Xunzi: Basic Writings

The thing that all men should fear is that they will become obsessed by a small corner of truth and fail to comprehend its overall principles. If they can correct this fault, they may return to correct standards, but if they continue to hesitate and be of two minds, then they will fall into delusion. There are not two Ways in the world; the sage is never of two minds. Nowadays the feudal lords follow different theories of government and the philosophers of the hundred schools teach different doctrines. Inevitably some teach what is right and some, what is wrong; some rulers govern well and others bring about disorder. Even the ruler of a chaotic state or the follower of a pernicious doctrine will undoubtedly in all sincerity seek what is proper and try to better his condition. But he is jealous and mistaken in his understanding of the Way and hence allows other men to lead him astray. He clings to his familiar ways and is loath to hear them spoken ill of; he judges everything on the basis of his old prejudices; and when he encounters some different theory, he is loath to hear it praised. Thus he moves farther and farther away² from a condition of order, and yet never ceases to believe that he is doing right. Is this not what it means to be obsessed by a small corner of truth and to fail in the search for proper ways? If one fails to use his mind, then black and white may be right before his eyes and he will not see them; thunder or drums may be sounding in his ear and he will not hear them. How much more so with a man whose mind is obsessed!³ The man who has truly attained the Way is criticized from above by the rulers of chaotic states, and from below by men of pernicious doctrines. Is he not to be pitied?

What are the sources of obsession? One may be obsessed by desires or by hates, by the beginning of an affair or by the end, by those far away or those close by, by breadth of knowledge or by shallowness, by the past or by the present. When one makes distinctions among the myriad beings of creation, these distinctions all become potential sources of obsession. This is a danger in the use of the mind that is common to all men.

In ancient times there were rulers who were obsessed; Jie of the Xia dynasty and Zhou of the Yin are examples. Jie was obsessed by his favorite concubine Mo Xi and his counselor Si Guan and did not recognize the worth of Guan Longfeng. Thus his mind became deluded and his conduct disorderly. Zhou was obsessed by his favorite concubine Da Ji and his counselor Fei Lian and did not recognize the worth of Qi, the prince of Wei, and thus his mind became deluded and his conduct disorderly. Therefore, the courtiers of these two rulers abandoned the principles of loyal service and thought only of selfish aims, the common people hated and spoke ill of them and refused to obey their commands, and men of true worth retired from the court and went into hiding. Thus they lost possession of the Nine Provinces and brought desolation to the ancestral temples of their dynasties. Jie was driven to his death on Mount Li and Zhou’s head ended dangling from the red pennant of his attacker. They could not foresee the future for themselves and no one was willing to reprimand them. Such are the disasters that come from obsession and a closed mind.

Cheng Tang took warning from the fate of Jie and therefore he was careful to employ his mind correctly and to govern with circumspection. Accordingly, he was able to benefit from the good advice of Yi Yin over a long period of time and did not depart from the Way. As a result he replaced Jie of the Xia as ruler and gained possession of the Nine Provinces. King Wen took warning from the fate of Zhou and therefore he was careful to employ his mind correctly and to govern with circumspection. Accordingly, he was able to benefit from the good advice of Lü Wang over a long period of time and did not depart from the Way. As a result he replaced Zhou of the Yin as ruler and gained possession of the Nine Provinces. The men of distant regions all came with rare gifts, so that these wise rulers had everything they wished for to please the eye, the ear, the mouth, and the palate; fair were the palaces they lived in and the fame which they enjoyed. While they lived the world sang songs of praise and when they died all within the four seas wept. This is what it means to reach the height of glory. The Odes says:

In ancient times there were subjects who were obsessed; Tang Yang and Xiqi are examples. Tang Yang was obsessed with a desire for power and drove Master Dai from the state.⁵ Xiqi was obsessed with a desire for the throne and succeeded in casting suspicion upon Shensheng.⁶ Tang Yang was executed in Song; Xiqi was executed in Jin.⁷ One of them drove a worthy minister into exile; the other cast suspicion upon his brother. They ended by being executed and yet they did not have the understanding to foresee this end. Such are the disasters that come from obsession and a closed mind. Thus, from ancient times to the present there has never been a man whose conduct was marked by greed, treason, and a struggle for power, and who yet did not suffer shame and destruction.

