG VEDA, the daughter of heaven and the goddess of the star-lit night. Only one hymn is addressed to her. Ratri fills the valleys and heights, driving away the darkness with her light.

Raushaniya movement A religious and political Islamic movement in the north-west of India, founded by Miyan Bayazid Ansari (d. 1580). Bayazid described a path leading to internal illumination, and stated that religious rites had to be understood through their symbolism. His followers led ascetic lives, but as the movement spread among the north-west tribes, there were conflicts with the Mughals. After Bayazid’s death his son Jalal led the movement. He was captured by the Mughals but escaped and harassed travellers in the north-west. In 1600 Jalal was killed, and the movement died down, though some followers remained.

Ravana The king of the RAKSHASAS, known chiefly for his abduction of SITA, described in the RAMAYANA. Ravana was the grandson of the RISHI Pulastya and the son of Vishrava by his wife Kaikasi or Nikasha, who was the daughter of the rakshasa Sumali. Thus from his father’s side, Ravana was a BRAHMANA. He was well-versed in Sanskrit and the VEDAS. He had many wives, but his chief consort was Mandodari. His sons were Meghanada, also known as Indrajit, Ravani, Aksha, Trishiras, Devantaka, Narantaka and Atikaya. Ravana propitiated the god BRAHMA and gained from him various boons—he could not be killed either by the gods or by demons. According to some accounts, he had ten heads and could assume any form he liked. He ruled from the magnificent city of LANKA, which he had appropriated from his half-brother, KUBERA. Charmed by the beauty of Sita, Ravana assumed a disguise and abducted her in his PUSHPAKA Vimana (aerial chariot) when she was alone in the forest. He took her to Lanka and tried to persuade her to love him, but Sita remained true to RAMA. Finally, after a great battle, Rama killed Ravana, who was then cremated with Brahmanical rites. In south India and in Sri Lanka, Ravana is seen in a more favourable light than in north India, where he is thought to be demonic.

Ravi A name of the Hindu sun god SURYA, as well as a name of the sun.

Ravi Shankar, Sri Sri A spiritual guru who runs the ART OF LIVING Foundation and has followers all over the world. Born in 1956 in Papanasam, Tamil Nadu, he studied Vedic literature with spiritual teachers, and also obtained a degree in physics. Later he received an honorary doctorate from Kuvempu University, Karnataka. He studied with Maharishi MAHESH YOGI in Rishikesh. In 1982, in silent meditation, he is said to have discovered the Sudarshan Kriya, a particular breathing technique. He then began to teach special breathing techniques, which form part of his Art of Living course, including a series of techniques said to prevent disease and to lead to rejuvenation and vitality. In 1982 he set up the Art of Living Foundation, one of the largest voluntary organizations, providing education to the underprivileged and to women, rehabilitation in prisons, and help and relief in a number of other spheres, in 140 countries worldwide. He aims at creating a physically, mentally and spritually healthy person through meditation, health, educational and other programmes. In 1992 he set up the Prison SMART Foundation (Stress Management and Rehabilitative Training). In 1997 he founded the International Association for Human Values, which has development projects in over 25,000 villages helping people to become self-reliant. His 5H programme focuses on Health, Hygiene, Homes, Harmony and Human Values. His organization has also undertaken relief projects in Bosnia, Afghanistan, Iraq and other countries, apart from India. Sri Ravi Shankar has travelled all over the world and has been presented with a number of awards.

His main ASHRAM is on the outskirts of Bangalore, known as Ved Vignan Mahavidya Peeth Bangalore International Centre.

