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Uchchhaishravas (1) A divine horse in Hindu mythology, which emerged from the ocean when it was churned for AMRITA. It is the white horse of the god INDRA, and the king of all horses.

(2) Uchchhaishravas was also the name of an ancient king.

Udaigiri Cave Temples Rock-cut cave temples located at Udaigiri near SANCHI in Madhya Pradesh. There are around twenty temples, made in the fifth century and later. Most are Hindu temples, though one of them is possibly Jain and has an inscription mentioning the Tirthankara PARSHVANATHA.

Many of the caves consist of rectangular niches cut into the rock, with sculptures placed there. Images of VISHNU resting on the serpent Shesha and of VARAHA are among the notable sculptures. There is also a larger temple with a rock-cut inner shrine and a porch with structural pillars, as well as a circular monolithic temple surmounted by a large flat stone, locally called the Tawa (griddle) Temple.

Udana A Buddhist text that forms part of the KHUDDAKA NIKAYA of the PALI CANON. The Udana has eight vaggas or sections, each of which has ten suttas or sutras. Each sutta narrates a story ending with a moral contained in a short verse, which is ascribed to the BUDDHA. A typical verse is given below:

The wheel is broken, since he has become desireless;

The river is dried up and flows no more,

No longer does the broken wheel roll on

The end of sorrow is attained. (VII.2)

Udasi (1) A Sikh sect founded by SRI CHAND, the son of Guru NANAK. The term comes from the Sanskrit word udas, meaning ‘to renounce’. Udasis live a life of asceticism and celibacy. Baba Gurditta, the eldest son of Guru HARGOBIND later became a leader of the sect, which was popular in north and east Punjab. Udasis do not accept the symbols of the KHALSA, remain clean shaven, and have similarities with Hindu ascetics. They were once prominent as mahants of the Sikh GURDWARAS, but after the AKALI MOVEMENT they became separated from mainstream Sikhs. The sect still exists, and their main temple is located at AMRITSAR. (2) A term used for Guru Nanak’s preaching missions.

Udayagiri The site of early Jain rock-cut temples. See Khandagiri.

udgatr A Vedic priest who chanted the prayers from the SAMA VEDA during a sacrifice or YAJNA.

Udupi A town in Karnataka, renowned for its temples. Though primarily a centre of VAISHNAVISM, it also has SHAIVITE and other temples. It is famous as the birthplace of MADHVA, the thirteenth-century saint and philosopher. Udupi is best known for its KRISHNA Temple, with eight MATHAS founded by the disciples of MADHVA.

The whole town is considerd divinely protected, and around it are a number of temples, including those of DURGA as Mahishasuramardini, of Indrani Devi, Vishnumurti and Mahakali. Two major SHIVA temples are of the deity as Ananteshvara and Chandramoulishvara respectively.

The former has an interesting story, linking SHAIVISM and VAISHNAVISM. According to texts, the city formed part of Parashurama Kshetra, the area said to be claimed by PARASHURAMA from the sea. Legends state that a king named Ramabhoja worshipped Parashurama here in the form of a LINGA, which then manifested itself on a silver seat (rajata pitha), and was installed in the Shiva temple. Thus in Sanskrit texts, the city is known as Rajata Pitha.

There are many more Hindu temples in the city, both old and new, as well as a Jain temple.

Udvada A town in Gujarat sacred to PARSIS, where the Iran Shah, the sacred fire brought from Iran, is enshrined in an ATASH BEHRAM. This Atash Behram is considered the most sacred of the Zoroastrian temples because it contains the fire that was consecrated when the PARSIS first arrived in India at SANJAN, and was later moved to Udvada.

Ugadi A new year’s day celebrated in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in March/April. On this day celebrations, prayers and feasts take place.

Ujjain One of the seven most sacred cities of the Hindus, located on the Shipra river in Madhya Pradesh. The city has a number of temples. A KUMBH MELA is held here once in twelve years, and according to myths, the god SHIVA killed the demon Tripura here. Archaeological excavations indicate that the earliest settlements here date back to around 700 BCE, after which the area was occupied continuously.

ulama The plural of ALIM, the term for a Muslim religious scholar. Under Muslim dynasties in India, the ulama or religious officials interpreted Islamic law and attempted to control and direct the rulers. Though they had some political influence, most kings acted independently of them.

uluka The Sanskrit term for an owl. Though often considered an inauspicious bird, the owl is sometimes associated with the goddess LAKSHMI. In Greek mythology the bird is sacred to the goddess Athena.

Uluka Kanada The traditional founder of VAISHESHIKA, one of the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy, who was also known as KANADA, Kanabhuj or Kanabhaksha. His real name is thought to have been Kashyapa.

Uma A name of the Hindu goddess PARVATI. Literally, it means ‘light’.