Bao Shu, Ning Qi, and Xi Peng were benevolent, wise, and free from obsession. Therefore, they were able to give their support to Guan Zhong and to enjoy a fame and fortune that were equal to his.⁸ Shao Gong and Lü Wang were benevolent, wise, and free from obsession. Therefore, they were able to give their support to the duke of Zhou and to enjoy a fame and fortune that were equal to his.⁹ This is what the old text means when it says, “To recognize the worthy is called enlightenment; to aid the worthy is called ability. Work hard, work diligently at it, and you will surely receive long-lasting fortune.” Such is the good fortune that comes from being free of obsession.

Among the itinerant philosophers of former times there were men who were obsessed; the followers of pernicious doctrines are an example. Mozi was obsessed by utilitarian considerations and did not understand the beauties of form. Songzi was obsessed by the need to lessen desires, for he did not understand how they could be satisfied. Shenzi was obsessed with the concept of law and did not understand the part to be played by worthy men. Shen Buhai was obsessed by the power of circumstance and did not understand the role of the human intelligence.¹⁰ Huizi was obsessed by words and did not understand the truth that lies behind them. Zhuangzi was obsessed by thoughts of Heaven [i.e., Nature] and did not understand the importance of man. He who thinks only of utilitarian concerns will take the Way to be wholly a matter of material profit. He who thinks only of desires will take the Way to be wholly a matter of physical satisfaction. He who thinks only of law will take the Way to be wholly a matter of policy. He who thinks only of circumstance will take the Way to be wholly a matter of expedience. He who thinks only of words will take the Way to be wholly a matter of logic. He who thinks only of Heaven will take the Way to be wholly a matter of harmonizing with natural forces. These various doctrines comprehend only one small corner of the Way, but the true Way must embody constant principles and be capable of embracing all changes. A single corner of it will not suffice. These men with their limited understanding saw one corner of the Way and, failing to understand that it was only a corner, they considered it sufficient and proceeded to expound it in engaging terms. Such men bring chaos to themselves and delusion to others; if they are in a superior position, they inflict their obsessions upon their inferiors; and if in an inferior position, they inflict them upon their superiors. Such are the disasters that come from obsession and a closed mind.

Confucius, on the other hand, was benevolent, wise, and free from obsession. Thus, although he studied the doctrines of the various other schools, he established his own school, taught the way of the Zhou, and showed how it could be put into practice, for he was not obsessed by old habits and prejudices. Hence his virtue is equal to that of the duke of Zhou, and his fame matches that of the sage kings of the Three Dynasties. Such is the good fortune that comes from being free of obsession.

The sage understands the dangers involved in improper use of the mind, and sees the disasters that come from obsession and a closed mind. Therefore, he does not allow himself to be influenced by considerations of desire or hate, beginning or end, distance or nearness, breadth or shallowness, past or present, but searches and examines all things and weighs them impartially in a balance. As a result, the distinctions which exist in all things cannot inflict obsession upon him and bring disorder to his reason. And what is the balance that he uses? It is the Way. The mind must understand the Way, for if it does not, it will reject the Way and give approval to that which is at variance with it. And what man, seeking to gratify his desires, will abide by what he has rejected and refuse to follow what he has given his approval to? Thus, if a man whose mind has rejected the Way sets out to select helpers, he will invariably find himself drawn to men whose conduct is at variance with the Way, and will not appreciate men who abide by it. When a man whose mind has rejected the Way joins with similar men to criticize those who abide by the Way, this is the beginning of disorder. How can such conduct represent true understanding?

The mind must first understand the Way before it can approve it, and it must first approve it before it can abide by it and reject what is at variance with it. If a man whose mind has given approval to the Way sets out to select helpers, he will find himself drawn to men whose conduct is in accordance with the Way and will feel no affinity for men whose conduct is at variance with it. And when a man whose mind has given approval to the Way joins with similar men to criticize those whose conduct is at variance with the Way, then this is the starting point of orderly government. Why should such a man need to worry about how true his understanding is? Therefore the beginning of good government lies in understanding the Way.

