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Yab-Yum A guardian deity, a type of YIDAM in Tibetan Buddhism, depicted as a twin mother-and-father deity, representing the union of male and female, and of wisdom and compassion. The Yab-Yum can be in benign or ferocious form. Usually the twin deity is shown in the form of a male seated in padmasana, with a female on his lap.

Yadava A descendant of YADU in Hindu mythology. The god KRISHNA was a Yadava, and the story of the Yadavas is given in the MAHABHARATA. At first the Yadavas and Krishna lived in the region of MATHURA and were pastoral cowherds. Later, Krishna established a kingdom at DVARAKA in western india, and the Yadavas came to live there. Gradually they began to drink, quarrel and fight with one another, and finally destroyed themselves. Krishna too died, and Dvaraka was submerged in the ocean.

A dynasty of south India was also known as Yadava, and had their capital at Devagiri.

Yadavaprakasha A VAISHNAVA philosopher who lived in the eleventh century and was for some time the guru of RAMANUJA. Yadavaprakasha put forward the theory of Brahmaparinamavada, or the ‘transformation of BRAHMAN’ or the Absolute. According to him, Brahman is transformed into ISHVARA or God, chit or spirit and achit or matter. These, however are only different states, not different substances, thus even while Brahman is transformed, its intrinsic purity is retained. This doctrine is termed BHEDABHEDAVADA, or the doctrine of simultaneous difference and non-difference. His ideas are slightly different from those of BHASKARA, another exponent of this theory, who held that Brahman is to some extent modified, though identity is maintained. Ramanuja, however, said that Ishvara is the ultimate, and no distinction can be made between Brahman and Ishvara.

Yadu A son of YAYATI, who was a king of the CHANDRAVAMSHA dynasty, tracing its descent from the moon. His descendants were known as YADAVAS. The Hindu god KRISHNA was a Yadava.

yajna A Sanskrit term that means sacrifice. A yajna is usually performed according to the methods described in Vedic texts. Yajnas can be undertaken for any purpose, including conferring blessings, purifying a house or place, curing illness, or bringing rain. They are conducted at various rituals performed in temples or sacred places, or at the samskaras or rituals of daily life, including those connected with birth, marriage and death.

Yajnavalkya An ancient RISHI, who is said to have composed the Vajasaneyi Samhita or White Yajur Veda, as well as the Shatapatha Brahmana, the Brihadaranyaka, and the Yajnavalkya Smriti. It is unlikely that he was the author of all these texts, as they are of different dates. According to the MAHABHARATA, he attended the RAJASUYA sacrifice of YUDHISHTHIRA, while according to the RAMAYANA, he was attached to the court of King JANAKA. He was against the prevailing religious practices of the time, and defeated many BRAHMANAS in argument. He advocated meditation and asceticism. His two wives were Maitreyi and Katyayani, and the former, at her request, was instructed by him in the philosophy of BRAHMAN.

yajnopavita A term for the sacred thread in Hinduism. The thread is conferred on the three upper castes at the UPANAYANA ceremony.

Yajur Veda One of the four VEDIC SAMHITAS. The Yajur Veda consists of hymns arranged for the performance of sacrifices (YAJNAS), and is for the use of priests. Many of the hymns are taken from the RIG VEDA, with some variations, and there are also some prose passages. There are a number of different schools or shakhas for this VEDA, and two main versions are the White Yajur Veda and the Black Yajur Veda. The first consists of the Vajasaneyi Samhita that is said to have been revealed to YAJNAVALKYA by the sun. The Black Yajur Veda has four closely related recensions, known as the Kathaka Samhita, the Kapishthala-Katha Samhita, the Maitrayani Samhita and the Taittiriya Samhita. The Yajur Veda priests were known as adhvaryus.

yakshas and yakshis A class of semi-divine beings described in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain texts, and represented in iconography. According to the art historian A.K. Coomaraswamy, yaksha literally meant ‘a wondrous spirit’. In general, yakshas and yakshis include a number of folk and guardian spirits, some of whom were incorporated into the Hindu and Buddhist pantheon as deities. KUBERA, alternatively known as Vaishravana or Panchika, is the king of the Yakshas and also a DIKAPALA. Other yakshas and yakshis include Ajakalaka, Chulakoka, Gangita, MANIBHADRA, Purnabhadra, Suchiloma, Sudasana, Supavasa, Vriudhaka Dharana, Vajrapani, Mudgalpani, Sudarshana, Dhanya, Ganditinduya, and Layava. Several images of Manibhadra occur up to the second century CE, with identifying inscriptions. An important yakshi is HARITI, consort of Kubera, and also a Buddhist mother goddess. The Mayasamgraha, a Sanskrit text, states that yakshas are depicted as potbellied, two-armed and fierce, holding nidhi (treasure) in their hands. The earliest extant sculptures have been identified as yakshas, while the MAHABHARATA refers to two famous yakshi shrines at Munjavata and RAJAGRIHA. Yakshas are often depicted with animal faces, accompanied by dwarfs, or dwarfish themselves, and associated with children. Yakshis are also associated with children, as well as with trees. A common form of yakshi depicted in ancient sculptures is the Shalabhanjika yakshi, a woman shown touching a tree which sprouts leaves and flowers through her touch. Yakshas and yakshis are depicted in Buddhist sculptures at SANCHI, Amravati and elsewhere, and are described in Buddhist texts. They are also carved on the railings of Buddhist STUPAS.

In Jainism they are the guardian deities of the TIRTHANKARAS and are known as SHASANA DEVATAS and SHASANA DEVIS. The Tirthankaras do not answer prayers, as they have attained MOKSHA and are beyond the world. However, their guardian deities are more accessible and respond to the prayers of devotees.

Yakshas can be depicted in a number of ways, including as free-standing images or deities, as tree spirits, as attendants or GANAS of the god SHIVA, or as decorative devices in art, supporters of architectural structures, or holders of bowls.

yali A mythical animal depicted in temples, which has the features of a lion combined with an elephant or other animal.

Yama A Hindu deity, the god of the dead. According to the VEDAS, the spirits of those who died went to his abode. He was the son of VIVASVAT or Vivasvan, and had a twin sister named YAMI or YAMUNA. In some passages they are the progenitors of the human race, from whom all people are born. Another hymn states that Yama was the first man to die, and the first to find his way to the other world, so that others could later follow his path. In the MAHABHARATA, he was the son of SURYA by Samjna and the brother of Vaivasvata, the seventh and present MANU. As he is identified with Dharma Deva, he is sometimes considered the father of YUDHISHTHIRA.

By this time Yama became known as the judge of the dead. His chief assistant, Chitragupta, records the deeds of each person in a huge register called Agrasandhani. Yama judges the dead and assigns them to different regions. According to its deeds, the soul is sent to the world of the PITRIS, or is reborn, or is sent to one of twenty-eight hells or NARAKAS.

In later texts, Yama is the guardian or DIKAPALA of the southern quarter, and is therefore named Dakshinapati. Among his wives are DHUMRORNA, Hemamala, Sushila, and Vijaya. He lives in Pitriloka, in his city of Yamapuri, where he has a huge palace called Kalichi. Apart from Chitragupta, his two main attendants are Chanda or Mahachanda, and Kalapurusha. He has two four-eyed dogs known as SARAMEYAS, descended from INDRA’s dog SARAMA. His messengers, known as Yamadutas, help him to bring the souls of the dead.

There are innumerable stories about Yama in ancient texts. Among the most significant is that in the KATHA UPANISHAD, where Yama explains the secret of life and death to Nachiketa. Another important story is of SAVITRI, who brings her husband Satyavan back to life after a dialogue with Yama.

In iconography Yama is depicted riding on a buffalo. He holds a mace and a noose, which he tightens around his victims. Though often shown as a two-armed deity, the VISHNUDHARMOTTARA gives a detailed description of Yama with four arms. Seated on a buffalo, his consort Dhumrorna sits on his left lap. His right hands hold a staff and a sword, while his left hands have a trident with flames and a mala or rosary. To his right stands Chitragupta, his chief attendant, in northern dress (udichyavesha), and Kala or time, holding a noose, stands to his left. Some texts state that he is green in colour, and dressed in red clothes. His dogs are sometimes shown with him.

Yama has several names, including Mrityu (death), Kala (time), Pashi (one who carries a noose), and Dharmaraja (lord of DHARMA).

In Zoroastrianism, his counterpart is YIMA.

Yamaka A HINAYANA Buddhist text that forms part of the ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA of the PALI CANON. Like the KATHAVATTHU, it has questions and answers on Buddhist doctrine, but here each question is approached in two different ways.

Yami The twin sister of the god YAMA in Hindu mythology. She was also known as YAMUNA and was a personification of the river of the same name.

Yamuna, goddess A Hindu goddess, the personification of the river YAMUNA. According to myth, she is the daughter of VIVASVAN, the sun, and the sister of the god YAMA and of MANU VAIVASVATA. She is also known as YAMI. Her other names are Suryatanaya, Suryaja and Ravinandini. Yamuna is depicted in temples from the Gupta period onwards, usually along with GANGA at entrances or on door jambs. She holds a water pot and stands on a kurma or tortoise. In medieval miniature paintings she is shown as a beautiful young woman, standing on the banks of the river. In myths she is associated with the festival of BHAI DUJ and with the god KRISHNA.

Yamuna, river A sacred river, the main tributary of the river GANGA, that is also personified as a goddess. Flowing from the Yamunotri peak in the Garhwal Himalayas, the river has a course of almost 1400 km before it joins the Ganga at Allahabad. Sacred places along the Yamuna include Yamunotri, MATHURA, Bateshvar and PRAYAGA (Allahabad). The Yamuna is closely associated with the god KRISHNA’s early life and is revered by devotees of Krishna. The PADMA PURANA states that the Kalindi (another name of the Yamuna) is like the SUSHUMNA, the secret channel in the body, carrying the highest form of nectar.

Yamunacharya A VAISHNAVA acharya, a grandson of NATHAMUNI, who lived in the eleventh century. Yamunacharya, also known as Alavandar attempted to correlate the Vaishnava samhitas and works of the ALVARS with the VEDAS. He wrote a number of books, among which are: Siddhitrayam, Gitarthasamgraha, Agamapramanya, Mahapurushanirnaya, Chatushloki and Stotraratna. He was the forerunner of RAMANUJA who founded the VISHISHTADVAITA school of philosophy.

yantra A term used for a mystical diagram, also known as a MANDALA. Yantras, symbolizing the cosmos or a divinity, are used in TANTRISM. A yantra can also be an astronomical or other instrument.

Yapaniya A Jain sect that existed in Karnataka between the fifth and fourteenth centuries. The first available reference to them is in a Kadamba inscription of the fifth century. According to Devasena, a Jain scholar of the tenth century, the Yapaniya Sangha was started in the third century and was associated with the SHVETAMBARA sect. The Shvetambara author Gunaratna, of the fifteenth century, stated that Yapaniyas or Gopyas were one of the four DIGAMBARA Sanghas. Yapaniyas had a mixture of Shvetambara and Digambara beliefs and practices. They accepted the Shvetambara texts and agreed with the principle that women can achieve salvation, but worshipped nude images like the Digambaras. Their ascetics followed the rules of the Digambaras. Yapaniyas are believed to have been later absorbed in the Digambara sect.

Yashoda (1) The foster mother of the Hindu god KRISHNA and the wife of the cowherd NANDA. Yashoda brought up Krishna with great love and care. She was also the mother of YOGA MAYA, who was substituted for Krishna at his birth.

(2) Yashoda was the name of the wife of the Jain Tirthankara MAHAVIRA.

Yashodhara The wife of Siddhartha Gautama, who later became the BUDDHA. Siddhartha and Yashodhara had one son, RAHULA, but soon after he was born Siddhartha left the house at night and did not return home for many years, while he was searching for the Truth. After attaining enlightenment he returned to meet his family, and all came out to meet him except Yashodhara, whom he then went and met in her apartments. When Rahula joined the SANGHA at a young age, without the knowledge of his mother, she was upset and asked that no child should be allowed to become a monk without the permission of his parents. The Buddha agreed that this would be done in future.

Yasht A term for sacrificial songs and verses in praise of divine beings in Zoroastrianism. Yashts form part of the AVESTA texts.

Yaska The author of the NIRUKTA, a Sanskrit text, which is the oldest known etymology or glossary of the VEDIC SAMHITAS. Yaska probably lived before PANINI but was not the first to compose a Nirukta.

Yasna (1) A Zoroastrian text with seventy-two chapters. The five GATHAS are contained in it, forming Yasna 28–34, 43–51, and 53. The Yasna Haptanhaiti, the Yasna of seven chapters, is placed between the first and second Gathas, and is of about the same date. It may have been composed soon after the Prophet ZARATHUSHTRA’s death, and according to some scholars, even before. Between the fourth and fifth Gatha is Yasna 52, which describes the physical, mental and spiritual attributes of an individual.

The rest of the text includes prayers and invocations to AHURA MAZDA, the AMESHA SPENTAS, and various minor deities. It also has descriptions of methods of worship.

(2) The Yasna is a sacred ritual in Zoroastrianism, during which the whole Yasna text is recited.

yatus/yatudhanas A class of spirits in Hindu mythology which take on various forms. Generally considered evil spirits, they were initially distinct from the RAKSHASAS, but later were associated with them. The VAYU PURANA lists twelve yatudhanas, who were born from KASHYAPA, through his wife Surasi.

Yayati The name of an ancient king in Hindu mythology who belonged to the CHANDRAVAMSHA or lunar dynasty. From his two wives Devayani and Sarmishtha he had five sons, YADU, PURU, Druhyu, Turvasu and Anu. The two great lineages of the YADAVAS and KAURAVAS were descended from the first two. Yayati was cursed by SHUKRA, Devayani’s father, with premature old age and decrepitude, because of his amorous nature. Of all his sons, Puru agreed to take on the curse and restore his father’s youth. Later Puru’s youth was also restored. Yayati and his five sons were all RAJARISHIS.

yazata A term for heavenly beings in Zoroastrianism, similar to deities in Hinduism. Some scholars believe the concept of yazatas was absorbed by Judaism, Christianity and Islam as angels. Yazatas have been classified broadly into three categories: personified divine powers; the deities of the ancient Iranians, later incorporated into Zoroastrianism; and the personifications of the powers of nature. The last two categories often overlap. In the GATHAS, apart from the six powers or AMESHA SPENTAS, only ASHI VANGHUI, SRAOSHA and ATAR are mentioned, all of whom were later considered yazatas. Yazatas of pre-Zoroastrian Iran, incorporated into Zoroastrianism at a later date, include Mithra, Verethraghna (later Behram), and Anahita (later Anahid), a female yazata. Months and days are named after them, and YASHTS are dedicated to them. Vayu, Nairyosangha, the messenger of AHURA MAZDA, and a SAOSHYANT or saviour, Armaiti, Baga, Airyaman and Haoma are among the other yazatas.

Apart from comparsisons with Vedic deities, Zoroastrian yazatas have been related to Buddhist deities and to the gods and goddesses of ancient Greece and Rome.

Yellow Hats A term for a school of Tibetan Buddhism. ‘Yellow Hats’ is a popular name for the GELUG school, the predominant Buddhist school in Tibet after the fifteenth century. The term is derived from the yellow hats that the monks wear. The line of DALAI LAMAs comes from this school.

yidam A guardian deity in TIBETAN BUDDHISM. Palden Lhamo is the yidam for the whole of Tibet, and is outwardly a ferocious-looking deity with a bull’s face, though he is a form of the Bodhisattva MANJUSHRI. In addition, Buddhist lay persons, monks and temples, each have their own yidam. The consort of a yidam is a dakini.

Yima A mythical Zoroastrian hero, the son of Vivanghvant and the third ruler of the world. Yima is mentioned in the GATHAS, but there he is criticized by ZARATHUSHTRA for permitting the bull sacrifice. Yima had a sister Yimak, whom he married. In later Zoroastrian texts he is known as JAMSHED and is a heroic ruler and leader. Informed by AHURA MAZDA (God) that the world is about to be destroyed by snow and ice, he is asked to build a vara, a cave or shelter, and to go there along with a group of chosen people, the seeds of the trees, fruits, and flowers, and a pair each of the best and most useful animals. These are used later to repopulate the world.

Jamshed is described in the BUNDAHISHN, SHAH NAMAH and other texts, and lived, according to the texts, for between seven hundred and a thousand years. According to the Shah Namah, he was the third king of the Pishdadian dynasty. However, after a long reign he was murdered by the tyrant Zohak (the later form of Azhi Dahak).

The myths of Yima have similarities with those of YAMA and MANU in Hindu texts, in which Yama, Yami or YAMUNA, and Manu are the children of VIVASVAT or Vivasvan, considered the same as the Zoroastrian Vivanghvant. The vara in which Jamshed saved the plants and animals, can be compared with the role of Manu during the great flood.

Yoga One of the six classical systems of philosophy, first fully explained by PATANJALI in his YOGA SUTRA. Yoga literally means union, implying the union of the individual self with the divine. This is attained when the individual self, the ATMA or Jivatma, realizes its true being by stilling the mind and body. Patanjali’s Yoga was later called Raja Yoga to distinguish it from other forms of Yoga. This form is also known as Ashtanga Yoga, or the yoga with eight limbs or eight parts, sometimes translated as eight steps. The eight parts are: (1) Yama, or the five ethical restraints of AHIMSA (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), BRAHMACHARYA (always being aware of god, often translated literally as celibacy), aparigraha (non-greed); (2) NIYAMA, or five positive observances, which are shaucha (purity), santosha (contentment), tapasya (ascetic practices), svadhyaya (self-study), Ishvara pranidhana (surrender to God); (3) ASANA, or various postures to stabilize and improve the body; (4) PRANAYAMA, or breathing practices; (5) Pratihara, or withdrawal of the senses from the outer world; (6) Dharana, or concentration; (7) DHYANA, or meditation; (8) SAMADHI or union. These are explained in the Yoga Sutra and in numerous commentaries, and form the basis for all later systems of Yoga. Later texts on Yoga include the Gheranda Samhita, the Goraksha Samhita of GORAKHNATHA, and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, among others. These texts do not exactly follow Patanjali, and some list ten yamas and niyamas. Other texts explain various forms of Yoga in detail, such as HATHA YOGA, MANTRA YOGA, BHAKTI YOGA, JNANA YOGA, Kundali Yoga, Likhita Yoga, Laya Yoga, Siddha Yoga, Integral Yoga, Tantra Yoga, as well as several modern hybrid forms, such as Power Yoga. All traditional forms of Yoga are not mutually exclusive, each employing some of the techniques used by other forms, though the emphasis is different. The pre-requisites of each form are basic ethics, morality (DHARMA) and discipline or regular practice (SADHANA).

Yoga Maya A Hindu goddess. Yoga Maya is considered the sister of KRISHNA, though she was actually the daughter of YASHODA and the cowherd NANDA. She was substituted for Krishna at his birth. When King Kamsa came to kill Yoga Maya, she flew up in the air and disappeared, returning to heaven. Yoga Maya is worshipped as a goddess of austerity and purity. Among temples dedicated to the goddess, the Yoga Maya temple in DELHI, located not far from the QUTB MINAR, is connected with the SAIR-E GUL FAROSHAN festival symbolizing Hindu-Muslim unity. According to tradition the shrine was first constructed by YUDHISHTHIRA of the MAHABHARATA, but the existing temple was built in 1827 by Syed Mal, a noble at the time of the Mughal emperor Akbar II. The small temple, along with other buildings, is in a large walled enclosure and has a pyramidal roof topped with a pinnacle, reaching a height of about 13 m. Two stone tigers in a cage are the guardians of this shrine. A sacred stone is located in a square room, placed over a small marble well less than half-a-metre high, and covered with a cloth. Above it are suspended the pankhas or fans presented to the shrine at the Sair-e gul Faroshan festival. This annual festival is the main event at the temple, but a mela is also held every Tuesday. White flowers and sweets are offered to the deity, and her devotees do not consume meat or alcohol.

Yoga Sutra A text on YOGA written by Patanjali. It consists of short sutras or verses on the method of yoga or union with the divine. The terse sutras have been commented on and explained by several scholars.

In the second verse of the text, Patanjali describes yoga as ‘Chitta vritti nirodhah’, that has been interpreted as ‘a state of mind that is still and without thought’. This state enables the experience of divine intelligence, and the ultimate union with the divine. The rest of the text describes the methods of attaining this union. Patanjali’s system, with eight limbs or stages, is normally called Raja Yoga. The text forms the base for all later yoga texts and developments in yoga.

Yoga Vasishtha A Sanskrit text, said to have been composed by VALMIKI. It records the philosophical teachings given to RAMA by the rishi VASISHTHA. The text discusses the nature of the mind and how to control it. The mind has great potential, and by gaining control over it, its inherent powers can be developed. It guides the individual to think for himself, rather than to depend on the authority of the Shastras, a guru, or divine grace. To one who has gained control over the mind, everything in life can be achieved, including health, wealth, power and position. Both liberation and bondage are only states of mind.