Ravidas A Hindu saint of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries who was also known as Raidas. He was born in 1376 or 1377, at the village of Mandoor Garh near Varanasi, in a chamar family. He was named Ravidas because he was born on Ravivar, a Sunday. The chamar caste of leather workers were considered untouchables, but when Ravidas began to worship VISHNU in the form of SHALAGRAMA, Ramananda, a VAISHNAVITE saint, accepted him as his disciple. The BRAHMANAS and pandits were against this because of his caste, but gradually he attained a reputation as a saint and gained a large following. He was against caste and ritual, and composed devotional poems and songs, some of which are included in the GURU GRANTH SAHIB and are popular even today. His disciples are known as Raidasis or Ravidasis. Ravidasis are usually householders, but constantly remember and invoke the name of god, and also try to help others and perform acts of charity. They include both Hindus and Sikhs, and now have declared that they are a separate religion.

Red Hats The colloquial name of some Tibetan Buddhist sects related to the KARMAPA sect. The name is derived from the red hats that the monks wear.

Reformation A movement in CHRISTIANITY that led to the division of Christians all over the world into Roman Catholics and Protestants. In the 1500s there were many problems in the Catholic Church, despite earlier attempts at reform. The Roman Curia who assisted the Pope were corrupt, the bishops and even the monastic orders amassed wealth, and the local priests were largely ignorant, though there were still some who were widely respected and learned.

In 1517, Martin Luther put forward his ‘Ninety-Five Theses’ at Wittenberg in Germany, in which he criticized various aspects of the Church’s functioning. Luther pointed out the prevailing corruption, and attacked the church system of selling ‘indulgences’, i.e., allowing individuals to pay for the remission of sins. He also focused on theological doctrine, particularly the importance given to good works rather than to salvation through faith and the grace of God. John Calvin, a French lawyer who left France for Switzerland, was another important reformer. His Institutes of the Christian Religion, first published in 1536, provided a systematic exposition of the concepts of the reformers. The movement snowballed, leading to large groups and entire countries breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church and setting up their own ‘Protestant’ Churches. By the middle of the sixteenth century, northern and eastern Europe were dominated by Protestantism. In England, Henry VIII declared himself head of the Church of England in 1534, after he was refused a divorce by the Pope, and England soon turned Protestant, though there were later attempts to revive Catholicism.

The Counter-Reformation eliminated many of the abuses in the Catholic Church, but Christianity remained divided. (See Roman Catholicism, Protestantism).

Reiki A Buddhist technique for healing, revitalizing and transmitting positive energy. This system was rediscovered and simplified for the common person by a Japanese Buddhist named Mikao Usui (1862–1926) in the late nineteenth century, and is based on the Shingon Buddhist school of Japan. It was introduced in India by 1989, and today there are thousands of teachers and practitioners in urban India. It consists of a simple technique of transmitting energy through the hands, similar to NYASA techniques described in indigenous Tantric texts.

Renuka The wife of the rishi JAMADAGNI, and the mother of PARASHURAMA, an incarnation of the Hindu god, VISHNU. At the request of his father Jamadagni, Parashurama cut off her head, as she was once unchaste in thought, and desired a GANDHARVA. In most accounts in texts, Parashurama then received a boon from his father, and restored her to life. Renuka is worshipped in some temples as a goddess, while ELAMMA-Renuka is a composite deity revered in south India.

Revanta A Hindu deity, who was one of the sons of SURYA, the sun god. According to the MARKANDEYA PURANA, Revanta guards people in forests and lonely places, saves them from enemies and robbers, and provides his worshippers with comfort, intelligence, happiness, health, wealth and fame. The VISHNUDHARMOTTARA PURANA states that he is to be depicted riding a horse. Images of Revanta have been found mainly in Bengal and Gujarat.

Revati The wife of the Hindu god BALARAMA. She was the daughter of King Raivata, and extremely beautiful. Raivata believed no one was worthy of her and went to consult the god BRAHMA in heaven about her husband. He spent a long time there, and Brahma finally directed him to Balarama, at DVARAKA. Many ages had passed, though Raivata did not realize this. Revati was still beautiful and very tall, but other humans had grown short. Balarama first shortened her with his ploughshare, and then she became his wife.

Rewalsar Lake A lake that has seven floating islands, located in Himachal Pradesh. Near it are sacred Buddhist, Hindu, and Sikh sites. In Tibetan, the lake is known as Tso-Pema or Lotus lake, and is associated with PADMASAMBHAVA, who is said to have meditated here. According to legend, a local king feared his powers and ordered that he be burnt alive. A huge pyre was constructed around him and lit, but by the powers of Padmasambhava, the burning pyre turned into a lake. A NYINGMA monastery is located here. In Hindu myths, the rishi Lomasha is said to have worshipped Shiva here. There are temples dedicated to Lomasha, SHIVA and KRISHNA near the lake. A gurdwara is also located here, constructed in memory of a visit by Guru GOBIND SINGH.

Ribhu A name of various Hindu gods, including INDRA, AGNI and the ADITYAS. Ribhu was also the name of one of the four Kumaras, or mind-born sons of the god BRAHMA.

Ribhus A group of semi-divine beings of the Vedic pantheon, associated with the god INDRA. There are three Ribhus, whose names are Ribhu or Ribhukshan, Vaja and Vibhuvan. They are sons of Sudhanvan and are helpers of Indra. According to some passages, they were originally men, but because of their skilful deeds, became immortal. The Ribhus are also mentioned in later texts.

Riddhi The name of a Hindu goddess, the wife of KUBERA, who is the god of wealth. It is also a name of PARVATI and of a wife of GANESHA. Literally, the word means ‘prosperity’.

Ridvan A BAHAI festival. The word literally means ‘paradise’. BAHAULLAH, the founder of the Bahai religion, faced persecution and many tribulations, but for a brief period in his life he lived in perfect peace. He and his companions once spent twelve days in a garden near Baghdad, on the banks of the Tigris river, from 21 April to 2 May 1863. This was later known as the Garden of Ridvan. It was here that he announced his divine mission, and wrote: ‘This is the paradise, the rustling of whose leaves proclaims: O ye that inhabit the heavens and the earth! There hath appeared what hath never previously appeared. He, who, from everlasting, had concealed His face from the sight of creation, is now come.’ To commemorate this event the Ridvan festival is held every year between 21 April and 2 May. During this time prayers are offered, festivities and celebrations are held, and the Bahais join with others to proclaim the fellowship of the world. The first, ninth and twelfth days are considered particularly sacred.

Rig Veda The first of the four VEDIC SAMHITAS, which has a total of 1028 hymns, divided into ten mandalas or sections. Most of the verses in the SAMA and YAJUR VEDAS are derived from it. Each hymn has the name of a RISHI, such as VASISHTHA, VISHVAMITRA, BHARADVAJA, and others to whom it was divinely revealed. It is not known when the Rig Veda was first written down, and the hymns were transmitted orally for generations.

The text provides an account of the religion, society and economy of those times, in the region of the Sapta Sindhava, or seven rivers, namely, the Indus and its tributaries, along with the SARASVATI and Drishadvati, all located to the west of the YAMUNA. Some hymns, which are considered slightly later than the others, mainly in the tenth mandala, express a vague concept of one supreme being, but most of them are addressed to individual deities, often personifications of nature or of an attribute or ideal. YASKA, a later commentator on the Rig Veda, classified the main deities into three categories: terrestrial, celestial and atmospheric. Among the terrestrial deities are the rivers Sindhu, Vipasa, Shutudri and SARASVATI; PRITHVI, the earth, AGNI, fire, BRIHASPATI and SOMA. Celestial deities include DYAUS, VARUNA, MITRA, SURYA, SAVITRI, PUSHAN, VISHNU, VIVASVAT, the ADITYAS, USHA, and the ASHVINS; atmospheric deities are INDRA, TRITA APTYA, APAM NAPAT, MATARISHVAN, AHI BUDHNYA, Aja Ekapad, RUDRA, the MARUTS, VAYU-VATA, PARJANYA and AGNI. Agni is a deity who belongs to several categories. Other gods include DHATR, VIDHATR VISHVAKARMAN, TVASHTR and PRAJAPATI. Though female deities are not very important, a number of them are mentioned apart from Sarasvati, Prithvi and Usha. RATRI and ARANYANI have separate hymns dedicated to them. Groups of deities or semi-divine beings include RUDRAS, VASUS, ANGIRASAS, RIBHUS, APSARAS, and GANDHARVAS. There are also ASURAS, RAKSHASAS and PISHACHAS. While the latter two are usually demonic, in the Rig Veda ASURA is normally used interchangeably with DEVA, indicating a divine being. Wise and powerful rishis are referred to, as well as divine and mythical animals. These deities are elaborated on in later Vedic texts.

A famous hymn that is considered a late part of the text seeks to understand creation:

Then even nothingness was not, nor existence

There was no air then, nor the heavens beyond it.

What covered it? Where was it? In whose keeping?

[…]

He, who surveys it all from the highest heaven

He knows, or maybe even he doesn’t know.

The People: The Rig Vedic people refer to themselves as arya, meaning ‘noble’. In English they are commonly called ARYANS, thought to be connected with INDO-IRANIANS and INDO-EUROPEAN groups of people.

Date: The text is usually dated to between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE, though some scholars believe it is much earlier.

Location: Most of the places mentioned in the text have been analysed and identified with sites to the west of the YAMUNA, extending into Punjab, present Pakistan and Afghanistan. A few scholars believe all places mentioned should be located in Afghanistan, but have not carried out a detailed identification of sites there.

Indus Civilization and the Rig Veda: No archaeological culture has been satisfactorily identified with that of the Rig Veda. As the location of the INDUS CIVILIZATION is partly coterminous with the places mentioned in the Rig Veda, some scholars feel it represents that culture, or a pre-Indus Culture.

Rinchen Zangpo A Tibetan Buddhist associated with the revival of Buddhism in the eleventh century. According to tradition he set up 108 Buddhist monasteries in present Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh, and translated Buddhist texts into Tibetan.

Rishabha The first Jain TIRTHANKARA, also known as Adinatha or the first Lord. According to legend, he lived millions of years ago, towards the end of the third ARA of the descending cycle. According to SHVETAMBARA Jain texts, he was born at AYODHYA, earlier known as Vinita, in present Uttar Pradesh, a place also sacred as the birthplace of the Hindu god RAMA. At this time, according to Jain cosmology, all people were born as twins, one male and one female, and on reaching adulthood, the twins became husband and wife, lived a happy life together, and died at the same time. But, as it was the end of the Ara, certain discrepancies took place, and Rishabha married his twin Sumangala as well as another girl, Sunanda, whose twin had died. Sumangala gave birth to BHARATA, Brahmi, and ninety-eight other sons, while BAHUBALI and Sundari were born from Sunanda. Rishabha, ruling at Ayodhya, became the first king of the age, and introduced the alphabet, writing, all arts and crafts, laws and methods of administration. He brought education and civilization to the world, laid down funeral ceremonies, and taught seventy-two accomplishments to men, and sixty-four to women.

After a long time he left the kingdom and became an ascetic, and practising asceticism for one thousand years, he attained enlightenment and became a Jina, or one who has conquered the Self. He taught spiritual truths, morality and ethics before attaining MOKSHA (liberation) on Mt KAILASHA and departing from the world.

Rishabha’s symbol is a bull (rishabha), reflecting his name.

rishi A Sanskrit term for a sage. The word is derived from the Sanskrit rish (to see), and the rishi is the wise sage who can see the truth. Rishis are first mentioned in the RIG VEDA, where the various hymns were revealed to them. According to early texts, seven rishis, or saptarishis, also known as PRAJAPATIS, preside over each MANVANTARA or age of the universe. According to the Shatapatha Brahmana, they were Gotama, BHARADVAJA, VISHVAMITRA, JAMADAGNI, VASISHTHA, KASHYAPA and ATRI, while according to the MAHABHARATA, those of the first manvantara were Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, PULASTYA and Vasishtha. Rishis of later manvantaras are listed in the HARIVAMSHA and in the Puranas. The PURANAS describe several other great rishis, including BHRIGU, DAKSHA, Kanva, NARADA, VALMIKI, VYASA and Vibhandaka. The constellation of the Great Bear, which has seven stars, is known as Sapta Rishi, or seven rishis. The seven rishis are thought to symbolize the seven chakras or seven senses. Later, nine or ten main rishis were listed. The nine rishis of the present manvantara, according to the VISHNU PURANA, are Vasishtha, Kashyapa, Atri, Jamadagni, Gautama, Vishvamitra, Bhrigu, Daksha and Bharadvaja. There were thousands of other rishis; the main classes of rishis were Brahmarishis, Devarishis and RAJARISHIS. Others were Maharishis, Paramarishis, Shrutarishis and Kandarishis.

Rishyashringa A rishi described in ancient texts. He was the son of the rishi Vibhandaka, and grandson of KASHYAPA, while his mother was a deer or antelope. According to the story regarding his birth, Vibhandaka once saw the beautiful apsara Urvashi, and his semen fell in the water and was swallowed by a deer, who then gave birth to Rishyashringa. Thus he had a horn on his forehead, from which he got his name (rishya = male antelope). He grew up in the forest and met no one but his father, until he became a young man.

At this time the kingdom of Anga, ruled by King Lomapada, was suffering from drought. The BRAHMANAS there informed the king, that if a rishi who had never seen a woman came to the kingdom, rain would fall. After much searching by the king’s men, Rishyashringa was discovered. Beautiful young girls were sent to bring the rishi, who was astounded when he saw a woman for the first time. They did not have much trouble in persuading him to accompany them, and in the kingdom of Anga, Rishyashringa was married to Shanta, the daughter of King DASHARATHA, who had been adopted by Lomapada. Rishyashringa performed a yajna or sacrifice, that brought rain to the parched kingdom. He also performed a sacrifice through which king Dasharatha’s sons, including RAMA, were born.

Rivayats Zoroastrian texts in Persian, which are collections of letters exchanged between Zoroastrian priests in India and Iran. These letters were written between 1478 and 1766, and consist of answers to questions posed by the Indian priests. There are twenty-six Rivayats, of which the best-known is that of Darab Hormazyar.

rivers, sacred India has innumerable rivers, all of which are considered sacred in some way. Traditionally, the seven most sacred are the Indus, GANGA, YAMUNA, SARASVATI, NARMADA, GODAVARI, and Kaveri. The Indus was known in early texts as the Sindhu. Rising in the Himalayas and flowing into the Arabian Sea, with a length of 2880 km, it is one of the longest rivers of the world. Its main tributaries are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj. The GANGA also begins as a Himalayan river and flows into the Bay of Bengal, with a length of 2525 km. Apart from the YAMUNA, its main tributaries are the Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak and Kosi, which start in the Himalayas or their foothills, while the Betwa, Ken, Sone and others join it from the south. The Chambal flows into the Yamuna from the south. The SARASVATI is sometimes considered a mythical river. Today it is identified with the Ghaggar, a semi-dry river in Haryana, whose dry river bed extends into Pakistan, where it is known as the Hakra. Its ancient remains have alternatively been traced in Gujarat. The Godavari, Narmada and Kaveri are rivers of the peninsula, with respective lengths of 1465, 1312, and 800 km.

Rodasi A goddess mentioned in the RIG VEDA, associated with the MARUTS. As she is always mentioned with them, she is thought to have been their wife.

Roman Catholicism A form of Christianity that traces its origin to the earliest days of the development of the religion. The spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic Church is the Pope, known as the Bishop of Rome, who governs the Church from Vatican City, a small independent state within Rome. Catholic beliefs are based on the BIBLE and on church traditions and doctrines, which include declarations of church councils and popes, and short statements or creeds, that summarize Catholic beliefs. Around the beginning of the second century CE, the NEW TESTAMENT was accepted as representing the authentic teachings of JESUS Christ.

Catholics believe in the TRINITY—that there is One God within whom there are three persons. Humanity was created by God and for God, but the original sin of Adam’s disobedience affected God’s plan for humanity. The son of God, Jesus, the second person in the Trinity, therefore came to earth to save them from sin. However, salvation has to be brought to each person, therefore Jesus’s Apostles and missionaries are there to teach the word of God.

Catholics worship only one God, but revere other holy people, such as MARY, mother of Jesus, and various saints. The seven SACRAMENTS, ceremonial signs of God through which his grace is received, form an essential part of Catholicism. Of these, the Eucharist is the most important.

History: The first Christians who were the followers of Jesus, were Jews, but the early Church gradually drew away from Judaism, though it accepted the BIBLE, known in Christianity as the OLD TESTAMENT. Paul (d. 65 to 67) spread Christianity to the gentiles, the non-Jews, and by about 140 CE the centre of Christianity moved from Jerusalem to Antioch in Syria, Alexandria in Egypt, and Rome. Initially Christians faced persecution from the Romans, and also had to deal with divergent doctrines, such as GNOSTICISM, which they termed heresies. After the Roman emperor Constantine the Great accepted Christianity in the fourth century, the religion spread further. Conflicts with different doctrines of the Eastern Church began in the fifth century, leading finally to the separation of what came to be called the ORTHODOX CHURCH. Meanwhile, the monastic system began to develop, with various Christian monastic orders. Scholars analysed Christian doctrines and a huge body of Christian literature arose.

There are numerous other historical developments in Church history, but the most important was the REFORMATION, in the early 1500s, which led to the growth of PROTESTANTISM, and a long-lasting division of the Church. Protestants do not accept the authority of the Pope.

Roman Catholics reformed their own Church through a Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent (1545–63) brought in changes that resolved doctrinal issues and other problems. However, religious wars followed, and through a long history of conflicts, Catholic revival and decline took place.

The Popes had acquired territory around Rome from the fourth century onwards, but their sovereignty over these states was often threatened and dependent on prevailing political conditions. With the unification of Italy in the nineteenth century, the existing papal states became part of Italy, though the Vatican continued to be occupied by the Pope. The Lateran Treaty of 1929 recognized the Vatican within Rome as an independent city-state.

Church Organization: The Pope, at the head of the Church, is assisted by the Roman Curia, a term for the papal bureaucracy. The Cardinals, a special class of clergy including bishops, priests and deacons, are the chief officials of the Curia. Cardinals are appointed by the Pope, but also form the electoral body for the new Pope.

The basic unit of Church organization is the diocese. The Pope appoints bishops, who are considered the successors of the APOSTLES, and have the responsibility to teach and guide members of the Church. A Bishop, leads a diocese, which serves the Catholics in a particular geographical area, and is assisted by other bishops. A diocese is divided into parishes, headed by a pastor or priest. A number of dioceses are grouped into an Archdiocese under an Archbishop.

Monastic orders have their own leaders.

Catholicism in India: In India, the Portuguese were chiefly responsible for the spread of Catholicism (see Goa). Later other Catholics entered India as missionaries and even today are respected for their educational institutions.

There are two types of Catholic Churches in India, the Roman or LATIN CATHOLICS, and the Eastern Catholics, who are associated with the ORTHODOX CHURCH.

Rosh Hashanah A Jewish festival that marks the beginning of the new year according to the Jewish calendar, on the first day of Tishri (September to October), the first month. On this day prayers are offered at synagogues and the shofar or ram’s horn is blown one hundred times. Rosh Hashanah begins a period of repentance, ending ten days later with YOM KIPPUR, but is also a day of celebration. Special food is eaten, including sweetened apple, beetroot, fish, dates, white pumpkin and the head of a goat or lamb. This symbolic food represents good fortune in the coming year. In the intervening days before Yom Kippur, God is said to judge the world, based on acts committed in the preceding year. However, there is also faith that God forgives those who are repentant. The prescribed prayers praise God, and state that God sets the measure of every person’s life, ‘decreeing its destiny’. But God accepts repentance because He desires ‘not the death of the sinner but that he turn from his way and live’.