How does a man understand the Way? Through the mind. And how can the mind understand it? Because it is empty, unified, and still. The mind is constantly storing up things, and yet it is said to be empty. The mind is constantly marked by diversity, and yet it is said to be unified. The mind is constantly moving, and yet it is said to be still. Man is born with an intellect, and where there is intellect there is memory. Memory is what is stored up in the mind. Yet the mind is said to be empty because what has already been stored up in it does not hinder the reception of new impressions. Therefore it is said to be empty. Man is born with an intellect, and where there is intellect there is an awareness of differences. An awareness of differences means that one can have an understanding of a variety of facts at the same time, and where there is such understanding, there is diversity. And yet the mind is said to be unified because it does not allow the understanding of one fact to impinge upon that of another. Therefore it is said to be unified. When the mind is asleep, it produces dreams; when it is unoccupied, it wanders off in idle fancy; and if allowed to do so, it will produce from these all manner of plots and schemes. Hence the mind is constantly moving. And yet it is said to be still, because it does not allow such dreams and noisy fancies to disorder its understanding. Therefore it is said to be still.

A man who has not yet attained the Way but is seeking it should be urged to take emptiness, unity, and stillness as his guides. If he who seeks to abide by the Way has emptiness, then he may enter into it; if he who seeks to serve the Way has unity, then he may master it; if he who seeks to meditate on the Way has stillness, then he may perceive it.¹¹ He who understands the Way and perceives its nature, he who understands the Way and carries it out, may be said to embody the Way. Emptiness, unity, and stillness—these are the qualities of great and pure enlightenment.

When a man has such enlightenment, there are none of the myriad beings of creation that have form and yet are not perceived by it, none that are perceived and yet not comprehended, none that are comprehended and yet not assigned to their proper places. He who has such enlightenment may sit in his room and view the entire area within the four seas, may dwell in the present and yet discourse on distant ages. He has a penetrating insight into all beings and understands their true nature, studies the ages of order and disorder and comprehends the principle behind them. He surveys all heaven and earth, governs all beings, and masters the great principle and all that is in the universe. Broad and vast—who knows the limits of such a man? Brilliant and comprehensive—who knows his virtue? Shadowy and ever-changing—who knows his form? His brightness matches the sun and moon; his greatness fills the eight directions. Such is the Great Man. How could he become the victim of obsession?

The mind is the ruler of the body and the master of its godlike intelligence. It gives commands, but it is not subject to them. Of its own volition it prohibits or permits, snatches or accepts, goes or stops. Thus the mouth can be forced to speak or to be silent; the body can be forced to crouch or to extend itself; but the mind cannot be made to change its opinion. What it considers right it will accept; what it considers wrong it will reject. Hence we may say that it is the nature of the mind that no prohibition may be placed upon its selections. Inevitably it will see things for itself. And although the objects it perceives may be many and diverse, if its acuity is of the highest level, it cannot become divided within itself. The Odes says:

Therefore it is said that, if the mind is distracted, it will lack understanding; if it is unbalanced, it will lack acuity; and if it is divided, it will fall into doubt and delusion. But if it avoids these three conditions and examines and compares correctly, then it can understand all things, while the body, having mastered all actions, will achieve beauty.

As a basis for action, diversity is impractical. Hence the wise man selects one thing and unifies his actions about it. The farmer is well versed in the work of the fields, but he cannot become a director of agriculture. The merchant is well versed in the ways of the market, but he cannot become a director of commerce. The artisan is well versed in the process of manufacture, but he cannot become a director of crafts. Yet there are men who, though they possess none of these three skills, are still able to fill the offices that direct them. This is not because they are well versed in the facts, but because they are well versed in the Way.¹³ He who is well versed in the facts alone will treat each fact as a fact and no more. He who is well versed in the Way will unify his treatment of the facts. Hence, the gentleman finds a basis for unity in the Way and on this basis examines and compares the facts. Since he has the unity of the Way as his basis, his approach will be correct; and since he examines and compares the facts, his perception will be clear. With thinking that is based upon a correct approach and action that is based upon clear perception, he is able to control all things.

In ancient times, when Shun governed the world, he did not issue detailed commands concerning each matter and yet all things were brought to completion. He clung to a single attitude of fearful caution and his glory became replete. He nourished an attitude of subtle watchfulness and achieved glory, though few men understood why. Hence the Classic of the Way¹⁴ says, “There should be a fearfulness in the mind of man; there should be subtlety of vision in the mind of the Dao.” One must have the enlightenment of a gentleman before he can comprehend the signs of such fearfulness and subtlety.