Yogachara A school of MAHAYANA Buddhism. It expresses the importance of cultivating the self, particularly through meditation. According to this school, there is nothing but the mind, or what is perceived by the mind. Meditating and analyzing the mind, reveals the source of consciousness. The school basically consists of theories of consciousness (vijnana) and therefore is called Vijnanavada. Its main exponents were MAITREYANATHA, ASANGA (310–90) and VASUBANDHU (320–400).

Yogacharabhumi, the basic text of the school, is attributed to Maitreyanatha, or sometimes to Asanga. The school explains the ideas of consciousness derived from the practice of meditation. In deep meditation, ecstacy is experienced, indicating that the world is nothing but mind (chittamatrata), or else something that is perceived by the mind (vijnaptimatrata). When meditating, one becomes aware of different levels of the mind, and deep within is the alaya vijnana, the storehouse of consciousness, containing the seeds of past actions, and therefore of KARMA. Vasubandhu focuses in his writings on the nature of the mind, while Asanga deals more with the storehouse of consciousness.

There were subtle differences in the various branches of the Yogachara school, particularly at NALANDA and Vallabhi. The Vallabhi school, led by Sthiramati (500–60), held that the storehouse of consciousness is pure and has no forms, while the Nalanda school, systemized by DHARMAPALA (530–61) and based on the work of DIGNAGA, stated that consciousness does contain forms. The Yogachara school spread to China in the seventh century, through the Chinese pilgrim XUANZANG.

Yogananda, Paramahansa See Paramahansa Yogananda.

yogi A term for an ascetic, or one who is adept at YOGA.

Yogi Bhajan See Harbhajan Singh, Yogi.

yogini (1) the feminine form of YOGI, an ascetic or adept in YOGA.

(2) A class of semi-divine beings, attendants of DURGA. They are said to number eight, twelve, sixty-four or sixty-five. There are several temples dedicated to the chausath yoginis, or sixty-four yoginis.

Among the Chausath Yogini temples are two located in Orissa, one at Hirapur near Bhubaneswar, and another at Ranipur–Jharial in Bolangir district. They are circular and roofless, and have an image of Bhairava in the centre, surrounded by the sixty-four yoginis in individual niches. At Hirapur each yogini is distinctive, even with different hairstyles.

yoni The female organ, a symbol of SHAKTI or divine power. It is worshipped alone, or along with the LINGA.

Yudhishthira The eldest of the five PANDAVAS, described in the MAHABHARATA. He was the son of DHARMA DEVA, usually considered the same as the god YAMA, and was also known as Dharmaputra. Yudhishthira was made the heir apparent by DHRITARASHTRA at HASTINAPURA, capital of the Kuru kingdom, but this was resented by DURYODHANA, the eldest son of Dhritarashtra, and the kingdom was divided into two, with Yudhishthira ruling from INDRAPRASTHA. Indraprastha and the surrounding area prospered under his rule, and Yudhishthira conducted the RAJASUYA sacrifice to consolidate his power. The jealous Duryodhana then managed to win the kingdom from him through a game of dice, and Yudhishthira, along with his brothers and their wife DRAUPADI, were forced to go into exile for thirteen years. Many adventures took place during these years, after which Yudhishthira claimed his kingdom, but as Duryodhana did not accept the claim, a great war took place, leaving countless dead on both sides. Duryodhana and all his brothers were killed, and Yudhishthira was crowned king. After many years, he appointed Parikshit, grandson of ARJUNA as his successor and then proceeded towards heaven, along with his brothers and their wife, accompanied by a dog who turned out to be DHARMA DEVA. After more adventures, he and all his relatives finally entered Divyaloka, a heavenly world.

Yudhisthira and his brothers are worshipped in certain temples. Yudhishthira is considered the epitome of justice and wisdom, and is also known by other names, including Ajamidha, Kurushreshtha, Mridangketu, Panduputra, and Pandava-shreshtha.

yuga A period of time in the the Hindu system of cosmic time. Four yugas, the KRITA, TRETA, DVAPARA and KALI, comprise one MAHAYUGA.

The concept of four ages is also described by the Greek writer Hesiod. The BUNDAHISHN, a Zoroastrian text, describes four ages of the world, each of 3000 years, in the last of which the SAOSHYANT will appear.