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Tabo Monastery A Buddhist complex located near the Spiti river in Lahaul and Spiti, Himachal Pradesh. An inscription records that it was founded in 996 by RINCHEN ZANGPO, a Tibetan scholar who came to India to study Buddhism at the time of the Guge dynasty of western Tibet. Tabo has several temples, twenty-three CHORTENS, monks’ chambers and an extension with nuns’ chambers. The main Lakhang or shrine has an image of the Buddha VAIROCHANA, below which are two images of Rinchen Zangpo, as well as other BUDDHAS and BODHISATTVAS. The complex has stucco images and colourful murals, on account of which it has been called the ‘Ajanta of the Himalayas’. Painted frescos tell the story of Prince Novsang, a Bodhisattva, and of the Buddha SHAKYAMUNI. Nearby is a contemporary monastic structure.

Taglung Kagyu A school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM, a sub-sect of the KAGYU lineage. It was founded by Taglung Thangpa Tashe Pel (1142–1210). The current head (2005) is Shabdrung Rinpoche who now lives in Sikkim.

Tagore, Debendranath A leader of the BRAHMO SAMAJ, as well as of other socio-religious organizations. Born in 1817, he was the son of Dwarkanath TAGORE of Jorosanko, Kolkata (Calcutta) in present West Bengal. Growing up in luxurious surroundings, with a relatively liberal atmosphere, he was sensitive to social ills and yearned to do something for society. In 1839 he founded the Tattvabodhini Sabha to spread the knowledge of the true religion of the VEDAS. In 1843 he modified his ideas on the Vedas and became the leader of the Brahmo Samaj, merging his Sabha into this. In 1866 modern reformers broke away from the Samaj and started their own group. The group led by Debendranath was then known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj.

Debendranath was involved in a number of other activities. He acquired land and founded an ASHRAM, later devoloped by Rabindranath TAGORE into Santiniketan. In 1846 he founded the Hindu Hitarthi Vidyalaya to counteract the effects of Christian missionaries and promote Hindu and nationalist education. He was also part of the British Indian Association, one of the first groups to put forward the views of Indians to the British. He wrote a number of books on philosophy and religion, among them being Brahmo Dharma, on the ideas of the Brahmo Samaj. He was respected for his simple way of life and involvement with spirituality, and was affectionately called ‘Maharishi’. He died in 1905.

Tagore, Dwarkanath A leader of the BRAHMO SAMAJ. Born in 1784, he grew up in his ancestral home at Jorosanko, Kolkata (Calcutta). He was fluent in English, Arabic and Persian, and became an official in the British East India Company. He also ran a number of flourishing business concerns.

He supported Ram Mohan ROY in his reformist ideas and joined the Brahmo Samaj, leading the organization up to 1843, when the leadership was taken over by his son, Debendranath TAGORE. Dwarkanath died in England in 1846. His extravagant way of life led him into debt, though he was popular with all who knew him, appreciated for his generosity, his learning, and his liberal and progressive outlook.

Tagore, Rabindranath A multi-faceted person, a mystic and visionary, who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. He was the first Indian to win a Nobel Prize in any field. Rabindranath was also a writer, poet, artist, musician and educationist.

Born on 6 May 1861 at Jorosanko, Kolkata, he was the fourteenth child of Debendranath TAGORE. He was educated partly at home and partly in school, and from an early age demonstrated that he was gifted, talented and mystical. He began composing poems from the age of thirteen, and from around the age of sixteen he had mystical visions. He read the texts of various religions and was inspired by the UPANISHADS, the BHAKTI poets, Buddhist texts and the songs of the BAULS. He was also inspired by Western liberalism and was against orthodoxy and superstition.

During his lifetime he composed more than 2000 songs, hundreds of long poems, as well as plays, essays, short stories and novels. Many of his poems and songs had mystical themes, and his collection GITANJALI earned him the Nobel Prize.

Taittiriya Samhita A term for one version of the YAJUR VEDA, also known as the Krishna or Black Yajur Veda. The Taittiriya Brahmana, Taittiriya Aranyaka and Upanishad are attached to it. There is also a Taittiriya Pratishakhya.

Taj Mahal The most notable monument of the Mughal dynasty (1526–1857) in India, which is said to represent ‘the ultimate expression of earthly love’. Though the Taj Mahal is a tomb, it also has mosques attached to it. The huge structure, constructed entirely in pure white marble, was built on the banks of the YAMUNA at AGRA in present Uttar Pradesh by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1628–66) in memory of his favourite queen, Arjumand Banu Begam, known as Mumtaz Mahal (d. 1629). The graves of both Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal are within the structure.

The Taj took over twenty years to complete and is thought to be the most perfect building in the world. The main entrance is from the west, though there are two more gates on the east and south. Outside the western gate is the Fatehpuri Mosque, which is still in use, as well as other structures and tombs. The gateway is inscribed with passages from the QURAN, and the main building is approached through a symmetrically laid out garden with fountains.

Built on a square platform measuring 95 m by 95 m, the main tomb is square. Each side measures 56.6 m, and has a large central arch around which are Quranic inscriptions, with smaller double arches on either side. The central dome is 56.9 m high, topped with a finial of 17.1 m. On the walls are inscribed verses from the Quran in ornate script, inlaid in black marble on the white marble walls. Each corner of the structure has a small dome and at each end of the platform is a tall tapering minaret, 41.6 m high. The screens around the tomb are finely carved, and there is also pietra dura work, where white marble plates are inlaid with precious and semi-precious stones, creating beautiful intricate floral designs. On either side of the Taj are two mosques in red sandstone, in a style similar to that of the entrance gateway.

The Taj is visited by thousands of tourists every day.

Taj-ul Masjid An imposing mosque located in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. It was begun in 1878, by the ruler of the state, Jehan Begum but remained unfinished and was completed only in 1971. The huge mosque dominates the city and has a vast prayer hall, three large white-painted domes, and two minarets, each with eighteen storeys.

Takht A centre of Sikh spiritual authority. Apart from the AKAL TAKHT at AMRITSAR, the supreme seat of spiritual authority, there are four other Takhts:

(1) Takht Sri Harmandir Sahib, at Patna in Bihar. It marks the birthplace of Guru GOBIND SINGH.

(2) Takht Sri Keshgarh Saheb at ANANDPUR, Punjab. It marks the place where Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa.

(3) Takht Sri Damdama Sahib at TALWANDI SABO, Punjab.

(4) Takht Sachkhand Huzur Sahib at Nanded, Maharashtra. This marks the place where Guru Gobind Singh died.

Takshaka A NAGA deity, the king of snakes in Hindu mythology. According to the ATHARVA VEDA, he was descended from Vishala, while in the VISHNU PURANA he is the son of Kadru. In the MAHABHARATA he was said to live in the Khandava forest, and when it was burnt by ARJUNA, Takshaka was saved by INDRA, though his wife was killed. During the SARPA SATRA or snake sacrifice of King Janamejaya, he took refuge with the god Indra. Takshaka lives in PATALA. The deity is still worshipped in some areas in the rainy season, to ward off snake bite.

Tala Kaveri A sacred spot where the river Kaveri originates, located at a height of 1350 m on the Brahmagiri peak in Karnataka. The river rises here from a spring, around which there are three shrines. It is a popular place of pilgrimage, particularly at Tulasankranti. The river soon goes underground again, reappearing a kilometre later.

Talatala The fourth of the seven divisions or LOKAS of the nether world or PATALA, according to Hindu mythology. MAYA, a great asura, who was blessed by SHIVA, rules here.

Talmud A text in Judaism, a commentary on the MISHNAH. There are two versions of the Talmud, the Palestinian or Jerusalem Talmud, compiled at the end of the fourth century, and the Babylonian Talmud from the end of the fifth century, which is considered more authoritative. Both were composed in Aramaic. The Talmud contains both halakhah, information on legal and ritualistic matters, and aggadah, or theology and ethics explained through stories and parables. Traditional Jews follow the halakhah of the Babylonian Talmud. Both these Talmuds have several commentaries.

Talwandi Sabo A town sacred to Sikhs, in Bathinda district of Punjab, where the TAKHT Sri Damdama Sahib, a centre of Sikh spiritual authority, is located. Talwandi is also associated with Guru GOBIND SINGH, who in 1706, lived for some time in a spot close to Talwandi village and composed verses that were then compiled by Bhai MANI SINGH. Here the final version of the Granth Sahib was written down by Mani Singh. According to some accounts the guru stayed here for nine months, while according to others he was here for about three years. The Sri Damdama Sahib Gurdwara was built at this spot. Two GURDWARAS associated with the ninth guru, TEGH BAHADUR, who visited this place, are known as Wada Darbar Sahib and Gurusar.

tamas One of the three main GUNAS or qualities, said to exist in all human beings. Tamas is inertia, negativity or darkness, obstacles that have to be overcome in order to proceed in any activity. The gunas are mentioned in several texts, but they are best described in SAMKHYA philosophy.

Tamil New Year’s Day A new year’s day celebrated according to the Tamil calendar, in March/April in Tamil Nadu. Festivities take place in homes and in temples. Tiruvadamarudar (near KUMBAKONAM), Tiruchirapalli and KANCHIPURAM, are among the areas where large-scale celebrations take place.

Tamil siddhas In the Tamil tradition, eighteen saints are recognized as SIDDHAS (Tamil: Cittar), or perfected ones. The names of the siddhas vary in different texts, and there were many more than eighteen, the traditional mystical and symbolic number. Among the siddhas were TIRUMULAR, also a NAYANAR, but considered the founder of the Tamil siddha tradition, as well as Akkapey-cittar, Sivavakkiyar, Pattinattar, and Pampatti-cittar. Tirumular lived in the sixth or seventh century and Sivavakkiyar in the eighth century, while the others were later. Pampatti-cittar has been placed between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries.

The siddhas were usually wandering ascetics, and were against BRAHMANAS, rituals, caste, formal worship and social norms. They emphasized meditation on the god within the Self, as well as various YOGA and TANTRIC practices, to reach their goal. They composed songs in colloquial Tamil about liberation, immortality, and the divine soul within the heart, and each siddha reflected his own experiences in his songs. Tirumular’s verses are varied, and are collected in the Tirumantiram. The songs of Akkapey-cittar are reminiscent of the thoughts of the Buddhist philosopher NAGARJUNA. In one composition Akkapey said:

I do not exist,

The Lord too, is non-existent;

The Self is non-existent

The Teacher does not exist…

All actions

Are really the Void.

That which does not exist

Will appear in Nothingness.

Pattinattar, though he sang in several different moods, prayed to the Lord of MADURAI and experienced the divine truth, also realized the void, in which nothing remained. Sivavakkiyar’s Patal, or Song, has 527 stanzas, in which he describes the Light, and the Ultimate or Absolute, which is beyond all forms.

Other siddhas include Kudambai-cittar, Kaduvelicittar, and Azhuhini-cittar. Though most of the siddhas were from the Hindu tradition, Gunankudi Masthan was originally a Muslim. As siddhas, they transcended formal religion, though they used some of its terminolgy in their compositions.

Tanakh A term for the Jewish BIBLE. The Hebrew BIBLE is divided into three parts: TORAH, Nevi’im and Ketuvim. Tanach or Tenakh is an acronym based on the first letters of these parts. According to Jewish tradition, the Tanakh consists of twenty-four books. The Torah has five books, Nevi’im contains eight books, and Ketuvim has eleven.

tandava A term for the Hindu god SHIVA’S cosmic dance, which he dances in his form as NATARAJA.

Tangyur/Tanjur A collection of Buddhist texts, forming the second part of the canon of TIBETAN BUDDHISM. These texts were composed by various individuals and consist of a volume of Stotras which has sixty-four texts, commentaries on the TANTRAS in eighty-six volumes, incorporating 3055 texts, and commentaries on the Sutras in 137 volumes, incorporating 567 texts.

Tansen One of the most famous musicians and singers of India, who lived in the sixteenth century. Though India has had renowned musicians of all kinds, Tansen was one who was able to realize the legendary powers of music. Born in 1506, Tansen, originally known as Ramatanu, became the court musician of the Mughal emperor, AKBAR. His music was so perfect that he was said to have been able to light a lamp or bring rain by singing the appropriate RAGA. He died in 1580 and was buried at Gwalior, near the tomb of his spiritual guru, the great saint known as Muhammad Ghaus.

Tantras A class of texts of both Hinduism and Buddhism. Tantras focus on the manifestation of divine energy within the body, through various practices. See TANTRISM.

Tantric That pertaining to TANTRA or TANTRISM.

Tantrism, Buddhist Tantric Buddhism developed in India by the seventh or eighth centuries, though there are also earlier texts relating to Tantric practices. Despite different techniques being used, the aim of Tantric Buddhism remains the same as for MAHAYANA Buddhism, i.e., to gain the power to help all sentient beings. Tantric Buddhism has been divided into the three broad groups of VAJRAYANA, SAHAJIYANA and KALACHAKRA, though this is a somewhat artificial division. Tantra and Vajrayana are sometimes used as synonyms, while early forms of Vajrayana are also referred to as MANTRAYANA.

From the monasteries of VIKRAMSHILA, NALANDA and Odantapura in India, this form of Buddhism spread to Tibet and was preserved there. Since 1959, with the escape of the DALAI LAMA to India, some of its practices have been revived here, particularly in Tibetan enclaves and institutes.

The revealed TANTRAS translated into Tibetan were collected in two groups, translated works known as KAGYUR (Bka-gyur), and commentaries, or TANGYUR (Bstan-gyur). Four types of literature were identified within this division: Kriya Tantras, Charya Tantras, Yoga Tantras and ANUTTARAYOGA TANTRAS, representing different methods of Tantra. These groups have two types of approaches. The first two provide methods which all practioners can use to attain Buddhahood, while the second two are based on a classification into Buddhist families headed by a BUDDHA (see DHYANI BUDDHAS). People are assigned to these families on the basis of the predominant vice that remains in them on the purificatory path, and thus different practices can be provided for different types of people. Practitioners usually use a mix of outer rituals and inner practices. In addition there are works known as Sadhanas, to invoke a particular deity, as well as texts on MANDALAS or cosmic diagrams, and on MAHASIDDHAS, or adepts who had attained various powers. The NYINGMA school divides Anuttarayoga Tantras into three additional categories: Mahayoga, Anuyoga and Atiyoga (dzogchen).

Tantric Buddhist texts include the GUHYASAMAJA TANTRA; Arya MANJUSHRI MULA KALPA, the oldest available Buddhist Tantra; NISHPANNAYOGAVALI; Ratna-gotravibhaga-mahahanottara-Tantra, on the worship of the Dhyani Buddhas; the Kalachakra Tantra and several others.

Tantrism, Hindu A form of religion or spiritualism which originated in ancient days but gained popularity by the eighth century. The word may come from the Sanskrit root tan, ‘to spread’ or tanu, ‘body’ or tadantara, ‘inner’.

As a method of religious practice, its exact origin is not known, but certain concepts and practices can be traced back to the ATHARVA VEDA.

Tantrism aims to gain control over all the forces of nature and to obtain the power to accomplish any task. At its highest level it seeks union with the divine, while at its lowest, its powers can be used to harm others.

There are numerous Tantric texts describing various practices, as well as a number of Tantric sects, many of which still exist. Extant Hindu Tantric literature includes a vast number of texts dating from the seventh to the seventeenth centuries, much of which is still untranslated. TANTRAS contain both high philosophy and practical methodology. The texts are composed in Sanskrit and in regional languages. The main topics in Tantras are: theories regarding the creation and destruction of the world; methods of worship of various deities; attainment of all objects as well as all SIDDHIS; methods of uniting with the Supreme.

Some important Hindu Tantric texts are the Aghori Tantra; Bagala Tantra; Gayatritantra, on how the GAYATRI MANTRA can be used for protection; Kalavilasa-Tantra, on the goddess KALI; Kularnava-Tantra, of the KAULA sect; Maheshvara-Tantram, a SHAIVITE text; Matrikabheda-Tantra, on the meditational use of syllables of the alphabet; Pranatoshini-Tantram, ‘the Tantra that satisfies the vital force’; Prapanch-sara-Tantram, ‘Tantra of the essence of the phenomenal universe’, attributed to SHANKARA; Saundarya-lahari, also attributed to Shankara; Tantraraja-Tantra, which describes the Shri-yantra.

Sects can be divided broadly into two categories: those that use MANTRAS or sacred chants, meditation on YANTRAS or cosmic diagrams, and other meditative and breathing practices; and those that negate and overturn all normal practices. The former are known as the right-hand sects, and the latter as the left-hand sects, though there is some overlap between the two. The real objective of Tantra is to sublimate desire by first acceding to it. In the ‘left’ (vamachara) path, physical union is prescribed under strict conditions. The Tantric method includes sadhana or practice, shuddhi or purification, uddhara or elevation, and chaitanya, the reaffirmation of identity in consciousness.

All Tantric sects seek to raise the KUNDALINI, the hidden energy centre at the base of the spine, to the SAHASRARA CHAKRA at the top of the head, arousing other CHAKRAS along the way.

Left-hand sects particularly use the PANCHA-MAKARA or panchatattvas, commonly known as the five Ms. They are madya or wine, matsya or fish, mamsa, meat or flesh, mudra or parched grain, and maithuna or sexual union.

There are seven Tantric paths included in orthodox Hindu Tantric texts, among them the Shakta, Shaiva, Vaishnava, Saura and Ganapatya forms. The KAPALIKAS and KALAMUKHAS were among the SHAIVITE Tantric sects, while NATHA YOGIS have some Tantric practices. Among VAISHNAVA sects the PANCHARATRA and SAHAJIYA follow Tantric practices. Traditionally, Hindu Tantra is attributed to the god SHIVA, and several texts consist of a dialogue between Shiva and PARVATI.

tapas/tapah A term for heat, which generates power. Tapas is the heat generated by ascetic practices. Special powers can be attained through it, as well as spiritual development.

taqiya A term in Islam that refers to the practice of dissimulation or concealment of belief. SHIAS are allowed to practise this if their lives are in danger. This was at one time practised by MAHDAWIS in Gujarat, who pretended to be orthodox Muslims to escape persecution.

Tara A goddess who has Hindu and Buddhist forms.

(1) In Hinduism, she is one of the ten MAHAVIDYAS or Tantric goddesses, and is similar to KALI. She is said to be dark. She is draped in a tiger skin, wears a necklace of severed heads, and has her foot on a corpse.

(2) Tara was also the wife of the rishi BRIHASPATI, and was abducted by SOMA. She was restored to her husband after a war. BUDHA, Mercury, was her son through Soma.

(3) In the RAMAYANA, another Tara is the wife of the vanara king, VALI.

(4) In Buddhism, Tara has many forms. According to legend, she was born from the tears of the Bodhisattva AVALOKITESHVARA. There are twenty-one different forms of Tara, including Green and White Taras. Tara is depicted in her various forms in Buddhist temples, particularly those of TIBETAN BUDDHISM.

Taraka A DAITYA, who had gained great powers by practising austerities and worshipping the Hindu god SHIVA. Soon, however, he became arrogant and oppressive, and a threat to the gods. Only a son of SHIVA could kill him, thus KARTTIKEYA, the son of Shiva and PARVATI, was born in order to destroy him, and succeeded in doing so.

Taraknatha Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA, located at Tarakeshvara in Bengal. It is the most important Shiva shrine in the region and was constructed in the eighteenth century, with additions made later. The inner shrine houses a LINGA, while the adjoining MANDAPA is a late construction. The walls of the temple have terracotta plaques depicting various deities, while the roof is curved and double-tiered.

Worshippers of Shiva from all over the country visit this temple throughout the year. Thousands arrive for the two main festivals of SHIVARATRI in February/March and Gajan in April. On these occasions pots of water are carried from the river GANGA 35 km away and poured on the image. The water is not allowed to touch the ground; the water pots are attached to poles balanced on the shoulders. Similar rituals take place in other parts of India in the month of Shravana.

Tarana Svami The founder of a Jain DIGAMBARA sub-sect, the TARANAPANTHA. He was also known as Tarana-Tarana-Svami and lived from 1448 to 1515. He is said to have been influenced by Islamic ideas and by the teachings of LONKA SHAHA, the founder of the STHANAKAVASI sub-sect of the SHVETAMBARAS. He wrote fourteen books expounding his ideas. He died at Malharagarh in present Madhya Pradesh.

Taranapantha A sub-sect of the DIGAMBARA Jain sect, founded in the fifteenth century and named after its founder, TARANA SVAMI. It is also known as Samayapantha, because the adherents of this sect worship samaya, or sacred books, instead of images of deities. Taranapanthas follow the texts sacred to Digambaras, as well as the fourteen texts by Tarana Svami. They reject idol worship, caste and religious differences, and outer religious practices, believing in an inner spirituality. There are not many Taranapanthas, but some live in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Malharagarh in Madhya Pradesh, where Tarana Svami died, is their main centre of pilgrimage.

Taranatha A Tibetan Buddhist (b. 1575) who wrote a number of texts on Buddhism in Tibetan, including the History of the Kalachakra, and the History of Buddhism in India. These are still considered important texts on Buddhism.

tar-chok A term in TIBETAN BUDDHISM for coloured prayer flags that are tied to the roofs of Tibetan houses, monasteries and sacred places. Passages from Buddhist texts are printed on them, and thus they are said to spread the teachings while they flutter in the wind. The LUNG-TA, or wind horse, is another common motif on these flags.

tariqa The path, a term used in Islam for the SUFI way. Tariqa has several stages, including repentance, conversion or a resolve to adhere to the new path, renunciation and trust in God. The PIR or shaikh prescribes the path for each disciple.

Tarkshya (1) The name of a divine horse in the RIG VEDA, described in terms similar to DADHIKRA. He is swift as a bird, and in later texts, is identified with GARUDA, the vehicle of the Hindu god VISHNU.

(2) An ancient RISHI described in the MAHABHARATA and other texts.

Tarn Taran Sahib Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine, also known as Darbar Sahib, located at Tarn Taran in Punjab, 22 km south-east of AMRITSAR, first constructed by the fifth guru, ARJAN DEV, in memory of Guru RAM DAS. At this time the gurdwara was a small hut, with a tank dug adjacent to it. However, the lining of the tank that was begun at the time of Guru Arjan Dev, could not be completed till 1778. The present gurdwara was largely constructed in thetime of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Built in Mughal style, the three-storeyed gurdwara is richly ornamented, its dome covered in copper gilt. The entrance has a double-storeyed arch, with projecting balconies on the facade. The large tank nearby measures 300 sq. m, larger than that of the Harmandir Sahib. Its waters are said to have healing properties, and are believed to cure leprosy. Every month, on Amavas day, a fair is held here, when hundreds of pilgrims visit the holy shrine.

Tasawwuf A term used in Islam for SUFISM.

Tathagata A term used to refer to the BUDDHA; literally, one who realizes the true nature of things, their ‘suchness’ (TATHATA).

Tathagata-garbha A school of MAHAYANA Buddhism expounded by SARAMATI (350–450). It refers to the presence of the TATHAGATA, the BUDDHA essence, in all beings. It states that Buddhahood, or the Tathagata, is innate in everyone, and shows how it can be realized. This concept is subtly different from that of SHUNYATA, with its focus on emptiness devoid of qualities, and also different from the consciousness theories of the YOGACHARA school. Instead it focuses on positive attributes and the realization of the Absolute (dharmadhatu) in the world. Saramati wrote a commentary on the Ratnagotravibhaga, a text attributed to MAITREYANATHA, where he explained how this innate essence becomes manifest in the world. Thus the BODHISATTVA, according to him, is not one who abstains from liberation in order to help others, but rather a manifestation of the Absolute in the world.

tathata A MAHAYANA Buddhist term translated as ‘suchness’.

Tattva Samasa A Sanskrit text dealing with the SAMKHYA philosophy, which is ascribed to KAPILA.

Tattvarthadhigama Sutra A Jain text written in Sanskrit by UMASVAMI, translated as A Manual for Understanding the True Nature of Things. This manual is recognized as an authority by both SHVETAMBARAS and DIGAMBARAS, and includes the logic, psychology, cosmography, ontology and ethics of Jainism. The commentary on this text, also attributed to Umasvami, is not accepted as authentic by the Digambaras, though another commentary by the scholar Siddhasena Divakara is accepted by both sects.

tattvas A term for an element or elementary property, or for the principles of PRAKRITI or matter. The term also refers to categories of various phenomena. Tattvas are classified in the early schools of philosophy as well as in Buddhism and Jainism.

tattvas, in Jainism A term for the basic principles or constituents recognized by Jainism. The seven tattvas include JIVA and AJIVA, life and non-life, as well as ASRAVA, bandha, samvara, NIRJARA and MOKSHA. Asrava is the inflow of KARMA; bandha, the bondage of the soul through asrava; samvara, stopping the inflow; nirjara, gradually removing karma, leading finally to moksha or liberation.

Tawang Monastery A Buddhist monastery located in Arunachal Pradesh. Tawang monastery, also known as Galden Namgyal Lhatse, stands on a hill 3096 m high. It was founded in 1860–61, by Merak Lama Lodre Gyamsto, and has the capacity to house 700 monks.

The Dukhang is the main temple building, containing a large image of the Buddha. A silver casket holds special thangkas of the goddess Palden Lhamo, the main deity of the temple. On the walls are murals of Buddhist deities and saints.

The monastery is entered from the north, along the ridge. Apart from the temple and the residential quarters, Tawang has a large library and a centre for Buddhist cultural studies.

The monastery is closely connected with the fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, and was constructed on his request. The goddess thangkas are said to be painted with blood drawn from his nose, giving it a living quality, while the boundary wall was protected by yarn given by the Dalai Lama to Merek Lama.

This is one of the most important monasteries in India, and belongs to the GELUG sect of TIBETAN BUDDHISM.

taziya A term in Islam for the model of the tomb of HUSAIN, grandson of the Prophet MUHAMMAD. Taziyas made of wood and paper are decorated and carried in MUHARRAM processions, and then taken to the local graveyard, or immersed in water. Taziya also refers to enactments of the life and death of Husain, that take place during Muharram.

Teej A Hindu festival celebrated at the beginning of the monsoon, in June/July, mainly in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Dressed in bright colours, groups of people sing, dance and take out processions, which include decorated elephants, horses or camels.

The festival also re-enacts the daughter’s departure for her husband’s house. An image of the goddess DEVI (PARVATI) is kept in the house for two days and worshipped, after which a ceremony takes place, similar to that when the real daughter leaves home.

Tegh Bahadur, Guru The ninth Sikh guru, from 1664 to 1675. The youngest son of Guru HARGOBIND and his wife Bibi Nanaki, Tegh Bahdur was born at AMRITSAR in 1621. He was trained in the religious tradition and in martial arts, but after a battle at KARTARPUR in 1634, he felt nothing could be gained through bloodshed and became a renunciate, later settling in village Bakala, where he lived a reclusive life in constant meditation. Guru Hargobind therefore chose his grandson, HAR RAI, the son of Baba Gurditta, as his successor, and Har Rai was succeeded by HAR KRISHAN, who, however, died when he was still a child. On his deathbed, Har Krishan is said to have muttered ‘Baba Bakala’, indicating that the next guru would be found in village Bakala. A number of people from Bakala claimed to be the guru, and the succesor of Har Krishan, but through the efforts of Makhan Khan Lubana, a trader of Bakala, the true guru was discovered. Tegh Bahadur now became an active leader of the Sikhs, though he faced opposition from rival claimants. He travelled across Punjab but was refused entry into the HAR MANDIR at Amritsar, which was controlled by a descendant of Prithi Chand, an elder brother of ARJAN DEV. He therefore built a new township of Chak Nanaki, later known as ANANDPUR SAHIB. Accompanied by his wife and mother, Tegh Bahadur is said to have visted DELHI, AGRA, KURUKSHETRA, PRAYAGA, VARANASI, GAYA, PATNA and other places, spreading the message of Sikhism. Leaving his wife at Patna he moved further east, crossing Bengal and Assam, where he was able to negotiate a peace settlement between the Ahom ruler and the Mughal forces. By this time, his son Gobind Rai, later the tenth guru GOBIND SINGH, had been born at Patna. Guru Tegh Bahadur and his family returned to Anandpur Sahib in 1672–73. Meanwhile the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB was ruling at Delhi. He was known to be intolerant of other religions, and some of his local governors were even more oppressive. According to Sikh tradition, certain Hindu pandits of Kashmir approached the guru asking for his help, and the guru proceeded to Delhi to meet the emperor. There Guru Tegh Bahadur is reported to have told the emperor, ‘Hinduism may not be my religion… but I would fight for the right of Hindus to live with honour and practise their faith according to their own rites.’ When asked to convert to Islam, he said, ‘For me there is only one religion, the religion of God, and whoever belongs to it, whether a Hindu or a Muslim, him I own and he owns me. I neither convert others by force, nor submit to force to change my faith.’ The guru and the three disciples who had accompanied him, Bhai Mati Das, Bhai Dyala and Bhai Sati Das, were tortured and killed, the guru himself being executed on 11 November 1675. A huge storm took place, darkening the city of Delhi and enabling some of his disciples to remove his head and body. His head was cremated at Anandpur Sahib. The BABA BAKALA GURDWARA, RAKABGANJ GURDWARA and SIS GANJ GURDWARA, are among the shrines associated with the guru.

tejas A term for fiery energy or spiritual power. It sometimes refers to semen.

temples, Hindu Temples are sacred shrines, where the divine spirit, embodied as a deity or a great saint, is said to dwell. They vary from a tiny shrine beneath a tree to immense and elaborate structures, but in one form or the other, they are found all over India.

Small shrines are set up at places considered sacred and can have many forms: a mud hut with a stone or figure representing a deity; an image placed beneath a tree; or just a natural stone that has acquired sanctity over the years. Larger temples, however, are often constructed according to fixed principles, laid down in texts.

The main parts of a constructed temple are:

(1) The GARBHA-GRIHA, literally ‘womb house’, also called the cella or sanctum. This is the innermost shrine, housing the main deity. It is usually a small, square structure, dark inside, with its doorway facing east.

(2) The tower, also known as the SHIKHARA or vimana, which rises above the roof of the garbha-griha, and can reach great heights.

(3) The antarala, or vestibule. The door of the cella opens into this, which connects the cella with a pillared hall or MANDAPA.

(4) The mandapa or hall where devotees gather, which can be of varying sizes.

(5) The ardha-mandapa, literally ‘half-mandapa’, which is the outer porch through which devotees enter.

(6) The maha-mandapa, a transept on each side of the central hall. Only the larger temples have this.

(7) There may be additional towers over the mandapas.

(8) Outside the temple there may be other subsidiary shrines.

(9) The whole complex is often enclosed by high walls, entered through a gateway.

Not all temples have these components. Small temples may have only a garbha-griha, or a garbhagriha along with an ardha-mandapa. Large temples may have additional features, including extra towers. The style and structure of a temple varies considerably over time, and in different regions. Some different temple styles are given below.

Cave and rock-cut temples: Natural caves were used to make Brahmanical and Jain temples, as well as Buddhist CHAITYAS and VIHARAS. Often the walls and roofs were carved, and additions made with wood.

Among the earliest such Brahmanical temples are the temples at Udaigiri in Madhya Pradesh; AIHOLE, BADAMI, ELLORA, ELEPHANTA and Jogeshvari in Karnataka and Maharashtra; Vijayawada, Bhairavakonda and other sites in Andhra Pradesh; Pallavaram and MAMALLAPURAM in Tamil Nadu. In addition there are rock-cut temples such as the PANDAVA RATHAS at MAMALLAPURAM, and the KAILASHNATHA TEMPLE at Ellora. There are also some rock-cut temples in Himachal and elsewhere.

Early structural temples: In early days, temples were probably made from simple posts and thatch, or from a combination of brick and wood. One of the earliest surviving temples is at Bairat, near Jaipur in Rajasthan, dated to about 250 BCE. Next are some small north Indian temples built between CE 300 and 500, most of them flat-roofed, except for the Deogarh temple, which has a small tower. In the sixth and seventh centuries there were experimental styles; some had flat roofs, others spires or curvilinear towers.

Later temples: In succeeding centuries, regional styles developed. Three main styles recognized in the Shilpa Shastras, texts on architecture, were the Nagara, Vesara and Dravida.

Nagara style: The Nagara style developed a curvilinear tower and had a cruciform ground-plan. This type, with some variations, is found from the north to the Deccan, and from the west to the east. The Orissa temple is closest to the classic Nagara style. Uttar Pradesh, central India, Gujarat (Solanki temples), Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Bengal all had variants of this style, built between the eighth and thirteenth centuries.

Orissa temples: In Orissa temples, found at Bhubaneswar, Puri, Konarak and elsewhere, the inner shrine is a cubical structure known as the deul. Above it is a tall, beehive-shaped tower. The shrine opens into the hall or antarala, also known as the jagmohan, which is usually square, with a pyramidal roof. One or two more halls are often added, such as the nat mandir or dance hall, and the bhog mandir.

Malava temples: Malava temples were an offshoot of the Nagara style, and reached its height under the Paramara dynasty in the western Deccan, between the tenth and twelfth centuries. In this style, because of the diversity of the exterior walls, the inner shrine and the MANDAPA often appear to be diagonally connected.

Dravida style: Typical of the Dravida style in the Tamil region are pyramidal roofs and huge, elaborately carved GOPURAMS.

Vesara style: The Vesara style, found in the Deccan, is an intermediate style, with Dravida and Nagara elements.

Kerala and Kashmir: Kerala and Kashmir had somewhat different styles. Typical Kerala temples are built mainly of laterite stone bricks and have roofs covered with tiles. Some are multi-roofed, whereas others are circular structures with pointed, upturned cone roofs. In Kashmir, wood was often used.

There were several other local styles, which were variants of these. In modern times temples have been constructed in eclectic styles, while some retain traditional forms.

Tengalai school One of the two schools of Shrivaishnavism or southern VAISHNAVISM, which emerged in the twelfth or thirteenth century, the other being the VADAGALAI. The writings of the ALVARS are their main sacred texts. Tengalais admitted all castes and preached in the local language, Tamil. One of its major proponents was Pillai LOKACHARYA. The Tengalai school believes in the doctrine of prapatti or complete resignation and surrender to god, and states that nothing else is required because a person is saved by the grace of god.

Teppam A Hindu festival celebrated in Tamil Nadu, in which deities placed on decorated floats (teppam) are floated in the temple tanks, while priests chant shlokas. The festival takes place in January/February at a number of temples. In Chennai the main temples involved in the celebrations are the KAPALESHVARA TEMPLE and the PARTHASARTHY TEMPLE. Perhaps the grandest Teppam is at the Minakshi Temple in Madurai.

Terapantha (Digambara) A sub-sect of the DIGAMBARA Jain sect, different from the SHVETAMBARA Terapantha. In north India several Digambara Jains were opposed to the control of the BHATTARAKAS, and in 1627, founded a separate sect, denying their authority. The sect rejected certain practices, such as worshipping deities other than the TIRTHANKARAS and making offerings of sachitta items, i.e., items with life, such as fruits and flowers. Their offerings consisted of sacred rice, cloves, sandal, almonds, dry coconut, dates and similar items. Devotees stand while worshipping and do not usually perform ARTI or distribute prasad. Digambara Terapanthas live mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

Terapantha (Shvetambara) A sub-sect of the SHVETAMBARA Jain sect that emerged from the STHANAKAVASI. It was founded in 1760 by Bhikhan or Bhikkana, who was a Sthanakavasi ascetic, in the Marwar area of Rajasthan. There are different versions of the origin of the name, the popular version being that it is derived from the sect following thirteen (tera) main principles of Jainism, the five VRATAS or vows, the five samitis or rules of conduct, and three guptis, of control of thought, speech and action. Another explanation is that as tera also means ‘yours’, it refers to ‘your path’, that is, the path of MAHAVIRA. Terapanthas are a closely knit group under the guidance of an acharya. The first acharya was Bhikkana, and the ninth, Tulasi, was born in 1914. Acharya Tulasi started the Anuvrata Andolan, a movement to spread the basic vratas to the masses. After his death in 1997, Acharya Mahapragya became the tenth acharya.

All ascetics and members of the sect follow the orders of the acharya. Once a year they observe a festival known as Maryada Mahotsava, held on the seventh day of the bright half of the month of Magha, when all members of the sect, both ascetics and lay disciples, meet to discuss various issues and problems. Terapanthas believe in simplicity, do not worship idols, and have strict rules for ascetics. The sect has limited numbers and is concentrated in Rajasthan.

Teresa, Mother A ROMAN CATHOLIC originally from the Loretto Order of Nuns, who founded a new order, the Missionaries of Charity, to work for the poor and destitute. Born in 1910 as Agnes Gongxha Bojaxhiu in Shkup, Albania, Ottoman empire (now Skopje, Macedonia), in 1928 she joined the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Ireland, but soon after came to India as part of the Bengal mission of Loretto nuns. After her novitiate in Darjiling, she taught at a school in Bengal. In 1946 she became convinced through a spiritual experience that her mission was to help the poor. Obtaining permission from Pope Pius XII, she founded her new order in 1948, which was given official sanction in 1950, and began working in the slums of Calcutta. In 1965 the order was made a pontifical congregation, responsible only to the Pope.

Her order grew and expanded; schools for poor children, orphanages, shelters for the terminally ill, abandoned people, lepers and the mentally ill were opened in several parts of India. The order has also spread to other countries of the world. The nuns of the order wear white saris with blue borders, and are often helped by volunteers.

During her lifetime, Mother Teresa received a number of awards, including the first Pope John XXIII Peace Prize (1971), the Nobel Peace Prize (1979) and the Bharat Ratna (1980), India’s highest civilian award.

She died in September 1997 and was beatified in 2003.

thags/thugs A sect of robbers who worshipped the goddess Bhavani, a form of KALI, before robbing and killing their victims. Muslims also became thags, but had their own groups and rituals. Thags were eliminated by the British in the nineteenth century. Some doubt the descriptions of thags and their rituals provided by British officials.

Thanamga (Sthananga) A Jain text, the third of the twelve ANGAS. It deals with religious topics grouped according to numbers from one to ten, as in the Buddhist ANGUTTARA NIKAYA. Thus, under four there are four kinds of teachers, four kinds of mendicants, and four kinds of men. The text also has a list of the contents of the DITTHIVAYA, the lost twelfth ANGA.

thangkas A term for Buddhist scroll paintings depicting Buddhist deities. The paintings can be of different sizes and with various themes, and are found in every Tibetan Buddhist temple, monastery or family shrine. The painting is usually made on cotton canvas and framed in silk brocade. Some scrolls have fine embroidery instead of painting. Thangkas were first made in Tibet around the tenth century. The concept of scroll painting was probably borrowed from China, while the painting style may have been derived from Nepal or Kashmir. The paintings include BUDDHAS, BUDDHIST DEITIES, MANDALAS and other Buddhist themes. Apprentice painters learn the art from experienced lamas to ensure that every detail is correct. Each painting is consecrated before being installed. The paintings are used by lamas for meditation, while lay Buddhists install them for protection against spirits. Several old and new monasteries have beautiful thangkas, and the art is kept alive in India by Tibetan refugees.

Thanjavur A city in Tamil Nadu that has a number of temples and is a major centre of pilgrimage. The temples date back to the Chola period; the most important is the BRIHADESHVARA TEMPLE constructed in the early eleventh century.

Theosophical Society of India A society dedicated to exploring the hidden truths that are the source of all religions. The Theosophical Society was first founded in New York in 1875 by H.P. BLAVATSKY, Col. H.S. OLCOTT and W. Judge.

Blavatsky and Olcott visited India and Sri Lanka in 1878, and in 1882–83 they set up the Theosophical Society of India at Adyar in Chennai (Madras). Blavatsky’s writings, particularly The Secret Doctrine and the Voice of the Silence, laid the basis for Theosophical thought.

Annie BESANT joined the Society in 1889, and came to India in 1893. She wrote extensively on Indian religions, particularly Hinduism and Buddhism, stating that these religions put forward greater truths than those of the West. In a time of rising nationalism and anti-British feelings, this helped to give Indians a sense of pride. Besant also joined the freedom movement and was elected president of the Indian National Congress in 1917. Another prominent Theosophist in India, C.W. Leadbeater, was responsible for choosing J. KRISHNAMURTI as the new messiah. Allan Octavian HUME, a British civil servant and Theosophist, assisted in starting the Indian National Congress in 1885. Rukmini Arundale, married to George Arundale, was among other Theosophists who made major contributions to Indian life and society.

Several prominent Indians joined the society in the early decades of the twentieth century. They followed the Society’s principles of dropping caste and religious differences, a major achievement particularly in south India, where Brahmanical traditions were very strong.

Around 1930 the society went through a crisis, soon after J. Krishnamurti rejected its principles. Many left the society to follow Krishnamurti, though they retained their Theosophical ideals.

The society continues to exist today. At its sprawling wooded grounds in Adyar there are a number of activities and programmes attended by visitors from India and abroad. A large and well-stocked library provides facilities for research on the society and on all religions. There are also branches in VARANASI, DELHI, MUMBAI and other cities, where meetings are held, but its greatest impact on India was in the first few decades of the twentieth century.

The aims of the society have been summarized in three principles: (1) to form a nucleus of the universal brotherhood of humanity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste, or colour; (2) to encourage the study of comparative religion, philosophy and science; (3) to investigate unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent in man.

The society has a separate esoteric section. In the early days, Madame Blavatsky and her associates formulated an occult hierarchy based on Tibetan Buddhist and Tantric texts, as well as on Puranic myths. According to this hierarchy, SANAT KUMARA, an eternal youth, was at the head of the universe. Below him was the BUDDHA. At the third level were the three heads of the Logos: the Bodhisattva MAITREYA, representing compassion, the Mahachohan, representing buddhi or the higher intellect, and the MANU, representing skilful action. At the fourth level were the Mahatmas or Masters. There were several of these and Master Koot Hoomi or KUTHUMI and Master MORYA were in charge of India. Below this level were the Adepts, but to reach this stage an individual had to be guided by a Master through a series of initiations and to be committed to selfless action. These ideas still have an impact on a number of Western spiritual societies.

Theragatha A HINAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON. The Theragatha, literally ‘songs of the elders’, contains verses composed by monks. It has 107 poems, with 1279 stanzas. The beautiful poems describe the experiences of the monks, the peace attained through giving up a worldly life, as well as Buddhist principles and concepts. As the monks live in VIHARAS (monasteries) away from the towns and cities, they are close to nature, and describe the changing seasons. One example is given below:

When the drum of the clouds thunders in heaven,

and all the ways of the birds are thick with rain,

the monk sits in the hills in ecstacy

and finds no greater joy than this. (Trans. A.L. Basham)

The THERIGATHA is a similar text, consisting of songs by women.

Theravada A Buddhist sect of the HINAYANA school, that is still popular in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. They were an offshoot of the STHAVIRAVADA sect, the sect of the elders. One group of the Sthaviravada was known as Vibhajyavada and settled in south India and Sri Lanka by the third century BCE, where they took the name Theravada, the Pali word for Sthaviravada. According to other sources, the Theravada and Vibhajyavada were similar and closely related, but not identical. Three branches developed in Sri Lanka, named after their monastic centres, the Mahaviharika, Abhayagirika and Jetavaniya. Later Theravada Buddhism spread to Myanmar and other countries.

The Theravada follow the PALI CANON, like other HINAYANA schools, but certain beliefs distinguish them from other schools. Among their main differences are the denial of the concept of an intermediate existence linking death and rebirth, and of the notion that an ARHAT could regress or that a BODHISATTVA could be born in hell. They also said it was possible for the DEVAS or gods to practise BRAHMACHARYA (celibacy), a concept denied by other schools.

Therigatha A HINAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON. The Therigatha, literally ‘songs of the women elders’, are verses composed by Buddhist nuns, and consist of seventy-three poems with 522 stanzas. These verses depict the joy of the monastic life, but also narrate their own life stories and how they came to choose this path. A few, such as the courtesan Ambapalli, joined the order after being influenced by the BUDDHA and his path, while others found peace and a new understanding after great grief and loss. Some long poems are narrative stories in verse.

Thirupurantakeshvarar Kshetram A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA in his form as Thirupurantakeshvara, located in Andhra Pradesh on a hill along the Guntur-Kurnool road. In this form Shiva destroyed the three cities (Tripura) of the ASURAS. His consort here is PARVATI in the form of Thirupurasundari. Over 260 inscriptions have been found in the temple. BUDDHA images and the remains of a STUPA are nearby.

Thomas of Canan A Christian from Syria who came to India around 345 CE, and is also known as CANAI THOMA.

Thomas, St. See St. Thomas.

Thousand-Pillared Temple A temple of the Hindu god SHIVA located on the hills of Hanamkonda near Warangal in Andhra Pradesh. It was constructed in 1163 by Prataparudradeva, a king of the Kakatiya dynasty, and derives its name from the number of columns in its MANDAPAS. Though primarily a Shiva temple, there are actually three shrines dedicated to three deities, Shiva, VISHNU and SURYA. They open into a columned mandapa, its platform extending southwards, where there is a large NANDI carved in granite, 2.7 m high. Beyond this is another mandapa with a number of columns. The columns or pillars in the mandapas are remarkable, carved in black stone with multi-faceted shafts. The ceiling has elaborate decorations around a central NATARAJA image. The temple is constructed mostly in green-grey basalt.

Thraetona A sage in the AVESTA texts. He cured diseases with the help of MANTRAS and was a great physician and healer and had the epithet Athwya. He slew a three-headed demon, Azhi-Dahaka. His Vedic counterpart is TRITA APTYA, while Traitana, who slew a three-headed monster, is also mentioned in the VEDAS. In the SHAH NAMAH he is known as Faridun, the heroic king who defeated Zohak, a tyrant.

Thyagaraja/Tyagaraja A great musician of south India, also considered a saint. Born in 1767 at Tiruvarur in present Tamil Nadu, a town known for its temple of SHIVA in his form as TYAGARAJA, Thyagaraja is said to have married twice and had one daughter. He then took a vow of poverty and began wandering through the streets, singing songs of BHAKTI or devotion to god, accepting a few handfuls of rice in return. His favourite deity was the Hindu god RAMA, and many of his compositions are in praise of him. He also sang about the joy of reciting the divine name, and about music itself, which could lead one to MOKSHA or liberation. Most of his songs are in Telugu, as his ancestors came from the Andhra region. He contributed greatly to Karnatak music by popularizing the kriti, a particular type of composition, and leaving behind over 700 songs in 200 different ragas, which are still sung today. He died in 1847.

Tibetan Buddhism An important form of Buddhism in India today, that incorporates MAHAYANA, TANTRIC and VAJYRAYANA Buddhism. Several Indian Buddhists went to Tibet to spread Buddhism there, and Tibetan Buddhists came to India to study.

Buddhism is said to have been introduced in Tibet in the second century CE, though it was King Songtsen Gampo (608-50) who firmly established it there. The next prominent Buddhist king was Trisong Detsen (755–97). He invited famous teachers from India to Tibet, including SHANTIRAKSHITA and PADMASAMBHAVA. A later king, Lang Darma (836–42) attempted to extinguish Buddhism, and for more than a hundred years, Buddhism almost disappeared in Tibet. However, some monks preserved the practices and gradually, it began to revive. From western Tibet, Lha Lama Yeshe O dispatched Tibetans to Kashmir, where Buddhism still flourished. The best known of these was RINCHEN ZANGPO (958–1055). Tibetan Buddhists studied in Kashmir and founded a number of monasteries in India before returning to Tibet.

From the time of the founding of the first monastery in Tibet to the eleventh century, there were no separate orders in Tibet. In the eleventh century, ATISHA, an Indian Buddhist, came to Tibet, helped in the revival of Buddhism and began the translation of Tibetan texts into Sanskrit. His disciple, DROMSTON (Bromston) set up the first distinctive monastic order with the founding of the Rwa-sgren monastery in 1056. This was known as the KADAMPA (Bka-gdams-pa) or Kadam order. In 1073 another monastery was founded in the principality of Sakya (Saskya) by Kon-chog-ryalpo, a disciple of DROGMI. This laid the foundation for the SAKYA order. Another major school of Tibetan Buddhism, the KAGYU order, soon arose. The NYINGMA (Rnin-ma-pa) emerged in the twelfth century, but traced its origin to Padmasambhava. These groups also competed for political power.

In the fourteenth century, TSONG KHAPA started the GELUG school (Dge-lugs-Pa), which became the most important order, of which the DALAI LAMA is the head.

All these orders and their offshoots exist in India today. Most of the orders have a basic similarity. All Tibetan orders accepted the VINAYA or monastic rules of the Mulasarvastivada school, a sub-school of the SARVASTIVADA. They base their teachings on late Mahayana, Tantric and Vajrayana texts, and also incorporate some aspects of the earlier Bon tradition. Differences that exist among the Tibetan schools emerged in a historical and political context.

Buddhism continued to flourish in Tibet until the Chinese occupation of the 1950s. In 1959, the Dalai Lama, followed by thousands of Tibetan Buddhists, came to India to escape persecution. Here they set up a government in exile, founded new monasteries, and continued the practice of their religion.

Over 1,20,000 Tibetan Buddhists are still in India, though there is some revival of the religion in Chinese Tibet.

Tikka A Hindu festival, another name for BHAI DUJ, celebrated in Punjab and Haryana.

Tikkana A poet who lived from 1220 to 1300 (or 1208–1288), and rewrote the RAMAYANA and MAHABHARATA in Telugu. He was a minister of the king Manumasiddhi in the Nellore region of present Andhra Pradesh. His Ramayana in verse is known as the Nirvachanottara Ramayana. However, his work on the Mahabharata is better known. Completing the work begun by NANNAYA, he began his translation from the Virata Parva, recreating several passages and introducing his own thoughts and ideas. Telugu by this time was highly Sanskritized, but Tikkana limited his use of Sanskrit, using mainly colloquial Telugu. His work remains popular today.

Tilopa A Buddhist MAHASIDDHA who lived from 989 to 1069. He was an expert in the Tantric tradition and esoteric teachings. His teachings, along with those of his chief disciple, NAROPA, resulted in the founding of the KAGYU school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM. The six teachings of Naropa are well known in this school.

Tipitaka (Tripitaka) A name for the Buddhist PALI CANON, which literally means ‘three baskets’, referring to three groups of texts, namely, the VINAYA PITAKA, SUTTA PITAKA and ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA.

tirtha A term used for a sacred site or place of pilgrimage (usually Hindu). Tirthas are often along rivers but can be elsewhere as well.

Tirthankara A Jain religious leader, a saviour who has attained enlightenment. Literally it means ‘ford-maker’ or ‘ford-finder’, one who builds a ford or bridge, i.e., points out the way to cross beyond the cycle of birth and death. Twenty-four Tirthankaras appear in every age or YUGA. Those of the present age are: Adinatha or RISHABHA, Ajitanatha, Sambhavanatha, Abhinandanatha, Sumatinatha, Padmaprabha, Suparshvanatha, Chandraprabha, Pushpadanta or Suvidhnatha, Shitalanatha, Shreyamsanatha, Vasupujya, Vimalnatha, Anantanatha, Dharmanatha, Shantinatha, Kunthunatha, Aranatha, MALLINATHA, Munisuvrata, Naminatha, ARISHTANEMINATHA, PARSHAVANATHA, and MAHAVIRA. The first Tirthankara existed millions of years before the twenty-fourth.

Tirthankaras have perfect knowledge of the past, present and future. Each Tirthankara reorganizes the Jain religion to suit the changing times and reinstates the four-fold order, consisting of sadhus (monks), sadhvis (nuns), shravakas (male householders) and shravikas (female householders).

When a Tirthankara is to be born, his mother has fourteen (or according to some texts, sixteen) auspicious dreams.

Five auspicious events, known as kalyanaka are celebrated in every Tirthankara’s life. These are: (1) Chyavana Kalyanaka, when the Tirthankara’s soul enters the mother’s womb; (2) Janma Kalyanaka, his birth; (3) Diksha Kalyanaka, when the Tirthankara renounces the world and becomes a monk or nun (according to DIGAMBARAS nuns cannot become Tirthankaras); (4) Kevaljnana Kalyanaka, when the Tirthankara attains kevaljnana or absolute knowledge, after destroying the four ghati KARMAS; he then delivers his first sermon and reinstates the Jain religion; (5) Nirvana Kalyanaka, when the Tirthankara’s soul is liberated from the world, the four aghati karmas are destroyed, and NIRVANA is attained.

The Tirthankaras who have passed beyond life and death are not capable of helping living beings today, though their philosophies are there for guidance. Images of Tirthankaras are worshipped in temples, as a form of reverence to them and to remind one of the path. The lives of each of the Tirthankaras is described in later Jain texts, including the TRISHASHTISHALAKAPURUSHA-CHARITRA, the TRISHASHTILAKSHANA MAHA-PURANA, and several individual Charitras and PURANAS. Some details of the parents, place of birth and death, and emblems of the Tirthankaras are given in the corresponding table.

Tiruchirapalli A city in Tamil Nadu which has a number of historic temples, and is a centre of pilgrimage. Temples include cave temples of the Pallava kings, as well as structural temples of the Chola and Nayaka dynasties. On one side, a huge rock, 82 m high, is notable for its stone elephants and pillars with carved capitals. Just 3 km to the north is the famous SRIRANGAM temple.

Tirukkalukunram A place in Tamil Nadu famous for its SHIVA temple, located on top of a hill. The temple, at a height of 152 m, is reached by steps. Two white kites are said to have been coming here for centuries. They would fly to the temple each morning around 11 am, were fed by the priests, and then departed. Tradition says that they embodied the souls of two ancient saints who rested at the temple on their way from RAMESHVARAM to VARANASI. However, according to recent reports, they are no longer seen.

Tirukural A Tamil text also known as KURAL, written by TIRUVALLUVAR.

Tirumalai A sacred hill, a place of Hindu pilgrimage in Andhra Pradesh. Located 10 km from Tirupati. Tirumalai, also known as Upper Tirupati, is the site of the famous temple of Lord VENKATESHVARA, the richest and perhaps the most popular temple in India. Tirumalai is part of a group of seven hills known as Venkatachalam or Sheshachalam. The hills are said to represent the seven hoods of ANANTA or Adishesha, the lord of the serpents.

Tirumangai A VAISHNAVA Alvar saint whose verses, including the Periya Tirumozhi, form an important part of the NALAYIRA DIVYA PRABANDHAM. In these verses he glorified more than eighty-four sacred VAISHNAVA sites.

Tirumular A SHAIVITE saint who probably lived in the sixth or seventh century, and is known for his collection of three thousand verses, the Tirumantiram. This text forms part of the TIRUMURAI, which includes verses by the Hindu SHAIVITE saints of south India.

Not much is known about his life. Some date him much earlier as far back as the second century BCE. According to tradition, he came from the region of the KAILASHA mountain in the far north and settled in south India. Originally a siddha, he entered the body of a shepherd named Mulan or Mular, and was later known as Tirumular (tiru = sacred). He was an expert in YOGA and TANTRA, and is considered the founder of the SHAIVA SIDDHANTA school of thought, as well as one of the NAYANARS or Shaivite BHAKTI saints, and one of the eighteen TAMIL SIDDHAS. His work explains the principles of Shaiva Siddhanta and focuses on the similarities between the SHAIVA AGAMAS and the VEDAS. He uses the term Vedanta Siddhanta to signify their essential unity.