The mind may be compared to a pan of water. If you place the pan on a level and do not jar it, then the heavy sediment will settle to the bottom and the clear water will collect on top, so that you can see your beard and eyebrows in it and examine the lines of your face. But if a faint wind passes over the top of the water, the heavy sediment will be stirred up from the bottom and the clear water will become mingled with it, so that you can no longer get a clear reflection of even a large object. The mind is the same way. If you guide it with reason, nourish it with clarity, and do not allow external objects to unbalance it, then it will be capable of determining right and wrong and of resolving doubts. But if you allow petty external objects to pull it about, so that its proper form becomes altered and its inner balance is upset, then it will not be capable of making even gross distinctions.

Many men have loved the art of writing, but Cang Jie alone is honored by later ages as its master, because he concentrated upon it.¹⁵ Many men have loved husbandry, but Lord Millet alone is honored by later ages as its master, because he concentrated upon it. Many men have loved music, but Kui alone is honored by later ages as its master, because he concentrated upon it. Many men have loved righteousness, but Shun alone is honored by later ages as its master, because he concentrated upon it. Chui invented bows and Fouyou invented arrows, but it remained for Yi to master the art of archery. Xizhong invented carriages and Chengdu discovered how to use horses to pull them, but it remained for Zaofu to perfect the art of carriage driving. Hence, from ancient times to the present there has never been a man who attained mastery by trying to attend to a diversity of things at one time. Zengzi¹⁶ said, “Any man who, while he is trying to sing, is at the same time wondering if he can swat the mouse sitting on the corner of his mat is not going to join in a chorus of mine!”

There was a man who lived in a cave, and his name was Ji.¹⁷ He was good at thinking up riddles and liked to meditate. But if his eyes or ears were aroused by any stimulus, his thoughts became distracted, and if he heard the buzzing of mosquitoes or flies, it destroyed his concentration. Therefore he withdrew himself from all stimulus and went where he would be far away from the buzzing of mosquitoes and flies, and there, living in quietude and calm meditation, he perfected his art. If he had meditated as intensively on benevolence, would he not have achieved real subtlety? Mencius was shocked at his wife’s behavior and turned her out of the house.¹⁸ This shows remarkable strength of will, but not very much thought.¹⁹ Confucius’s disciple You Zi hated the thought of falling asleep and so he burned the palm of his hand to keep himself awake. This shows remarkable endurance, but not very much concern for the body. To withdraw oneself from all stimulus and go where one will be far away from the buzzing of mosquitoes and flies can be called cautious fearfulness, but not subtlety. True subtlety is the quality of the perfect man. What has he to do with strength of will, endurance, and fearfulness? A dull brightness shines about his exterior, and a clear brightness within him. The sage follows his desires, satisfies all his emotions, and at the same time is restrained, because he possesses reason. What has he to do with strength of will, endurance, or fearfulness? The benevolent man practices the Way through inaction; the sage practices the Way through nonstriving. The thoughts of the benevolent man are reverent; the thoughts of the sage are joyous. This is the way to govern the mind.

When you observe objects, doubts arise, and if your inner mind does not settle them, then your perception of external objects will become unclear. And if your thoughts themselves are unclear, then you cannot settle the doubts that arise. A man walking along a dark road will mistake a stone lying on its side for a crouching tiger, or a row of trees for a file of men following him. This is because the darkness obscures his vision. A drunken man will try to leap a ditch a hundred paces wide as though it were a narrow gutter, or will stoop to go through a city gate as though it were a low doorway. This is because the wine has disordered his spirit. If you press your eyeball when you look at something, you will see two objects instead of one; if you cup your hands over your ears, dull noises will sound like a sharp din. This is because the actions you take disorder the functioning of the faculties. If you look down on a herd of cows from the top of a hill, they will look no bigger than sheep, and yet no one hoping to find sheep is likely to run down the hill after them. It is simply that the distance obscures their actual size. If you look up at a forest from the foot of a hill, the biggest trees appear no taller than chopsticks, and yet no one hoping to find chopsticks is likely to go picking among them. It is simply that the height obscures their actual dimensions. When water is moving and its reflections waver, men do not use it as a mirror to judge beauty by, for they know that it is the nature of such water to cast deceptive reflections. When a blind man looks up at the sky and declares that he sees no stars, men do not use his declaration to decide whether stars really exist or not, for they know that his faculties are impaired. Anyone who would actually base his judgments upon such evidence would be the biggest fool in the world. Such a fool in his judgments uses what is already doubtful to try to settle further doubts, and hence his judgments are never accurate. And if his judgments are not accurate, how can he hope to escape error?