Roy, Ram Mohan The founder of the BRAHMO SAMAJ who attempted to bring about social and religious reform in India. Born in 1772 at Radhanagar in District Hughli of present West Bengal, he came from a rich and orthodox family of Bengali zamindars. After his early education, he studied Sanskrit literature and Hindu philosophy at Varanasi, as well as the QURAN, Persian and Arabic at Patna in Bihar. He also learnt Pali, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and French.

In 1814 he started the Atmiya Sabha, a society for the study of religious truth. In 1828 he founded the Brahma Sabha (Society of God), later known as the Brahmo Samaj. Ram Mohan was influenced by the VEDAS and UPANISHADS and by his study of Islam and Christianity. He was opposed to idol worship, caste and rituals, and believed that VEDANTA was the best system of Indian thought. In 1820 he published the Precepts of Jesus, in which he praised the ethical values of the NEW TESTAMENT, which he felt should be incorporated in Hinduism.

He tried to reform Hindu society, and campaigned against SATI, polygamy and child marriage. He advocated equal property rights for women and a better status for widows. He promoted modern education and published journals in Bengali, Persian, Hindi and English. Among these were the Mirat-ul-Akhbar, the Samvad Kaumudi and the Bengali Herald.

In addition, he focused on political issues and on the reform of the administration, and raised other social and economic questions. In 1830 he was bestowed the title ‘Raja’ by Akbar II, the Mughal emperor, and tried to help him obtain a pension from the British by pleading his case in England. He died in Bristol in 1833.

Rudra A Vedic deity, usually regarded as a storm god, and an early form of the Hindu god SHIVA. Rudra is described as dazzling, shining like the sun, copper-coloured or red, blue-necked and blue-tufted. He dwells in mountains and is clothed in skin. He is young, fierce, strong, unassailable and wise, and though beneficent, his wrath is to be feared. He has a fierce and formidable nature, but is also a healer.

Rudras A group of gods, the sons of the god RUDRA. They were gods of the air and are said to number either eleven or thirty-three. Various texts give different lists of the Rudras. According to the MAHABHARATA they are Mrigavyadha, NIRRITI, Ahirbudhnya, Pinaki, Sarpa, Ajaikapat, Dahana, Ishvara, Kapali, Bharga and Sthanu. They were born to Sthanudeva, the son of BRAHMA. In the VISHNU PURANA, the eleven Rudras are listed as Hara, Bahurupa, Tryambaka, Aparajita, Vrishakapi, Shambhu, Kapardi, Raivata, Mrigavyadha, Sharva and Kapali. At least one hundred names of Rudras are mentioned in the PURANAS. Several of these are also the names of the god SHIVA.

Rukmangadacharita A Sanskrit text that glorifies devotion to the Hindu god VISHNU. It is a part of the NARADIYA PURANA, a minor PURANA, but is also used as a separate text. In it, a king named Rukmangada promises his daughter Mohini that he will grant any wish of hers. She asks him to either break his fast on ekadashi, the eleventh day of a fourteen-day fast sacred to Vishnu, or to kill his own son. Rukmangada decides to kill his son rather than break his vow to Vishnu.

Rukmini One of the chief wives of the Hindu god KRISHNA. She is worshipped as a deity along with Krishna in some temples, particularly in south India. According to the story in the MAHABHARATA, she was the daughter of the king of Vidarbha. Though her brother Rukmi wanted her to marry the king Shishupala, she loved Krishna, who, on her request, abducted her while she was on her way to a temple. PRADYUMNA was their son. When the PANDAVAS went into exile, Rukmini looked after DRAUPADI’s children, and when Krishna died she burnt herself on his funeral pyre along with his other wives. In the PURANAS she is considered an incarnation of the goddess LAKSHMI.