Tirumurai A collection of verses composed in Tamil by SHAIVITE saints and compiled by NAMBI ANDAR NAMBI in around CE 1000. The whole comprises eleven books, while a twelfth book, the PERIYA PURANAM, is often included. The first seven books are known as the Tevaram or Devaram and contain the hymns of Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar.

Tirupati A sacred city located to the south of Andhra Pradesh. Nearby is the hill of TIRUMALAI, with the renowned temple of Lord VENKATESHVARA. Other temples in Tirupati include that of Sri Kodanda Ramaswami. Three kilometres away at Tiruchanur is the temple of the goddess Alamelumanga, the consort of Lord Venkateshvara.

Tiruvalluvar A Tamil poet who lived between the second century BCE and the fourth or fifth centuries CE and composed the TIRUKURAL. Not much is known about his life. He lived in Mylapur (Chennai). According to some accounts he had a BRAHMANA father and a SHUDRA mother, while according to others he was born in a shudra family of cultivators or weavers. In Mylapur he lived near a Christian community, and some see traces of Christian influence in his work.

Tiruvannamalai A city in Tamil Nadu known for its SHIVA temple. A huge festival takes place here in November/December, when thousands of pilgrims arrive. A bonfire is lit on top of the hill and is visible for days, thought to represent Shiva’s fire LINGA. There are other temples and shrines in the town, including those dedicated to DURGA and SUBRAHMANYA, as well as tanks with sacred TIRTHAS associated with three of the LOKAPALAS or guardian deities. The ASHRAM of RAMANA MAHARSHI is nearby, on the outskirts of the city.

Tiruvaymoli/Tiruvaymozhi A Tamil text composed by the ALVAR saint NAMMALVAR in the eighth or ninth century. It consists of poems of devotion to, and longing for, the Hindu god VISHNU.

Tiruvembavai-Tiruppavai festival A Hindu festival that unifies SHAIVITE and VAISHNAVITE sects, and was once very popular in south India. At this time the Tiruvembavai hymn of the Shaivite saint Manikavachakar and the Tiruppavai hymn of ANDAL, the ALVAR saint, are recited together.

Tishtriya A yazata or minor deity in Zoroastrianism representing a star. A hymn to the deity in the Yashts records that every year Tishtriya, in the form of a white-adorned horse, defeats Apaosha, a demon of drought, near the sea Vourukasha.

tithi A lunar day, a unit of time in the Hindu calendric system. Thirty tithis form one lunar month, the equivalent of about twenty-nine-and-a-half solar days. The tithis can begin at any time of the twenty-four-hour day.

Toda religion Todas, a tribal group that live in the Nilgiri mountains near Udhagamandalam in Tamil Nadu, venerate the buffalo, and their religious practices revolve around the sacred buffalo and dairy. Every aspect of the life and care of the buffaloes has a ritual element, and there are special rules concerning their milking, taking out to the pasture, naming, introducing new items in the dairy, or even rebuilding the dairy. Even their deities are connected with the buffalo. In general, Toda deities are known as Towtit, or gods of the mountains, and the most important of these is the goddess To-kisy, who is said to have divided the sacred buffaloes and dairies among the various clans and sub-clans. Great importance is given to the Tow-nor or sacred places (the dairies) that are sometimes anthropomorphized as deities. These special dairies are located apart from the settlements, while there are other buffaloes and dairies that are not in the same category. The sacred dairies often resemble the dwelling-huts of the tribe, but have carvings of buffaloes, the sun and moon, and sometimes of the PANDAVAS. The concept of the sacred buffalo originates in its economic importance, for the once pastoral tribe. The priest-dairyman offers prayers for the welfare of the whole tribe.

Torah A term in Judaism for the divine teaching or revelation that is often translated as ‘law’. In a narrow sense the Torah refers to the first five books of the Hebrew BIBLE, but in a broader sense it includes the rest of the Bible, the oral teachings, and sometimes the whole body of Jewish law and custom.

Totapantha A minor sub-sect of the DIGAMBARA Jain sect. It came into existence to try to bring about a reconciliation between the BISAPANTHA (twenty-sect) and the TERAPANTHA (thirteen-sect), hence it was known as the Sadesolah (sixteen-and-a-half) sect, or Totapantha. It did not succeed in bringing the two sects together. Members of the sect follow a mix of BISAPANTHA and TERAPANTHA ideas. There are few members, mostly in Madhya Pradesh.

Transcendental Meditation A form of meditation propagated by Maharishi MAHESH YOGI. It was extremely popular in the 1970s and 80s and is still practised in several parts of the world. According to the Maharishi, this meditation was taught to him by his guru Brahmananda Sarasvati, who later came to him in a vision and urged him to reveal it to the world.

Transcendental Meditation has several levels. In the first stage, a simple two-syllable MANTRA is given to the disciple after a small initiation ceremony, by teachers trained by the Maharishi. This is repeated twice a day, morning and evening for twenty minutes each. Great benefits of freedom from stress, calmness, and positivity have been reported from this practice. Higher stages of meditation are revealed by the teacher and can lead to the development of various SIDDHIS (powers). Several practitioners reported that they achieved some kind of levitation.

The Maharishi believed the widespread practice of this meditation would change the world in a positive way, creating peace and harmony.

trapa The term for the lowest-ranking monk in a Tibetan Buddhist monastery. Trapas can study and advance to a higher level.

Treta Yuga The second of the four YUGAS or periods of time, in Hindu mythology, which together comprise a MAHAYUGA. The Treta Yuga follows the KRITA YUGA, and in it the righteousness that existed in the first yuga is reduced by one-fourth. Its primary virtue is knowledge. Four VEDAS have now appeared, sacrifices and rituals have started, and people have begun to seek rewards for their work. Humans live for 3000 years and still have superior powers. Children are born through a simple touch between two people, and not through sex. The yuga lasts for 3600 divine years, which are equal to 12,96,000 human years, and is symbolized by the colour red. It is succeeded by the DVAPARA YUGA.

tribal religions India has a tribal population of around 8 per cent. Tribal groups are found all over India, though particularly in the north-east and in central India. The largest broad tribal groups in India are classified as Bhils, Gonds, Oraons, Mundas and Santhals. Among others are: Apatani, Badaga, Baiga, Bhot, Bhotia, Chakma, Chenchu, Gaddi, Garo, Gujjar, Jarawa, Khasi, Kol, Lepcha, Lushai, Muria, Naga, Shompen, Todas and Warlis. Many of the tribes have been influenced by Hinduism, while others have converted to Christianity. However, even these retain some of their original practices and festivals. In general, tribal groups revere a creator deity, or a pair of deities, apart from a number of other spirits and ancestral deities. The names of their deities, and the festivals associated with them, are unique to each tribe.

Trika Shastra A name of a branch of non-dual SHAIVISM that was popular in Kashmir.

trikaya The three bodies of a BUDDHA, an idea that developed in MAHAYANA and VAJRAYANA Buddhism. Earlier a concept of two bodies, the rupakaya and the dharmakaya, the material body and the eternal body, had evolved. This concept was expanded into that of the trikaya, or three bodies. According to this, the Nirmanakaya, literally the magical body, the body that is only an apparition, is the physical body in which the BUDDHA (Shakyamuni) appeared on earth, or the body of all historical BUDDHAS. The sambhogakaya is the enjoyment or bliss body, the Buddha that appears in paradises and is the form that is worshipped. The dharmakaya is the eternal Buddha, the origin and source, the TATHAGATA.

The trikaya also has an esoteric symbolism and in Tantric Buddhism corresponds to certain stages on the Tantric path. Thus the nirmanakaya corresponds to a stage where bliss can be sought through a union of two people; the dharmakaya reflects the internal union of the male and female principles; the sambhogakaya, the internal state of bliss. A fourth body or stage is also mentioned, the mahasukhakaya, which is beyond all these.

Trimurti The triple form of the three main gods of Hinduism, BRAHMA, VISHNU and SHIVA, who represent creation, preservation and destruction, respectively. These are three aspects of the One supreme reality. In iconography, the Trimurti form is depicted with one body and three heads or as a composite image. The deities are also depicted separately and have their own temples and forms of worship.

Trinity A ROMAN CATHOLIC concept that God is One, yet consists of three persons: the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. The concept is also accepted by most Protestant denominations.

tripartite ideology A theory put forward by George Dumezil (1898–1986) regarding the society and religion of the INDO-EUROPEANS. According to this theory, there was a hierarchical three-fold (tripartite) structure in society, of priests, representing spirituality and sovereignty, warriors, and productive workers, common to all members of the Indo-European group. This was reflected in religion and myth, and similar aspects could be traced in the myths and deities of the ancient cultures of this group.

Tripura (1) A wonderful triple city of gold, silver and iron, constructed by the great asura architect MAYA. It was destroyed by SHIVA. (2) Tripura today is the name of a state in India.

Tripura Bhairavi A Hindu goddess who is the SHAKTI of SHIVA. She emerged from his LINGA, which was divided into three parts.

Tripura Sundari A Hindu goddess identified with DURGA or with SHODASHI. She was the fairest being in heaven, earth and air.

Tripureshvari Temple A Hindu temple in the town of Udaipur in Tripura. It was constructed in the fifteenth century and is a SHAKTA PITHA, one of the places where a part of SATI’s body is said to have fallen. A major festival takes place here at the time of DIVALI.

triratna, of Buddhism Literally, ‘the three jewels’, the triratna form the basics of the Buddhist religion. They are related to: (1) the BUDDHA: worshipping or recognizing the Buddha as the Enlightened One; (2) the DHARMA: understanding his dharma and teachings; (3) the SANGHA: being a part of the sangha or monastic community. These are also the three refuges (trisharana), which should be relied on and are expressed even today in the Buddhist formula: ‘Buddham sharanam gachchhami; Dharmam sharanam gachchhami; Sangham sharanam gachchhami’; meaning, ‘I take refuge in the Buddha, the dharma and the sangha.’

triratna, of Jainism The three jewels of Jainism, which consist of SAMYAK DARSHANA, SAMYAK JNANA and SAMYAK CHARITRA, or right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. Right conduct depends on both right belief and right knowledge. These are also known as the ratnatreya.

Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana A Jain text that describes the lives of the sixty-three great men of Jainism from a DIGAMBARA perspective. It is divided into two parts, the ADI PURANA and the UTTARA PURANA. The text was composed in the ninth century by JINASENA and GUNABHADRA.

Trishashtishalakapurusha Charitra A Jain text written by Hemachandra Suri between 1160 and 1172, which contains an account of the sixty-three great men of Jainism. The text is divided into ten sections or parvans, beginning with the life of the first TIRTHANKARA, RISHABHA. The tenth parvan, also used as an independent text, is the Mahavira Charitra, describing the life of MAHAVIRA. The appendix, known as the Parishishta Parvan or Sthaviravali Charitra, describes the lives of the disciples of Mahavira and of the Dashapurvin, those who once had the knowledge of the ancient texts known as the PURVAS. The whole text is interspersed with semi-historical and mythical stories. These accounts are taken from earlier sources, but the text forms the base for all later accounts of the Tirthankaras in SHVETAMBARA sources.

trishula The term for a trident, the emblem and weapon of the Hindu god SHIVA.

triskandhaka A Buddhist MAHAYANA ritual that has three steps: (1) confessing one’s sins; (2) rejoicing at the merit of others; (3) requesting all BUDDHAS to remain in the world to help all suffering beings. This ritual was to be performed three times in the day and three times at night. It is an extension of the earlier PATIMOKKHA ritual and was to be performed in monasteries interspersed with regular periods of meditation.

Trita Aptya A Vedic deity usually associated with INDRA and connected with SOMA. He slew a three-headed, six-eyed dragon. His name signifies ‘the third’. His counterpart in the AVESTA is Thrita, the third man to prepare haoma (Soma), or THRAETONA, who slew a serpent. He has been considered a god of lightning, or of wind and water, or of the moon. Others believe he was a healer who was later deified.

Triveni A name of PRAYAGA, modern Allahabad. Literally, it means ‘three streams’. The name comes from the fact that the GANGA and YAMUNA unite at Prayaga, and according to tradition, a third river, the SARASVATI, unites with them underground, though there is actually no third stream here. The myth of the three rivers is said to symbolize the three passages of energy in the human body, the PINGALA, IDA and SUSHUMNA.

Tryambakeshvara A name of SHIVA and of one of his jyotir LINGAs.

Tsong Khapa The founder of the GELUG school of TIBETAN BUDDHISM, who lived from 1357 to 1419. He was initially a monk of the Kadam school, but began the Gelug school, which has some differences from the former, emphasizing monastic discipline as well as the study of texts. He wrote a number of works, including the Lam-rim chen-mo, describing the stages on the Buddhist path.

Tsuglagkhang Temple A Buddhist temple located at DHARAMSALA in Himachal Pradesh, constructed after the arrival of Tibetans in India. It has a hall where the DALAI LAMA delivers discourses, in which there are images of SHAKYAMUNI, AVALOKITESHVARA and PADMASAMBHAVA. Another temple nearby has a mural of a KALACHAKRA mandala, as well as sand mandalas that are regularly created and destroyed.

Tukaram A Maratha saint of the seventeenth century who was a devotee of the god VISHNU in his form as VITTHALA or Vithoba. Born in 1607 in Dehu near Pune in present Maharashtra, he was the son of Bolhoba, a farmer who owned some land. Though they were quite well off, they were considered SHUDRAS by the orthodox BRAHMANAS. Tukaram’s parents died when he was young. When he grew up he married Rakhma, and though he was very fond of her, he took a second wife because she was always ill. They had six children.

A great famine took place in 1629 and Tukaram watched helplessly as his wife Rakhma died of starvation and illness. After this he withdrew from his family and work, and began to worship Vitthala at a dilapidated shrine in his village, which he restored. He sang songs composed by earlier saints, and after a vision of the saint NAMADEVA and of the god Vitthala he began to compose ABHANGAS himself. Over 4000 abhangas by Tukaram are known, and some scholars believe there are many more. His devotion to the god and his BHAKTI compositions attracted many followers.

In 1649, Tukaram disappeared. While his disciples believed he had been taken to God in a chariot, scholars speculate that he was murdered by the brahmanas who did not like the rise and popularity of a low-caste person, or that he left for some unknown destination, to end his life in solitude.

His abhangas deal with his early life, his search for God, his despair, and finally his realization of the divine.

tulasi (1) A sacred plant, basil (Ocimum sanctum). Tulasi can grow to a height of one metre, and leaves of the plant are used as offerings to deities. (2) According to Hindu mythology, Tulasi was the name of a woman loved by the god VISHNU. In some versions of the story she was the same as the goddess LAKSHMI, but in others she was a different woman, of whom Lakshmi was jealous. Lakshmi therefore turned Tulasi into a plant, while Vishnu became the SHALAGRAMA stone to keep her company.

Tulasidasa A devotee of the Hindu god RAMA, who composed the Shri RAMACHARITAMANASA in Hindi in the sixteenth century. The text is still sung with love and devotion by worshippers of Rama in all parts of the country.

Not much is known about Tulasidasa’s life. He was born in the sixteenth century, according to some accounts at Rajapur in Banda district in southern Uttar Pradesh, and according to others, at Soron or Sukarkhet in Gonda district in northern Uttar Pradesh. His parents died when he was young, and he was brought up by a holy man, Naraharidasa. He married Ratnavali and was extremely fond of his wife. Once, when she had gone to her parents’ house, he crossed a flooded river to visit her, but she told him it would be better if he devoted himself to the god Rama instead. He went to AYODHYA and KASHI (Varanasi) and began to worship Rama, resulting in several compositions on the god. The Ramacharitamanasa was completed in 1575.

He also wrote the story of Rama in other books, including Gitavali (1571), Kavitavali (1612) and Barvairamayana (1612). In addition, his Vinaya Patrika or Petition to Rama contains a number of hymns to the deity. Tulasidasa died in 1623.

tulku A term in TIBETAN BUDDHISM for an incarnate lama who is highly revered.

Turaga A divine horse in Hindu mythology. According to the MATSYA PURANA, Turaga was a white horse that emerged at the churning of the ocean. It was taken by the god SURYA. Another such horse was UCCHAISHRAVAS.

turiya A state of consciousness. According to the philosophy of YOGA, waking, sleeping and dreaming are the three states of consciousness normally known. The fourth state, turiya, exists beyond all these, and is the state of an advanced yogi. The AVADHUTA GITA, as well as some other texts, describes a state beyond these four, known as turiyatita.

Tushitas A class or GANA of divine beings. Their number is given as thirty-six or sometimes twelve. In the seventh manvantara they were reborn as the ADITYAS.

Tvashtr A Vedic deity whose nature is somewhat obscure. He has been considered a solar deity, a god of the year, or an abstract god. Most commonly, he is considered the divine artisan.

Tvashtr is described as holding an axe. He gave all beings their form, fashioned the bolt of INDRA, sharpened the axe of Brahmanaspati, and formed a new cup that held the food of the ASURA (here meaning a divine being). His daughter was Saranyu, wife of VIVASVAT, from whom YAMA and YAMI were born. In the ATHARVA VEDA he is described as an old man, carrying a bowl of SOMA. The Shatapatha Brahmana states that he produced and nourished a great variety of creatures, whereas in the PURANAS he is identified with VISHVAKARMA, and sometimes with PRAJAPATI.

tyaga A Sanskrit word for renunciation.

Tyagaraja (1) A term for a form of the Hindu god SHIVA in south India. The term came to be used from the sixteenth or seventeenth century and in this form, Shiva is said to grant all prayers. One of the largest Tyagaraja temples is located at Tiruvarur in Tamil Nadu, where Shiva is depicted as SOMASKANDA, that is, along with his wife UMA and son SKANDA, as well as in the form of a LINGA.

Originating during the time of the Chola ruler Rajajraja I in the eleventh century, this temple complex was constructed mainly in the fourteenth century, with additions being made up to the seventeenth century, as well as recent renovations. The main shrine, with an emerald linga placed in a silver casket, is surmounted by a pyramidal tower with a square roof. Adjacent is another shrine with a Somaskanda image and a tower with a hemispherical roof. There are also some goddess shrines attached to large columned MANDAPAS. The mandapas have painted ceilings, some depicting the story of King Muchukunda, who is said to have brought the Tyagaraja image down from heaven. The whole complex is enclosed in an area of about 20 acres, and can be entered through several GOPURAMS.

There are seven sacred Tyagaraja shrines in Tamil Nadu, known as the Sapta Vitanka. Tyagaraja at Tiruvarur was earlier referred to as Aruran or Vidhivitankar. Other notable Tyagaraja shrines are at Nagapattinam, Tiruvanmayur and Tiruvotriyur.

(2) A great singer. See Thyagaraja.