There was a man named Juan Shuliang who lived south of Xiashou. He was stupid and easily frightened. One night he was walking in the moonlight when, glancing down and seeing his shadow, he took it for a crouching ghost. Looking up, he caught sight of his own hair and took it for a devil standing over him. He whirled around and started running, and when he reached his home he fell unconscious and died. Is this not sad? Always when people see ghosts, it is at times when they are aroused and excited, and they make their judgments in moments when their faculties are confused and blinded. At such times they affirm that what exists does not exist, or that what does not exist exists, and then they consider the matter settled. A man, having contracted a chill from the dampness, proceeds to beat a drum and make an offering of a pig in hopes of effecting a cure.²⁰ He wears out the drum and loses a pig in the process, that is certain, but no blessing of recovery follows as a result. Thus, although he may not happen to live south of Xiashou, he is no different from the man I have described above.

On the whole, by understanding the nature of man, you can understand the principles that govern all other beings. But if, having understood human nature, you seek thereby to understand the principles of other beings, but fail to set any limit to your search, then you may spend all the rest of your life without reaching any fulfillment. You may try a million different ways of mastering these principles, but in the end you will still not be able to understand all the transformations which the countless beings undergo, and you will be no different from an ignorant man. Anyone who studies until he himself is old and his sons are full grown, and yet neither advances beyond the stage of the ignorant man nor has the sense to give up—such a man may be called a real fool. Learning must always have a stopping place. Where should it stop? It should stop with the point of complete sufficiency. What do I mean by complete sufficiency? I mean the understanding of the sage and the king.²¹ The sage has complete mastery of all moral principles; the king has complete mastery of all regulations of society. Those who possess these two kinds of mastery are worthy to be called the pinnacles of the world. Hence the scholar should take the sage and the king as his teachers. He should take their regulations as his model and, on the basis of this model, seek to penetrate their reasoning and work to become like them. He who strives for this ideal is a man of breeding, he who comes close to realizing it is a gentleman, and he who truly understands it is a sage. He who has understanding but fails to make his plans on the basis of this ideal may be called rapacious.²² He who has bravery but fails to support this ideal may be called a brigand. He who has keen perception but fails to comprehend this ideal may be called mechanical minded. He who has much talent but fails to practice this ideal may be called wily. He who is clever at talking but fails to speak of this ideal may be called a blabbermouth. The old text says, “There are two things it is important to do in the world: to perceive the right in what men consider wrong, and to perceive the wrong in what men consider right.” In other words, you must judge what things conform to the king’s regulations and what do not.

Certainly there are those in the world who do not accept this ideal of the sage and the king as the highest norm, but can they possibly claim still to be able to distinguish right from wrong, or to separate the crooked from the straight? And if they cannot distinguish right from wrong, or separate crooked from straight, if they cannot tell the difference between order and disorder, or practice the way that is proper to mankind, then, although they may have other abilities, it will be no profit to anyone, and if they are without ability it will be no one’s loss. Such men do nothing but propound strange theories, toy with unusual language, and vex and confuse others. Offensively aggressive and glib, brazen-faced and impervious to shame, willful in conduct and indifferent to right, rash in judgment and with an eye out for profit alone, they have no use for humility, no respect for propriety, but are concerned only in getting the better of their opponents. Such are the ways of evil men whose theories bring disorder to the age, and yet how many of the propounders of theories in the world today are like this! This is what the old text means when it says, “The gentleman despises those who consider perception to consist merely in the analysis of words, or discrimination to consist merely in the description of objects. The gentleman despises men of broad learning and powerful memory who yet do not conform to the regulations of the king.”

Things which are of no help to you in fulfilling your undertakings, no help to you in obtaining what you seek, no help to you in escaping from what you dread—put such things far away from yourself and reject them. Do not allow them to impede you; do not harbor them in your breast even for a moment. Do not long for the past, do not fret over the future, and do not allow your mind to be disturbed by anxiety or miserliness. Act when the time comes; respond to things as they appear; judge events as they occur; and the distinction between order and disorder, proper and improper will become abundantly clear.

There has never been an enlightened ruler who succeeded by keeping secrets from his ministers but failed by being too frank with them. There has never been an unenlightened ruler who succeeded by being open with his ministers but failed by hiding things from them.²³ If the ruler of men is too secretive, then only slanderous reports will reach his ears and honest advisers will fall silent. Petty men will draw close to him and gentlemen will depart. The Odes says: