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Zadspram A Zoroastrian text of the ninth century written in Pahlavi. It deals with various Zoroastrian themes on the basis of earlier AVESTA and Zand (commentary) texts. It includes legends of creation, the assault of AHRIMAN on the world, the life of ZARATHUSHTRA, his conversations with OHRMAZD and his powers, and other similar subjects. Some aspects of it are based on ZURVAN sources.

Zafar Namah Gurdwara A GURDWARA or Sikh shrine located in Kangar village of Bathinda district in Punjab. It is said to mark the spot where the tenth guru, GOBIND SINGH, composed his letter, the ZAFAR NAMAH, to the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB. One of Gobind Singh’s disciples then delivered it to Aurangzeb, who was in the Deccan. Some scholars believe the letter was actually written at Dina.

Zafar Namah A letter in Persian verse written by the tenth Sikh guru, GOBIND SINGH, to the Mughal emperor AURANGZEB. In this document the guru accuses the emperor of making promises and pledges that he did not keep. In the siege of Anandpur, for example, the Sikhs had been promised safe conduct if they left the fort, but the promise was not kept. The guru goes on to say, ‘When there is no other course open to man, it is but righteous to unsheath the sword.’ He says that such a person, who cannot keep his word, obviously does not believe in ALLAH, nor in his Prophet. He adds, ‘If the Prophet MUHAMMAD were here, I would present to him this vile deed of your treachery.’ The letter continues in this vein, and towards the end the guru says, ‘You have an empire, wealth and pomp, a generous disposition and warlike qualities, but are far from religion.’ On receiving this letter Aurangzeb asked the guru to come and meet him, but before they could meet, the emperor died. According to Sikh sources, Aurangzeb was deeply moved by this letter, particularly because he was condemned by a holy man. Sikh tradition believes this led to his despairing last letters to his sons, where he says, ‘I have lost hope in myself… I have gravely sinned and know not what torment awaits me.’

Zain-ul Abidin An enlightened Muslim ruler of Kashmir of the fifteenth century. Zain-ul Abidin ruled from 1420 to 1470, rebuilt some temples that had earlier been destroyed and restored the BRAHMANAS to their high posts in the government. He also promoted the study of Hindu literature and philosophy, and had the MAHABHARATA and the Rajatarangini, the account of the kings of Kashmir, translated into Persian, while Persian works were translated into Sanskrit.

zakat One of the essential duties of Islam, zakat is translated as ‘charity’ or ‘poor due’. The QURAN has several passages on the importance of zakat. One passage states: ‘Lo! Those who believe and do good deeds and establish prayer and pay the zakat, their reward is with their Lord.’ (2:227).

Zakat is said to lead to the purification of the soul, as it checks the greed for wealth. It also helps the poor and provides basic necessities to those who do not have them. Thus the MISHKAT says: ‘One who eats to his full appetite while his neighbour starves is not a true Muslim.’ Another objective of zakat is to help Islam, and it can be used to support or protect the religion.

Zanjiri Mosque A historic mosque located in Bijapur, Karnataka, constructed in 1587 by Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II, also known as MALIKA JAHAN’S MOSQUE, popularly called the Zanjiri Mosque because of its hanging chain ornaments.

Zarathushtra A prophet of ancient Iran, known as ZOROASTER in Greek, who was the founder of the Zoroastrian religion. The dates of Zarathushtra’s life remain controversial, but most scholars now accept that he lived sometime between 2000 BCE and 1000 BCE. While Zoroastrian tradition placed him even earlier than this, Western scholars once assigned him to around 600 BCE, based on a late Sasanian account stating that he lived 258 years before Alexander. There were also accounts of Zarathushtra at the court of King Vishtaspa, taken to be the father of the Achaemenian King Darius (522–486 BCE). However, the close linguistic similarity with the RIG VEDA makes a date later than 1000 BCE improbable. In addition, the genealogy of the Vishtaspa mentioned in association with Zarathushtra is different from that of the later Achaemenian king.

Zarathushtra was the first to preach a monotheistic religion, with one God, and to introduce the concept of good and evil, and the importance of living an ethical life.