Umasvami/Umasvati A Jain scholar and ACHARYA, revered by both DIGAMBARAS and SHVETAMBARAS. According to the Digambaras, his name was Umasvami, and he lived from 135 to 219 CE. He was also known as Ghridhrapincha or Ghridhra-piccha, which was one of the names of KUNDAKUNDA as well. According to the SHVETAMBARAS, his name was Umasvati, and he was the disciple of Ghosanandi Kshamashramna. He wrote the TATTVARTHADHIGAMA SUTRA, a scholarly text explaining various aspects of Jainism; it is popular among both sects even today. This text was composed in PATALIPUTRA, though he is said to have lived in south India. According to tradition, Umasvami wrote 500 books, of which very few are known today. The Digambaras believe that the Pujaprakarna Prasamarati and the Jambudvipasamasa are among his works.

Universal Syrian Orthodox Church (Jacobite) An Orthodox Church headed by the Patriarch of Antioch. The Church was the first to be established outside Jerusalem, and thus has a very ancient origin. It uses the Syro-Aramaic liturgy and has twenty-nine dioceses, of which ten are in India. The president of the Episcopal Synod in India is based in Kothamangalam, while the Metropolitan is in Damascus, Syria.

Upali A close disciple of the BUDDHA. He was a specialist in matters of monastic discipline, and at the first BUDDHIST COUNCIL held at RAJAGRIHA soon after the Buddha’s death, he recited the whole VINAYA PITAKA.

upanayana A Sanskrit term for the initiation ceremony, when upper-caste Hindu boys are invested with the SACRED THREAD. This is considered a new birth, and they are then known as dvija or twice born.

The ceremony takes place for BRAHMANA, KSHATRIYA and VAISHYA boys, but is conducted differently for each caste.

The upanayana ceremony is linked with the beginning of the boy’s education. Literally, it is a Sanskrit term meaning ‘leading to’ or ‘bringing near’ and originally signified the guru taking on the education of a boy and leading him on a spiritual path. The child then entered the first stage of Hindu life, BRAHMACHARYA, and studied the VEDAS and other sacred texts with his guru. The texts state that the ceremony should be conducted for a brahmana boy in his seventh or eighth year, a kshatriya in his eleventh year, and a vaishya in his twelfth year, but it can take place at a later age. Though the ceremony still takes place, today it is largely a formal ritual.

The thread ceremony also takes place in some groups of Jains.

Upanishads Sanskrit texts that form part of Vedic literature. The word upanishad is said to mean ‘sitting near the feet of a master’, from upa = near, and nishad = sitting down. Another interpretation takes shad as ‘destruction’ and upanishad as ‘that which destroys ignorance’. The original meaning, however, was ‘secret doctrine’.

These texts form the latter part of the BRAHMANAS and are attached to the VEDIC SAMHITAS. They are called Vedanta, ‘the end of the VEDAS’, both because they form the last part of the Vedas, and because in them, the Vedas reach the ultimate or highest philosophy. The earliest Upanishads, in their present form, date back to the sixth or seventh century BCE, while altogether fourteen have been dated to before the third century BCE. The earliest are said to be the Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Taittiriya, Brihadaranyaka, Chhandogya and Kena, while slightly later are the Kathaka, Shvetashvatara, Mahanarayana, Isha, Mundaka, Prashna, Maitrayaniya and Mandukya.

At least 280 Upanishads are known today, of which 108 are recognized in classic texts. These 108 are uneven in quality and character.

Of the 108 recognized Upanishads, the number attached to the various Vedic Samhitas is given in the Muktika Upanishad, a late text, as: RIG VEDA: 10; White YAJUR VEDA: 19; Black Yajur Veda: 32; SAMA VEDA: 16; ATHARVA VEDA: 31. Other sources differ on this classification.

SHANKARA, the leading philosopher of the ninth century, commented on eleven major Upanishads: Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, and Shvetash-vatara. He is also said to have commented on the Atharvashikha, Atharvashiras and Nrisimhatapaniya Upanishads. A number of other Upanishads also contain the highest philosophical ideas while some deal with various rituals, deities, or aspects of yoga.

Most of the early Upanishads have gone beyond all external forms of worship and seek the supreme goal through an exploration of ideas, leading to ultimate knowledge. Yet they have different aspects and have been interpreted to support ADVAITA or monism, DVAITA or dualism, and VISHISHTADVAITA or qualified monism. There are also Upanishads which are sectarian and focus on deities as a means of realizing the Truth.

BRAHMAN, the One Reality, ATMAN, the soul, which is often identified with Brahman, KARMA, reincarnation, and the nature of the universe, are some of the concepts discussed in the Upanishads.

Sri AUROBINDO called the Upanishads ‘the supreme work of the Indian mind’. Upanishadic ideas form the basis for several later streams of thought in India, and are similar to some SUFI concepts, as well as to certain ideas in the works of Plato, Pythagoras, the Gnostics and other profound philosophies.

Upapurana A minor or secondary PURANA. There are eighteen main Upapuranas, as well as several more. (See Puranas).

Upavedas A term for Vedas, or branches of knowledge, that are not connected with the VEDIC SAMHITAS or revealed Vedic texts. Four classes of Upavedas are: Ayurveda, the science of medicine; Gandharvaveda, concerning music and dancing; Dhanurveda, the art of archery or military science; Sthapatyaveda, the science of architecture.

urs A term in Islam for the death anniversary of a SUFI saint. Literally, the word means ‘wedding’ or ‘union’, for through physical death the saint is thought to be reunited with the divine. Urs are celebrated at the DARGAHS or tombs of saints and involve prayers, offerings of flowers and embroidered cloth, and the singing of qawwalis or special Sufi songs.

Not merely Muslims, but Hindus and members of other religions travel long distances to participate in the urs of certain saints, particularly of Shaikh MUINUDDIN CHISTI at Ajmer. Urs of other saints too, are celebrated by people of all religions.

Uruvela A town in the region of MAGADHA, connected with the life of the BUDDHA. At the village of Senanigama nearby, the Buddha practised severe austerities for six years. Realizing that this would not help him, he again began to eat simple food. He then sat under a pipal tree and meditated until he gained enlightenment at Uruvela, the place now known as BODH GAYA.

Urvashi An APSARA or divine nymph who fell in love with PURURAVAS. The story has been retold many times in Indian literature.

Usha A deity in the RIG VEDA, the goddess of the dawn. About forty hymns are dedicated to her in the Rig Veda and she is mentioned in several more.

In the Vedic hymns, Usha is said to be shining and resplendent, ancient yet born again and again, the one who drives away the darkness and awakens all life. Her chariot radiates brilliance and is drawn by ruddy steeds, or by bulls or cows. In one passage, she is said to arrive in a hundred chariots, reflecting the way the dawn illuminates the sky, with hundreds of rays. She is closely associated with SAVITR and SURYA, and is the sister of BHAGA, an ADITYA.

Ushanas In Hindu mythology the name of the planet Venus, or of its regent. It is also called SHUKRA.

Utpaladeva A philosopher of the Kashmir school of SHAIVISM who lived from c. 900 to 950. He developed the doctrine of PRATYABHIJNA or ‘recognition’, in which the individual recognizes the world as a manifestation of the Hindu god SHIVA. His works include the Ishvara-pratyabhijna-karika, as well as a number of verses in praise of SHIVA.

Uttara Mimamsa A school of philosophy that developed out of PURVA MIMAMSA and is considered similar or identical to VEDANTA. Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa are said to form one whole and to present an integrated philosophy.

Uttara Purana A Jain text that forms the second part of the TRISHASHTILAKSHANA MAHAPURANA. While the first part, the ADI PURANA, deals with the life of RISHABHA and the first Chakravartin, the second part contains an account of the lives of all the other sixty-three great persons of Jainism. The Uttara Purana was composed by GUNABHADRA in the ninth century, and contains a number of additional stories and legends. Among the most popular is the story of JIVANDHARA, retold several times in Sanskrit and Tamil.

Uttara Rama Charita A Sanskrit play about the second half of the life of RAMA, written by BHAVABHUTI, who lived in the eighth century. The first half is described in the Mahavira Charita. The plays are based on the story in the RAMAYANA.

Uttarajjhayana Sutta (Uttaradhyayana) A Jain text of the SHVETAMBARA canon, one of the four MULA SUTTAS. This text has thirty-six sections and contains the teachings of MAHAVIRA, along with various aspects of Jain religion and philosophy. Several parables, stories and legends are narrated, as well as rules, regulations and principles of the religion.

Uvangas (Sanskrit: Upangas) A series of twelve Jain texts that are secondary to the ANGAS. The texts are written in Ardha-Magadhi and are listed below with the Sanskrit title in brackets: Uvavaiya (Aupapatika), Rayapasenajja (Rajaprashniya), Jivabhigama, Pannavana (Prajnapana), Surapannati or Suriyapannati (Surya-Prajnapti), Jambudivapannati (Jambudvipa-Prajnapti), Chamdapannati (Chandra-prajnapti), Nirayavali, Kappavadamsiao (Kalpavatamsika), Pupphiao (Pushpikah), Pupphachuliao (Pushpachulikah), Vanhidasao (Vrishnidashah).

The Uvangas deal with various aspects of Jainism, and with astronomy, cosmology and geography. They contain stories of Jain saints, explanations of doctrines, prayers, and descriptions of heavens and hells.

Uvasagadasao (Upasakadasah) A Jain text, the seventh of the ten ANGAS. It consists of stories of Jain saints, particularly of ten pious Jain merchants who, though they were householders, practised certain forms of asceticism and self-denial. They attained miraculous powers, died by the vow of SALLEKHANA, and were reborn in heaven. Among the stories is one with some historical interest, about a potter who was first a disciple of Gosala Makkhaliputta (GOSALA MASKARIPUTRA, the founder of the AJIVIKA sect), but later became a follower of MAHAVIRA.

uwaisi A term in Islam that refers to initiation in a SUFI order through spiritual means, by SHAIKHS who have passed into the next world. Those who claim to receive initiation in this way, in a dream or vision, are known as uwaisis.