Fragments of his own writings survive in the GATHAS, but do not tell us much about his life. In the Gathas, AHURA MAZDA (God) says that Zarathushtra was the only man who ‘listened to our decrees’. He is sent to the earth to guide the people on the right path (Yasna 28). He refers to himself as a zaotar (Sanskrit: hotr), a priest (Yasna 33.6). He is a Master of Righteousness and an erishi (Sanskrit: rishi) endowed with visionary insight (Yasna 31.5, 10). He is also called a Manthran (teacher of MANTHRAS), Ratu (guide) and Saoshyant (saviour), and in later texts an Athravan (priest).

Legendary accounts of his life, with some variations, are provided in later Pahlavi texts. According to these, Zarathushtra, meaning ‘he of the golden light’, was born in Arak in Azerbaijan to the north of present Iran, in the Spitama family, to Pourushaspa, son of Paitiraspa, and Dughdova, daughter of Frahim-rava. The baby laughed when he was born and the vibrations in his brain were so powerful that none could touch his head. People feared his potential power, and a wicked magician, Dorasarun, made several attempts to kill him, but the child always miraculously escaped. (There are some parallels here with the KRISHNA legend.) Always sensitive and thoughtful, at the age of fifteen he turned away from worldly life and pondered the mysteries of life, death and suffering. A few years later he went to Mt Ushidaran, where he lived in a cave, eating roots and berries, and drinking the milk of a she-goat who came there voluntarily to feed him. There, around the age of thirty, he received enlightenment and conversed with AHURA MAZDA in a vision. He returned to the world and began to convey his vision.

The religion of Iran at this time seems to have been similar to that of the Rig Veda. There were multiple deities, sacrifices, and the cult of Haoma (Vedic SOMA). Preaching against these, he did not find many followers, and at first only his cousin Maidhyomaongha believed what he said and followed him. Zarathushtra then left his home and reached Bactria, where Kava Vishtaspa was the king. His courtiers plotted against Zarathushtra and got him imprisoned, but the king released him after his horse, Aspa Siha, became ill and was cured by Zarathushtra. Vishtaspa then became a follower of the new religion. By this time Zarathushtra was about forty-two years old. He married Havovi and had six children, three sons named Isatvastar, Urvatatnar and Khurshid-chichar, and three daughters, Freni, Thriti, and Pouruchista.

He then travelled on horseback from place to place to spread his teachings. According to tradition, he even visited Tibet and China. He returned to Balkh, capital of Bactria (Afghanistan) and settled there. At the age of seventy-seven, while he was praying in a temple, he was stabbed by Tur-bara-tur, the leader of a hostile Turanian tribe. As Zarathushtra died, his attacker is said to have fallen dead. In esoteric interpretations Tur-bara-tur is seen not as an individual but as the embodiment of evil, which was shattered in Zarathushtra’s last moments on earth.

Zatra A Christian festival held at Kansaulim in Goa on 6 January every year. It celebrates the visit of the MAGI to the baby JESUS at Bethlehem, but is more like a carnival than a religious festival. Three men dressed in wigs and bright clothes enter a church with an image of the baby Jesus, and pay their respects to him. After this, the festival starts with dancing, music and various games.

zikr A term in Islam for recollection or remembrance. Zikr, performed primarily by SUFIS, is a continuous focus on God, either in solitude or in a community, and can be performed mentally or in a low voice (zikr khafi), or loudly (zikr jali). It involves repetition of the names of God or of parts of the QURAN, and a rosary or tashih can be used for counting. The breath is controlled during zikr, and there are also body movements or sometimes rhythmic dancing. Zikr often includes the phrase ‘La-illaha-illa-allah’, meaning, ‘There is no God but Allah’, half of it repeated while exhaling and the other half while inhaling. There is an account of a saint who used to exhale after the afternoon prayers and inhale only at the next set of prayers, thus holding his breath for three hours, while others inhaled only once or twice through the whole night. Zikr may be followed by meditation (muraqabah) on some verse of the Quran.

These practices are similar to various YOGA techniques.

Zoroaster A Greek term for ZARATHUSHTRA, from which the term Zoroastrian is derived. In Greece, ZARATHUSHTRA or Zoroaster was considered extremely wise and a spiritual adept. A number of later texts were written in the name of Zoroaster though they have nothing to do with Zarathushtra.

Zoroastrian calendar Three different calendars are followed by PARSI Zoroastrians in India. The Fasli calendar, also used in Iran, begins on 21 March every year, a date that is celebrated as NAVROZE or New Year. The KADIMI and SHAHENSHAHI calendars do not have fixed dates, but the new year starts some time in July and August respectively, when another Navroze is celebrated.

In all the calendars, there are twelve lunar months in the following order: (1) Farvardin; (2) Ardibehesht; (3) Khordad; (4) Tir; (5) Amardad; (6) Shahrevar; (7) Meher; (8) Ava/Avan; (9) Adar/Atar; (10) Dae; (11) Behman; (12) Spendarmad/Asfandarmad. Each month has thirty days, and each day is dedicated to and named after a power of God or of nature, personified as a YAZATA or deity. The days, which follow the same order in every month, are: (1) Ohrmazd/Hormazd; (2) Behman/Bahman; (3) Ardibehesht; (4) Shahrevar; (5) Spendarmad; (6) Khordad; (7) Amardad; (8) Daepe-Adar; (9) Adar/Atar (fire); (10) Ava (water); (11) Khursheed/Khorshed (sun); (12) Mohor (moon); (13) Tir (star); (14) Gosh (animals); (15) Dae-pe-Meher; (16) Meher (light/mercy); (17) Sraosha (wisdom); (18) Rashnu; (19) Farvardin (Fravashi); (20) Behram (victory); (21) Ram/Mino Ram (peace); (22) Govad (wind); (23) Dae-pe-Din; (24) Din (religion); (25) Ashishvangh (Ashi Vanghui); (26) Astad; (27) Asman (sky); (28) Zamyad (earth); (29) Marespand (Manthra); (30) Aneran (Anagra Raocha).

At the end of the year five days are added, named after the GATHAS, to bring the total to 365 days. To give an example of the different calendars, 21 March 2004 would be Farvardin month, Hormazd day (Fasli); Ava month, Shahrevar day (Shahenshahi); Adar month, Shahrevar day (Kadimi).

The use of three calendars in India causes some confusion in festival dates. At one time there were major conflicts between the Kadimi and Shahenshahi, but now most Parsis happily celebrate at least two new years. The celebration of the other festivals depends on the nature of the AGIARY or Zoroastrian temple; most temples follow the Shahenshahi calendar for festivals. Kadimis are prominent in Surat, and Fasli temples are few.

Zoroastrian festivals and ceremonies Zoroastrian festivals include NAVROZE, the new year; Khordad Sal, the birthday of the Prophet ZARATHUSHTRA, celebrated five days after the new year; Pateti, the last day of the year, actually a day of repentance; six GAHAMBARS, or seasonal festivals; and celebrations on special days of the month, particularly when the deity of the month and the day coincide.

Sacred ceremonies include the ijashne or YASNA, the VENDIDAD, the navar and martab for initiation of priests, as well as various rituals from the time of birth to death, of which the most important are the NAVJOTE, and the marriage and death ceremonies. JASHANS are held in celebration on festival days or other auspicious occasions.

Zoroastrian temples Zoroastrian temples in India are of three grades, the ATASH BEHRAM, ATASH ADARAN, and AGIARY. The grade of the temple depends on the nature of the sacred fire within, an ATASH BEHRAM requiring purificatory ceremonies that can go on for more than a year. The fire is always kept burning in a temple, and there is great emphasis on purity and on its preservation from ‘pollution’. In Iran non-Zoroastrians can enter fire temples, and in ancient days some of the temples were open fire altars, but in India entry is forbidden to non-Zoroastrians.

The temple is normally a simple structure consisting of a rectangular hall. At one end is a section where the sacred fire (ATAR or atash) is kept burning in an afarghan, a metal container shaped like an inverted bell. The BOI ceremony takes place five times a day, in which the priest prays and feeds the fire with sandalwood and incense.

The hall contains pictures of revered Zoroastrians. Ceremonies such as JASHANS, or special prayers, take place in the hall.

Zoroastrian texts Sacred texts of the Zoroastrian religion include the AVESTA texts in two categories, older and younger, and the Pahlavi texts. AVESTA texts are the YASNA, including the GATHAS, the Visperad, VENDIDAD, the YASHTS, and NYAESHES; prayers taken from these as well as others are included in the Khordeh Avesta, the book of prayers. Among Pahlavi texts are the ARDA VIRAF NAMAH, the BUNDAHISHN, the DINKARD, the Menog-i-khrad, the Shkandgumanig Vizar, the DADESTAN-I-DENIG, the ZADSPRAM, Shayast-al-Shayast, and the later Persian RIVAYATS. The PARSIS of India have added collections of prayers, translations, commentaries, and the works of the ILM-E-KSHNOOM.

Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism is an ancient religion with a complex history, preserved in India by the PARSIS. The religion was founded by ZARATHUSHTRA around 1500 BCE, and his own words are recorded in the GATHAS or songs, of which only fragments are available today. The religion developed and changed over time, and these changes are reflected in the various ZOROASTRIAN TEXTS composed in older and younger Avestan, in Pahlavi and Persian. The later texts provide a number of myths, legends, descriptions of creation, and semi-historical accounts. Thus, depending on the texts used, the religion can be interpreted differently.

Fundamental principles: The Gathas, the Songs of Zarathushtra, state that there is one God, AHURA MAZDA, who represents truth and cosmic order, and guides the world through his powers, the AMESHA SPENTAS. Ahura Mazda created twin spirits, SPENTA MAINYU and ANGRA MAINYU, the good and the bad, and gave each person the freedom to choose between them.

A person has to choose rightly, and thus help God in creating a perfect world. A human being is considered God’s hamkar or helper, and the body and mind are to be dedicated to God. Thus life is perfected over time, leading to the FRASHOKERETI, the renewal of existence. The basic ethics of the religion are summed up in the term Humata, huvakta, huvarashta, or good thoughts, good words and good deeds. After death one crosses the CHINVAT BRIDGE to reach the other world and attains the rewards of one’s actions. According to the Gathas (Yasna 30.11), ‘There will be a long period of suffering for the wicked, and salvation for the just, but thereafter eternal bliss shall prevail everywhere.’

Additional principles: Later texts contain myths of creation (BUNDAHISHN) and several concepts not contained in the Gathas. A clear division between good and evil led to the idea of everything in the world being divided into these two categories, including the animal world. Thus, instead of preserving life as enjoined by Zarathushtra, it was considered meritorious to kill so-called ‘noxious creatures’, such as snakes and insects.

The concept of purity also became important, similar to the Brahmanical concept, though interpreted differently. There was a belief that death, as well as all disorder, comes from the evil spirit.

The purity of fire was to be maintained, therefore dead bodies should not be burnt, because they pollute fire. In India, the orthodox believe a glance of a non-Zoroastrian pollutes the sacred fire, an idea that can be compared to the Hindu practice of not allowing non-Hindus into certain temples.

Reform movements attempted to go ‘Back to the Gathas’, and to ignore the later texts, similar to the ‘Back to the Vedas’ movement in Hinduism.

Monotheism or dualism?: Some scholars using later texts interpret Zoroastrianism as dualistic, with God, known as HORMAZD or Ohrmazd, and the evil spirit AHRIMAN being constantly at war. This interpretation is often followed by new converts to the religion.

History: The history of Zoroastrianism has been put together through later texts, legends, myths, as well as excavations, coin finds and inscriptions. Linguistic analysis plays a role in dating the religion.

According to Avestan texts there were seven regions of the world, of which Airyana Vaeja (the land of the Airyas) was the centre. Airya is the same as the Sanskrit ‘arya’, and later Airyana was abbreviated to Iran.

Legendary history talks of the Pishdadian dynasty of pre-historic days. Among the kings of this dynasty was YIMA (JAMSHED), a great king whose pride led to his downfall. Azhi Dahak (later known as Zohak) then conquered Iran and oppressed the people. He was defeated in a struggle led by Kava, a blacksmith and THRAETONA, the true heir. After a time of warfare, the Kayanian dynasty is said to have followed. Kava Vishtaspa, patron of Zarathushtra, belonged to this dynasty. Soon after this the Medes rose in northern Iran.

At the time of Zarathushtra, many deities seem to have been worshipped. Out of these Zarathushtra gave supreme importance to AHURA MAZDA, and put forward the concept of one God for the first time. The Gathas mention King Vishtaspa and his two ministers, but not much is known of those early years. Vishtaspa ruled over Bactria.

History is clearer after the sixth century BCE. Between 558 BCE and 330 BCE, the Achaemenid dynasty emerged in Iran. Darius (522–486 BCE), a Persian monarch of the Achaemenid dynasty, the son of another Vishtaspa, expanded his empire. It extended across west Asia to Egypt, present Afghanistan, and north-west India. North of Afghanistan the Persian empire included parts of Russia. There are records that at this time, Ahura Mazda was worshipped, along with other Vedic-Iranian deities. The MAGI, a priestly class of the Medes, were powerful under the Achaemenians. In 330 BCE, Iran was conquered by Alexander, and the great library at Persepolis containing Zoroastrian texts is said to have been destroyed. The Parthian Arsacids (160 BCE–CE 225) revived Zoroastrianism. The compilation of the AVESTA was begun and completed under the Sasanians (CE 225 to 651). The last Sasanian ruler, Yazdagird III, was defeated by the Arabs, after which a group of Zoroastrians fled to the mountains of Kohistan. Some time later, according to the KISSAH-I-SANJAN, they reached India, where they came to be known as PARSIS.

Organizations: There are a number of Zoroastrian organizations in the world today. In India there are the Parsi Punchayets (Panchayats) and the Federation of Parsi Punchayets. Outside India, organizations include the World Zoroastrian Organization (WZO), based in London, and the Federation of Zoroastrians of North America (FEZANA). A proposal for a world body including all Zoroastrians was opposed by some in India who instead formed the World Alliance of Parsi and Irani Zarathoshtis (WAPIZ), believing that all others are not true Zoroastrians.

Zoroastrians A term for the followers of the religion of the Prophet ZARATHUSHTRA, known in Greek as ZOROASTER. Zoroastrians themselves more often use the term Zarathushtris, Zarathoshtis, or Mazda-yasnis. Zoroastrians originated in Iran, but for centuries the religion has been best preserved in India. Today there is a revival of interest in Zoroastrianism, with new converts in a number of countries.

In Russia and the former Soviet states, particularly Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, there are a number of groups claiming Zoroastrian ancestry, and keen on following the religion. Excavations indicate forms of the religion existing in the past in Sogdiana and elsewhere. A group of Kurds, originally from Iraq, and now in Germany, also claim to be Zoroastrians. There is also a revival of Zoroastrians in Iran. In Europe and America, individuals are converting to the religion, inspired by its ideals.

Orthodox Parsi Zoroastrians believe most of these (except in Iran) are not true Zoroastrians. Some individual Parsis, however, have tried to provide them support, texts, and acceptance.

There are 69,601 Zoroastrians in India (according to the 2001 census); between 30,000 and 90,000 in Iran, where some who call themselves Zoroastrians are officially counted as Muslims, 10,000–15,000 in the USA; approximately 6000 in Canada; 5000 in the UK, mostly in England, 2600 in Australia, 2200 in the Persian Gulf; about 2000 in Pakistan, 1000 in Europe and Central Asia, and 900 in New Zealand.

Zurvan A concept in Zoroastrianism. As the religion came to be seen as dualistic, with two separate powers of good and evil, the concept of Zurvan, meaning time, came into being. Zurvan was seen as a kind of godhead from which the two powers emerged. This is thought to have been the dominant tradition in Sasanian times, but was not an important concept in India. Lately, the idea of Zurvan has been revived.